Human Behavior in Organization Finals Reviewer PDF

GROUP 1 CHAPTER 3: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES REPORTERS: Chrishel Matias Kyla Camile Obedoza Gillian Osabel Katrina Villanueva HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION JIGSAW PUZZLE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Personal attributes that vary from one person to another CONCEPT OF FIT TH...

GROUP 1 CHAPTER 3: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES REPORTERS: Chrishel Matias Kyla Camile Obedoza Gillian Osabel Katrina Villanueva HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION JIGSAW PUZZLE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Personal attributes that vary from one person to another CONCEPT OF FIT THE CONCEPT OF FIT PERSON-JOB FIT PERSON-GROUP FIT PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT PERSON-VOCATION FIT Person-Job Fit The fit between a person’s abilities and the demands of the job, and the fit between a person’s desires and motivations and the attributes and rewards of a job  Person-Group Fit The extent to which an individual fits with the workgroup’s and supervisor’s work styles, skills, and goals Person-Organization Fit Do the individual’s The fit between an values, beliefs, and personality fit individual’s values, beliefs, the values, norms, and and personality and the culture of the values, norms, and culture of organization? the organization LEARN MORE  Person-Vocation Fit The fit between a person’s interests, abilities, values, and personality and a profession REALISTIC JOB PREVIEW a recruiting approach used by an organization to communicate the important aspects of the job prior to the offer of a position. HOW TO CREATE Drafting Job Description Talk about company’s values and culture State the RJP benefit of the position Plans for development Showcase your employees  BENEFIT OF REALISTIC JOB PREVIEW 01 LOWER EMPLOYEE TURNOVER 04 BETTER CANDIDATE 02 EXPERIENCE JOB SATISFACTION FASTER AND LESS EXPENSIVE HIRING PROCESS 05 03 ELEVATED EMPLOYER BRAND LOWER RISK OF BAD HIRE PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR - Personality is the relatively table set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another and underpin behaviour. THE 'BIG FIVE' FRAMEWORK Psychologist have identified literally thousands of personality traits and dimensions that differentiates one person from another. However, among the most researched traits are those identified as five fundamental personality traits. These traits, are now commonly called the 'Big five' personality test.  1. AGREEABLENESS - refers to a person's ability to get along with others. Agreeableness causes some people to be gentle, cooperative, forgving understanding and good-naturedin their dealings with others. 2. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS - refers to the extent to which a person can be counted on to get things done. Some people,for example, are organized, detail- oriented, responsible, dependable and plan carefully to order to meet deadlines. 3. NEUROTICISM - People who are relatively more neurotic tend to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, depresion and feelings of vulnerability.  4. EXTROVERSION - reflects to a person's comfort level with relationships. Extroverts are sociable, talkative, assertive and open to establishing new relationships. 5. OPENNESS - reflects a person's rigidity or beliefs and range of interest. THE MYERS-BRIGGS FRAMEWORK OTHER IMPORTANT PERSONALITY TRAITS Locus of control Self-esteem the extent to which people believe that their behavviour refers to our feelings of self-worth and our liking or has real effect on what happens to them. disliking ourselves. Self-efficacy Authoritarianism is our confidence in our ability to cope, perform and be the extent to which a person believes that power and successful on a specific task. status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organisations.  INTELLIGENCE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES CAN BE CONSIDERED ALONGSIDE PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY TRAITS IN MEASURING HOW PEOPLE BEHAVE. GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY The capacity to rapidly and fluidly acquire, process, and apply information. INFORMATION PROCESSING The manner in which individuals process and organize information.  MENTAL ABILITY TEST Assess general mental abilities including verbal and mathematical reasoning, logic, and perceptual abilities MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE Intelligence tests often involve a range of abstract questions designed to assess your language, spatial awareness, and numerical ability. THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES There are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE 1. Linguistic: words and language 2. Logical-mathematical: logic and numbers 3. Musical: music, rhythm, and sound 4. Bodily-kinesthetic: body movement and control 5. Spatial-visual: images and space 6. Interpersonal: other people’s feelings 7. Intrapersonal: self-awareness The different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning preferences.  EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE is an interpersonal capability that includes the ability to perceive and express emotions, to understand and use them, and to manage emotions in oneself and other people. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IS COMPOSED OF FIVE DIMENSIONS: 1. Self-awareness: being aware of what you are feeling 2. Self-motivation: persisting in the face of obstacles, setbacks, and failures 3. Self-management: managing your own emotions and impulses 4. Empathy: sensing how others are feeling 5. Social skills: effectively handling the emotions of others  MACHIAVELLIANISM defined as manipulating others for one's own personal gain (Bagozzi et al., 2013). MACHIAVELLIANISM FOUR CHARACTERISTICS OF MACHIAVELLIANISM Emotionally Cool Manipulation A Consequentialist Morality Cynical Views  CHARACTERISTICS OF MACHIAVELLIANISM HIGH LOW hides personal convictions well can be honest and caring, even feel little empathy for others characterized as push-over place particularly high importance tends to show empathy to others, on power, status, fame, and honesty and trusting money can see people being submissive consider their own goals and and too agreeable interests to be more important than that of others MACHIAVELLIANISM IN THE WORKPLACE engage in flattery, deceit, coercion, and can be abusive induce feelings of stress, anxiety, or betrayal on their co-workers THANK'S FOR WATCHING!!  INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES II: SELF-CONCEPT, LEARNING Group 2 STYLES, AND TYPES OF FIT MEMBERS: CAMPOS, MARIA ALESSANDRA CACAO, MICHAELLA ANGELA DADOR, MARIA CARLOTA JOY PINEDA, FRELYN “ If you think you can, you can. If you think you can’t, you’re right. ” — MARY KAY ASH  SELF-CONCEPT A person’s perceptions of him or herself as a physical, spiritual, or moral being.  SELF-ESTEEM Our feelings of self-worth and our liking or disliking of ourselves. CORE SELF-EVALUATIONS Fundamental premises people hold about themselves and their functioning in the world.  SELF-ESTEEM GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY The basic appraisal and A judgment of how well we can overall value placed on perform successfully in a variety oneself as a person. of situations. LOCUS OF CONTROL NEUROTICISM The tendency to experience poor The perceived degree of control emotional adjustment and we have over what negative affective states happens to us. including hostility, fear, and depression.  SELF-EFFICACY A person’s confidence in his or her ability to organize and execute the courses of action necessary to accomplish a specific task.  GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY Your generalized belief that you will be successful at whatever challenges or tasks you might face.  LEARNING GOAL ORIENTATION Characterized by a belief that abilities are changeable and a desire to increase task mastery or competence. PERFORMANCE GOAL ORIENTATION A belief that abilities are fixed and a desire to demonstrate high ability and to be positively evaluated by others. LEARNING STYLE Learning style refers to individual differences and preferences in how we process information when problem solving, learning, or engaging in similar activities.  SENSORY MODALITIES A sensory modality is a system that interacts with the environment through one of the basic senses. The most important sensory modalities are: Visual: Auditory: learning by seeing learning by hearing Tactile: Kinesthetic: learning by learning by touching doing LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY The Kolb Learning Style Inventory is one of the more dominant approaches to categorizing cognitive styles. According to Kolb, there are four basic learning styles: Convergers - depend primarily on active experimentation and abstract conceptualization Assimilators - depend on abstract to learn. conceptualization and reflective observation. Accommodators - rely mainly on active Divergers - depend primarily on concrete experimentation and concrete experience and reflective observation. experience, and focus on risk taking, opportunity seeking, and action.  Annette Towler and Robert Dipboye developed a LEARNING STYLE learning style orientation measure to address some of the limitations of the Kolb inventory and highlight ORIENTATIONS key learning preferences. DISCOVERY LEARNING EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING STRUCTURED LEARNING GROUP LEARNING TYPES OF FIT  JOB FITS It refers to the alignment between an individual's characteristics and the demands of their job. This concept is crucial in human behavior organizations as it can influence employee satisfaction, performance, and retention.  PERSON-GROUP FIT This refers to the compatibility between an individual's personality, values, and beliefs with those of their group or team. PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT This refers to the compatibility of an individual's personality, values, and beliefs with the organization's overall culture and mission.  PERSON-VOCATION FIT This refers to the compatibility between an individual's interests, skills, and personality with their chosen profession or career path. COMPLEMENTARY FIT Complementary fit is the degree to which an employee adds something that is missing in the organization or workgroup by being different from the others, often by having different abilities or expertise.  SUPPLEMENTARY FIT Supplementary fit is the degree to which a person’s characteristics are similar to those that already exist in the organization. PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT A Psychological contract is an unwritten understanding between an employer and an employee about what they expect from each other in the workplace. TWO TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT 1. Relational contracts: These are based on trust and loyalty. 2. Transactional contracts: These are more straightforward and focused on specific exchanges. REALISTIC JOB PREVIEWS Realistic Job Previews (RJPs) are a hiring practice where employers provide job candidates with an honest and detailed look at what a job and the work environment are really like.  You THANK FOR LISTENING  Attitudes, Values, Moods, and Emotions By: Diana Valdez Lenden Sta. Isabel Kirsten Guiao Khaye Torres  Introduction Organizational Behavior is the study of how individuals and groups act within organizations. This presentation explores how attitudes, values, moods, and emotions affect workplace outcomes such as job satisfaction, performance, and employee retention.  Values are ways of behaving or end-states that are desirable to an individual or a group. TYPES OF VALUES VALUES TERMINAL VALUES - Long- term personal goals INSTRUMENTAL VALUES - Preferred ways of behaving. 3  TYPES OF WORK VALUES INTRINSIC WORK VALUES - Values related to the nature of the work itself. VALUES EXTRINSIC WORK VALUES - Values tied to the outcomes of doing work, such as financial gain or job security. 4  TYPES OF VALUE CONFLICTS INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT - When an individual’s values conflict, leading to stress. INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT - Conflicts between individuals due to differing values, VALUES causing to disagreements. INDIVIDUAL-ORGANIZATION CONFLICT - Misalignment between personal values and organizational culture impacts performance and retention. 5  GLOBAL DIFFERENCES IN VALUES Traditional vs. Secular-Rational Values: Traditional societies place high importance on religion, family VALUES ties, and national pride (e.g., deference to authority). Secular-rational societies are less religious and focus more on individual decision-making. 6  GLOBAL DIFFERENCES IN VALUES Survival vs. Self-Expression Values: Survival values emphasize VALUES economic and physical security. Self-expression values prioritize individual well-being, tolerance, and environmental protection. 7  An attitude expresses our values, beliefs, and feelings toward something, inclining us to act or react in specific ways. Attitudes ATTITUDES are shaped by our experiences and influence how we approach our jobs, organizations, and colleagues. 8  IMPORTANCE OF ATTITUDES Positive Attitudes reflect optimism and hope for good outcomes. ATTITUDES Negative Attitudes reflect pessimism and the expectation of undesirable outcomes 9  INFLLUENCE ON ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES Attitudes shape individual and ATTITUDES organizational outcomes such as job performance, retention, and organizational success. 10  COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE BELIEFS - Judgments formed based on values, past experiences, and reasoning. FEELINGS - Emotional evaluations and overall liking or ATTITUDES disliking of the object of the attitude. BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS - Motivation to act in a particular way based on beliefs and feelings. 11  THE ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR PROCESS Beliefs drive feelings, which influence attitudes, leading to intentions that may predict behavior. Behavioral Intentions: Intentions ATTITUDES are better predictors of specific behaviors than generalized attitudes. Managers’ Role: Understanding employees' beliefs and feelings can help managers tailor their actions for different responses to the same situations. 12  SOURCES OF ATTITUDES Life Experiences: Attitudes are shaped over time through family, cultural, religious, and socioeconomic influences. Values: Attitudes are also influenced by a person’s values. For instance, someone valuing ATTITUDES autonomy may develop positive attitudes toward jobs with freedom. Personal Choice: Although influenced by external factors, individuals have the power to change their attitudes when they don’t lead to desired outcomes. 13  A psychological state where there is COGNITIVE an incompatibility between attitudes DISSONANCE or between an attitude and behavior. 14  Ways to Resolve Cognitive Dissonance: Change Behavior: Align behavior with values. Rationalize: Downplay the importance of the conflicting value. COGNITIVE Change Attitude: Adjust beliefs to DISSONANCE reduce dissonance. Seek Additional Information: Justify actions with further evidence that benefits outweigh the costs. 15  JOB SATISFACTION - it reflects our attitudes and feelings about our work. Key Influences on Job Satisfaction: Nature of the Work: Employees are more satisfied when they enjoy the work itself. What Attitudes Work Environment: Attitudes of Are the Most coworkers, managers, and subordinates also influence job Important for satisfaction. Positive environments Organizations? foster higher satisfaction, while negative environments reduce it. Values and Personality: People with positive attitudes toward work, or those who find intrinsic value in it, are more likely to be satisfied. 16  Benefits of Job Satisfaction: Improved Performance: Higher job satisfaction is linked to better performance, especially in complex roles. What Attitudes Organizational Citizenship Are the Most Behaviors: Satisfied employees are more likely to engage in Important for discretionary behaviors that Organizations? benefit the organization. Reduced Negative Outcomes: Job dissatisfaction leads to absenteeism, turnover, and withdrawal behaviors. 17  ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT - the degree to which an employee identifies with their organization and its goals. Three Types of Commitment: What Attitudes Affective Commitment: Emotional attachment to the organization Are the Most and alignment with its goals. Important for Normative Commitment: Feeling Organizations? morally obligated to stay with an organization. Continuance Commitment: Staying with an organization due to the perceived costs of leaving. 18  EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT - the emotional and intellectual connection an employee has with their job, which influences their willingness to go beyond the required effort. What Attitudes Are the Most Engaged vs. Disengaged Workers: Important for Engaged Employees: Passionate Organizations? about their jobs, going above and beyond what is required. Disengaged Employees: Lacking emotional connection, doing the minimum required. 19  Key Drivers of Engagement: Clear Goals and Roles: Employees need clarity in their responsibilities. Necessary Resources: Having the tools and support to do a job well is crucial. What Attitudes Meaningful Feedback: Regular and constructive feedback boosts Are the Most engagement. Important for Opportunities to Learn and Grow: Employees stay engaged when they Organizations? have opportunities for personal and professional development. Supportive Leadership: Leadership that fosters a positive, supportive culture enhances employee engagement. 20  Emotions are transient physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, MOODS AND person, or event that prepare us EMOTIONS to respond to it. Moods are short-term emotional states not directed toward anything in particular 21 EMOTIONAL DISPLAYS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES 22  Cultural differences in emotional expression: In some cultures, such as the United States, there is an expectation to display positive emotions (e.g., "service with a smile") and hide negative emotions. Conversely, in places like France, more impulsive emotional expressions are accepted. Neutral emotional expressions: Countries like Austria, Korea, and Japan often expect neutral emotional expressions, with subdued displays EMOTIONAL and monotonic speech being the norm. Impact on emotional labor: Cultures that allow DISPLAYS IN for more open emotional expression, like France, may help buffer employees against DIFFERENT emotional exhaustion compared to more controlled environments like the U.S., where CULTURES emotional regulation is more strictly enforced. Cultural sensitivity in emotional displays: As a manager in a multicultural workplace, understanding these differences can help create a more inclusive environment. For instance, open displays of anger may be acceptable in the 23 U.S. but highly inappropriate in Japan.  WHERE DO MOODS COME FROM 24  Moods vs. Emotions: Moods are more diffuse and longer-lasting than emotions, which are immediate reactions to specific events. Workplace Influence: A person’s mood at the start of the day can influence their perceptions, reactions, and overall performance at work. Social Impact: Negative interactions with coworkers affect mood much more strongly EMOTIONAL than positive interactions, sometimes up to five times more. DISPLAYS IN Group Moods: Moods can be shared within workgroups, communicated through facial DIFFERENT expressions, vocal tones, and behavior. Leadership Influence: Employees’ moods CULTURES are influenced by whether they perceive their leader as sincere or manipulative. Changing Moods: Adjustments to work tasks, environments, or group composition can alter the flow of mood-related information and affect overall group mood. 25  WHY DO EMOTIONS MATTER? 26 When emotions like fear, anger, or frustration dominate, they can cloud judgment, making problem-solving and decision-making more challenging. Employees under WHY DO emotional distress are more likely to EMOTIONS make mistakes, engage in conflicts, MATTER? or withdraw, which can lead to decreased productivity and increased turnover. 27 1. Emotions Impact Performance: Positive emotions in the workplace boost productivity, creativity, and career success, while negative emotions can harm intellectual functioning and decision-making. 2. Emotions Affect Customer Service: Employee emotions directly impact customer interactions. A lack of positive emotion or indifference can lead to customer defection, with 68% of customers leaving due to poor emotional treatment. WHY DO 3. Stress and Emotional Distress: Emotional distress from stress reduces cognitive abilities, EMOTIONS leading to simplistic thinking, poor problem- solving, and lower productivity. MATTER? 4. Positive Emotional Climate: Fostering positive emotions among employees leads to better collaboration, engagement, and innovation, driving better business results. 5. Bottom-Line Impact: Companies that invest in creating a positive emotional climate see improvements in customer satisfaction, loyalty, 28 and profitability. Affectivity refers to our predisposition to experience certain moods or emotions, and it has been categorized into two primary types: AFFECTIVITY positive affectivity and negative affectivity. 29  Positive affectivity: Individuals with high positive affectivity tend to experience more positive emotions such as enthusiasm, cheerfulness, and energy. Negative affectivity: Those with high negative affectivity are more prone to negative emotions such as irritation, nervousness, fear, and distress. High negative affectivity is associated with AFFECTIVITY lower organizational citizenship, increased withdrawal behaviors, counterproductive work behaviors, lower job satisfaction, and more workplace injuries. High positive affectivity correlates with better outcomes, such as increased self- efficacy after training and overall better responses to development programs. 30  Emotional contagion refers to the phenomenon where individuals subconsciously mimic and adopt the emotions and behaviors of those EMOTIONAL around them. In organizational CONTAGION settings, this can significantly influence workplace dynamics, morale, and overall performance. 31  Mechanism Team Dynamics Leadership Influence Impact on Well-being Cultural Considerations KEY ASPECTS OF Awareness and Management EMOTIONAL CONTAGION IN Understanding emotional contagion gives you an additional tool to use in managing ORGANIZATIONS employees’ moods and emotions. If you consistently display a positive attitude, pride, and confidence in the organization, this can increase these feelings in your subordinates and coworkers. 32  Components of Emotional Labor 1. Emotional Regulation: This involves controlling one's emotions to align with the EMOTIONAL expectations of the role. 2. Display Rules: Organizations often have LABOR specific norms regarding which emotions should be expressed in different situations. 3. Job Types: Emotional labor is particularly relevant in jobs where employees interact with clients or customers. 33  Implications of Emotional Labor 1. Employee Well-being: Constantly managing emotions can lead to stress and burnout. 2. Performance Impact: While effective EMOTIONAL emotional labor can enhance customer satisfaction and foster a positive work LABOR environment, it can also result in decreased motivation and engagement over time if employees feel they are not supported. 3. Cultural Context: Different organizational cultures may place varying levels of emphasis on emotional labor. 34  Managing Emotional Labor 1. Training and Development: Providing training on emotional intelligence can help employees better manage their emotions and understand the emotional dynamics of their roles. 2. Supportive Environment: Creating a workplace culture that values authenticity can EMOTIONAL reduce the pressure on employees to engage LABOR in surface acting. 3. Encouraging Self-Care: Organizations should promote practices that help employees manage stress, such as mindfulness, breaks, and access to mental health resources. 4. Feedback Mechanisms: Implementing regular feedback sessions can help employees voice their feelings about emotional demands and discuss strategies to cope. 35  Managing emotions and moods in organizational settings is crucial for maintaining a productive and EMOTIONAL harmonious workplace. Emotions can LABOR significantly impact employee behavior, decision-making, and overall team dynamics. 36  According to WHO (World Health Organization) stress is a STRESS natural human response that prompts us to address challenges and threats in our lives. 37  difficult to concentrate experience headaches or other body pains SIGNS OF trouble sleeping STRESS upset stomach 38 SIGNS OF STRESS 39  Functional stress - manageable levels of stress for reasonable periods of time that generate positive emotions including satisfaction, excitement, and enjoyment Dysfunctional stress - an overload of stress from a situation of either under- or overarousal that continues for too long FUNCTIONAL AND DYSFUNCTIONAL STRESS 40 Stress in the Workplace Statistics (2024 Update) Effects of Workplace Stress on the Body More than 4 in 5 workers say workplace stress emotionally drains them. When it comes to physical effects, more than 3 in 5 say they develop neck pain. 41 STRESS STAGES 1st Stage: The Alarm Stage triggered whenever we face any danger The nervous system is prepared to either fight or flight. All other body functions are seen as “auxiliary” at this point, including 42 shutting down your digestion. STRESS STAGES 2nd Stage: The Resistance Stage release stored sugars and fats into our system, our physical and mental behavior patterns change as we become exhausted, forgetful, and anxious. 43 STRESS STAGES 3rd Stage: The Exhaustion Stage Also called as Burnout This stage is the result of prolonged or chronic stress Signs of this state include anxiety, depression, high blood pressure, and heart problems 44 can lead to complications like heart disease and ulcers.  can increase stress and decrease performance as well as decrease the organization’s productivity, reputation, legal issues, and culture is a repeated mistreatment of another employee through verbal abuse; conduct that is threatening, humiliating, or intimidating; or sabotage that interferes BULLYING with the other person’s work Research also suggests that psychological well-being is impaired more through psychologically abusive behavior than physically abusive behavior 45 MANAGING STRESS 46 1.generate calm or relaxed feelings to counteract the biological state of exhaustion or STRESS over-arousal MANAGEMENT 2.change your appraisal of the stress-inducing situation to TIPS reduce negative emotions 47 1. Eat healthy and avoid too much caffeine. 2. Get enough high-quality sleep; take a nap if necessary. 3. Exercise. 4. Practice relaxation techniques including meditation. These are known to relax muscles and reduce adrenaline levels. GENERATING 5. Develop affectionate relationships. Giving and getting hugs, petting a dog or cat, or having CALM OR conversations with friends can all reduce RELAXED feelings of stress. 6. Prioritize your to-do list. As Scarlett O’Hara FEELINGS says in the movie Gone with the Wind, “I can’t think about that right now. If I do, I’ll go crazy. I’ll think about that tomorrow.” 7. Learn to say “No,” “Not now,” and “I really can’t”—no one can do everything! 48 1. Try to view crises or stressful events as opportunities. The Chinese character for crisis, wei ji, is made up of two component characters. One is the character for danger, and the other is the character for opportunity. Framing a crisis as an opportunity decreases negative emotions and increases positive emotions, reducing stress. CHANGING 2. Reframe the stressor. Casting the situation in a less stressful or threatening way can decrease YOUR APPRAISAL negative emotions and stress. For example, the OF THE boss is not really trying to make your job difficult; she is just very busy and SITUATION has deadlines to meet. 3. Try to find the silver lining. Your boss’s moving up the deadline for that big report is challenging, but it gives you a chance to show your talent, and it will soon be done! 49 JOB BURNOUT Burnout refers to “exhaustion of physical or emotional strength or motivation usually as a result of prolonged stress or frustration. 50 Thank You GROUP 4 - CAS-06-701E SOCIAL PERCEPTION, ATTRIBUTIONS AND PERCEIVED FAIRNESS Presenters: Borja, Kristell Anne Grace Patag, Rizza Ann C. Sulit, Angela S.J. Tayo, Lalaine C. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1 Learning Objectives 2 Social Perception 3 Attributions 4 Perceived Fairness 5 Summary and Application LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe how we use various perceptual shortcuts to process information. Explain how we decide how to classify other people. Describe self-fulfilling prophecies and discuss how managers can effectively use them. Provide examples of internal and external attributions. Explain how managers can use attributions to improve subordinates’ efforts. Describe the four dimensions of fairness. Explain the role of perceived fairness in creating trust. "THE EYE SEES ONLY WHAT THE MIND IS PREPARED TO COMPREHEND." ROBERTSON DAVIES SOCIAL PERCEPTION Social perception is the process through which we use available information to form impressions of others. The way we view someone may be very different from the way the other person views him- or herself. We base our impressions on the information we obtain from the environment, our previous attitudes, and our current mood.  SCHEMA functional Cognitive framework or structure that helps individuals organize and interpret information. These schemas are helpful because they allow us to make sense of a person, place, situation, or event quickly based on limited information. Schemas are normally developed through experience, but they can be formed with limited or no experience (as is often true of stereotypes). Example: A schema for "Teacher" PERCEPTION Beliefs: knowledgeable, nurturing, and responsible. when meeting a new teacher, you might expect them to SHORTCUTS exhibit these traits based on your existing schema, influencing your initial impression of them. functional and dysfunctional We use schema every day to organize our knowledge and provide a framework for our future understanding. Schema helps us anticipate what to expect and how to behave in certain situations.  STEREOTYPE dysfunctional A dysfunctional schema that is essentially an oversimplified schema for a group of people. Stereotypes can contain both positive and negative assumptions—“dumb blonde,” for example, or “smart librarian.” Stereotyping is a negative perceptual shortcut that involves forming oversimplified beliefs about an individual or a group based on the idea that everyone in that particular group will behave the same way. For example, if someone shows up in class wearing athletic clothes and carrying a basketball, you might stereotype that person as an athlete. PERCEPTION Stereotypes assign people to a schema based on as little as one SHORTCUTS distinguishing characteristic, often in appearance or behavior. Attributing a fixed set of characteristics to all group members functional and dysfunctional enables us to make quick judgments, but often we are wrong because stereotypes rarely match what the targeted person is really like.  CATEGORIZATION Our tendency to put things into groups or categories (e.g., Southerner, energetic, athlete, etc.). We then exaggerate the similarities within and the differences between the groups. This explains our tendency to see members of a particular group to which we do not belong as being more alike than they actually are. SELECTIVE PERCEPTION Leads to selectively interpreting what we see based on our interests, expectations, experience, and attitudes. For example, PERCEPTION once we categorize someone as a high performer, we focus more on information related to her high performance, and we tend to SHORTCUTS disregard information reflecting her low performance. Perception Errors Selective perception reinforces stereotypes as the perceiver focuses on information and behaviors that confirm rather than negate the assigned stereotype.  HALO EFFECT Is when we form a general impression about something or someone based on a single (typically good) characteristic. CONTRAST EFFECT Occurs when we evaluate our own or another person’s characteristics through comparisons with other people we have recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. PERCEPTION PROJECTION SHORTCUTS Occurs when we project our own characteristics onto other people. If a hiring manager is interviewing someone who reminds him of Perception Errors himself when he was just starting out, he may assume that the candidate also shares his values, work ethic, and abilities. FIRST IMPRESSIONS Perceptions are difficult to change once they are formed. Research has found that not only do we tend to avoid people after we have had a negative reaction to them, but also negative impressions are harder to change than positive ones. First impressions are formed quickly. Our social perceptions can obviously be flawed—even the most skilled observers can misperceive and misjudge others. Once we form wrong impressions, they are likely to persist. When we have the motivation and the resources to think carefully about something, we usually will, but even then the various cognitive biases can influence our perceptions.  IMPROVE YOUR SKILLS MAKING A GREAT FIRST IMPRESSION IN A JOB INTERVIEW Dress appropriately—nothing sloppy. When in doubt, dress conservatively. Give a firm, dry, confident one-handed handshake. Use an appropriate speaking style. Use positive emotion words and try to avoid negative emotion words. Try to use nonverbal communication to express yourself. Convey appropriate enthusiasm, warmth, and sincerity. Be polite, and avoid making any jokes that could be misinterpreted. HOW DO WE DECIDE HOW TO CLASSIFY PEOPLE? Goals of the Perceiver Social Context Accessibility in Memory We try to identify We expect people to display When a person’s behavior is how the other certain activities in certain ambiguous or when settings, and we look for we encounter unfamiliar or person will affect consistencies between conflicting characteristics, it our pursuit of our our schema for the particular can be unclear which goals.. setting and the behaviors of schema or category to apply. the people present.  SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES CLIMATE INPUT Managers create a warmer and more High expectation employees get more supportive climate for high-expectation and more challenging projects and subordinates assignments FEEDBACK OUTPUT managers give high expectation High expectation employees get more employees more feedback and positive opportunities to offer their opinions or to reinforcement and less criticism speak at meetings.  Consistency Consistency leads to internal attributions. Distinctiveness Low distinctiveness occurs when the person frequently acts in a certain way or receives certain outcomes and leads to internal attributions. ATTRIBUTIONS Consensus Would others behave similarly in the same situation, or receive the same outcome? ATTRIBUTION ERROR Self Serving Attributions or attributing our successes to ourselves and our failures to external factors. Self-serving attributions enable us to feel good about ourselves. Causal attributions determine affective reactions to success and failure. Fundamental attribution error refers to our tendency to underestimate the impact of external factors and overestimate the impact of internal factors in explaining other people’s behavior. Defensive attributions are explanations for negative outcomes, such as tragic events like job loss or serious injury, which help us to avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality.  UNDERSTANDING YOURSELF SELF-HANDICAPPING ATTRIBUTIONS SELF-HANDICAPPING OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE CREATE OBSTACLES FOR THEMSELVES THAT MAKE SUCCESS LESS LIKELY. For Example: Students sometimes use self-handicapping attributions, perhaps by not studying for a test. They might feel that: If they study hard and give it their best shot but fail, they will look and feel incompetent. If they study hard and pass, the hard work will reduce the meaning of the success. If they were really smart, they would not have had to work so hard. If they do not study and fail, the failure can be easily explained by the lack of effort. They can still believe that they could have succeeded if they had really tried. Even if they fail the test, no one will have evidence that they are stupid. If they do not study but still manage to succeed, then the only explanation for the success is that they have really high ability.  UNDERSTANDING YOURSELF SELF-HANDICAPPING ATTRIBUTIONS Have you ever engaged in this type of behavior? Be honest with yourself and try to identify areas in your academic or work life where you might be holding back effort through self-handicapping attributions. Then make an action plan to put greater effort into these tasks and see what happens to your performance.  MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS Research has found that lower-level employees tend to attribute failure to external factors and attribute success to themselves. Executives, on the other hand, tend to take a more balanced perspective and attribute success to external factors and only partially to themselves. Executives also tend to assume greater personal responsibility for failure.  GLOBAL ISSUES HOW CULTURE CAN INFLUENCE ATTRIBUTIONS In intercultural interactions, the interpretations of behaviors are often more important than the actual behaviors. Western cultures emphasize individual freedom and autonomy, people in these cultures prefer dispositional explanations, Meanwhile, people from collectivist cultures who emphasize group membership and conformity to group norms tend to prefer situational explanations. PERCEIVED FAIRNESS Jerald Greenberg coined the term organizational fairness to refer to employees’ perceptions of organizational events, policies, and practices as being fair or not fair. In organizations, perceptions of unfairness (also referred to as injustice) can exist in numerous situations. Layoffs and downsizings are often seen as unfair by those dismissed as well as by the employees who remain. We tend to label actions as unfair if we think the person could and should have behaved differently and the outcome could have been more favorable. OUTCOMES OF PERCEIVED FAIRNESS Perceptions of fairness affect a wide variety of employee attitudes and behaviors including satisfaction, commitment, trust, and turnover. A number of negative behaviors can result from perceptions of unfairness, including theft, sabotage, and other unethical behaviors. As a manager, it is critical to remember that it is insufficient to just be fair; you must also be perceived as fair by your subordinates. TYPES OF FAIRNESS PERCEPTIONS We think of fairness in three main ways: A. Distributive fairness: Did we get what we wanted? B. Procedural fairness: Were the procedures used in making the decision fair? C. Interactional fairness: Were we treated with respect (interpersonal fairness) and given adequate and timely information (informational fairness) during the decision-making process? Interpersonal fairness Informational fairness TRUST The expectation that another person will not act to take advantage of us regardless of our ability to monitor or control them. SUMMARY AND APPLICATION Knowing Our Biases Success and Failure Helping Others Think Positively Shortcuts Can Be Wrong Fairness Builds Trust  Group 4 - CAS-06-701E THANK YOU for your time and attention Presented by: Borja, Kristell Anne Grace Patag, Rizza Ann C. Sulit, Angela S.J. Tayo, Lalaine C. Chapter 7: Motivating Behavior PRESENTED BY: GROUP 5  GROUP 5 Trisha Mae Zuleika Lois B. Artificio Gammad Alliance Mary T. Janis Dale F. Adorio Jimenez  WHAT IS MOTOVATION PRESENTED BY: ZULEIKA LOIS B. GAMMAD What is Motivation? Motivation is the intensity of a person’s desire to begin or to continue engaging in the pursuit of a goal. WHY IS MOTIVATION IMPORTANT? One reason is that motivated workers are more productive. FROM WHERE DOES MOTIVATION COME? Motivation is influenced by the person, the job, and the work environment.  Different things motivate different people. People have different abilities, Individual needs, personalities, values, and self-concepts—this is Characteristics known in psychology as the law of individual differences.  What makes work motivating? Work can be motivating because it: Is interesting Is challenging Allows the development of new skills Provides a needed income or benefit such as health care Provides prestige and status Keeps us busy Provides social contact Is a way to give back to the community and help others  THEORY X Belief that most people dislike work and will try to avoid it whenever possible. Theory X and Theory Y THEORY Y Belief that people can enjoy responsibility and work, and are able to make good decisions and exercise self- direction. Characteristics of the Job Job characteristics are attributes that describe the nature of the work. Doing a variety of tasks and getting feedback on your performance are job characteristics that many people find motivational. Work environment is the constellation of an organization’s rules, management practices, policies, and reward systems. Characteristics of the Work Environment  INTERNAL MOTIVATION FACTORS PRESENTED BY: ALLIANCE MARY T. ADORIO INTERNAL MOTIVATION FACTORS Remember the saying, “You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink?” Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Clay Alderfer suggests that there are three groups of Alderfer’s individual needs: Existence- Relatedness- Existence needs Relatedness needs Growth (ERG) Growth needs Theory  Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Motivators Motivators are intrinsic factors that lead to higher levels of job satisfaction and motivation... These factors are related to the nature of the Hygiene Factors work itself and include elements such as: On the other hand, hygiene factors are extrinsic elements that, while not directly motivating, are essential for The work itself preventing dissatisfaction. Working conditions Advancement Pay Achievement Supervision Responsibility Status Growth Company policies and administration Recognition Interpersonal relations with colleagues  David McClelland28 divides motivation into three needs that influence both employee and leader performance Need for affiliation Educational Need for achievement Programs: Need for power McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power EXTERNAL MOTIVATION FACTORS Presented by: Trisha Mae Artificio EXTERNAL MOTIVATION FACTORS POINTERS: Empowerment Job Design Job Characteristics Job Enrichment Job Enlargement Goal Setting & Feedback Ethics and Goal Setting Self-Efficacy VIE Theory Fairness  What is Empowerment? Empowerment is the degree to which an employee has the authority to make and implement at least some decisions. Managers must then ensure that empowered employees have the skills, abilities, tools, and information to make good decisions. Empowerment is consistent with Theory Y. Empowerment can be an important management tool to increase the motivation of many employees. Practical ways to empower others include: Articulating a clear vision and goals Fostering personal mastery experiences to enhance self-efficacy and build skills Modeling successful behaviors Sending positive messages and arousing positive emotions in employees Connecting employees with the outcomes of their work and giving them feedback Building employee confidence by showing competence, honesty, and fairness  JOB DESIGN What is Job Design? Job design is the process of establishing employees' duties and responsibilities that will be included in their roles Managers who have a clear appreciation for different types of employee needs can design jobs to provide different opportunities to fulfill those needs.  Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model Job Characteristics Model Hackman and Oldham’s job Job Characteristic Model characteristics model focuses on Objective characteristics of the job itself, creating a good match between a including skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and task feedback, lead person and a job. to job satisfaction for people with a high growth need strength  Hackman and Oldham identified five characteristics on which jobs differ: 1. Skill Variety 2. Task Identity 3. Task Significance 4. Autonomy 5. Task Feedback  Hackman and Oldham suggest that if there is a good match between the needs of the person and the characteristics of the job, three critical psychological states can occur in employees: 1. Experienced meaningfulness of work 2. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes 3. Knowledge of results of work activities  Job Enrichment An approach to job design that increases a job’s complexity to give workers greater responsibility and opportunities to feel a sense of achievement Job Enlargement Adding more tasks at the same level of responsibility and skill related to an employee’s current position. Job Rotation Cross-training Workers are moved through a Training employees in more than one variety of jobs to increase their job or in multiple skills to enable interest and motivation them to do different jobs Successful job enrichment efforts to An increase in satisfaction can be expected to improve employee motivation improve productivity require an understanding of The benefits of job enrichment will compensate for lower task efficiencies due to less employee and management specialization Changes in job content are not too expensive readiness for proposed changes, Employees welcome changes in job content and and an analysis of the job’s work relationships Managers are knowledgeable about job suitability for enrichment. Although enrichment and are experienced in implementing there is no guarantee that job it Management realizes that substantial payoffs enrichment will work as intended, from job enrichment usually take one to three job enrichment is likely to be more years successful if:  Goal Setting and Feedback Participation in goal setting increases one’s sense of control and fairness in the process. Performance is enhanced when goals are both difficult (challenging but attainable) and specific (a number rather than a range); for example, selling $1,000 worth of clothing in a shift or assembling fifteen parts per hour, rather than “do your best.” A goal is most likely to be attained when people are strongly committed to it and are given feedback showing their progress toward the goal. People are most likely to set high goals and be committed to them when they have high self-efficacy (task-specific self- confidence) and believe they can reach the goals. Goals affect what people pay attention to, how hard they work, and how long they work, and motivate people to find and use appropriate task strategies. Goals work best on simpler and well-learned tasks than on complex and novel ones.  Goal-Setting Worksheet In setting goals, Goal-setting worksheets can help It is important to also develop us to articulate our goals and what we will need to do to reach action plans to identify how them. best to pursue the goals. This Improve Your Skills feature will give you the opportunity to practice your goal-setting skills while planning for something important in your own future.  Ethics and Goal Setting Goal setting has an important role in directing and motivating employees, but managers should be vigilant for unethical behavior when using goal setting, especially as the goal or deadline approaches. nhancing trust and teamwork reduces the pressure for unethical behavior and better equips employees to manage the pressure. Goals are most appropriate when the desired behaviors are clear, unethical behavior is unlikely, and goal pursuit will not compromise the attainment of other important goals.  Self Efficacy Self-efficacy beliefs have three dimensions: 1. Magnitude: beliefs about how difficult a task can be accomplished 2. Strength: beliefs about how confident the person is that the task can be accomplished 3. Generality: beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished  Vroom’s Valence, Instrumentality, and Expectancy (VIE) Theory The VIE theory recognizes that motivation is the product of three key factors: valence, instrumentality, and expectancy. Valence is the perceived value of a given reward or outcome (in this case, the value of a raise or promotion). Instrumentality is the belief that performance will result in (be instrumental in) obtaining a particular reward (i.e., your belief that doing the job well will lead to a raise or promotion). Expectancy is the belief or expectation that effort will lead to performance (your belief that you will be able to do the job well).  Fairness Managers can improve fairness perceptions in two ways: 1. Change the fairness of the situation 2. Change how employees perceive the fairness of the situation Managers can change how employees perceive fairness by focusing on explaining the procedures and decision-making processes to employees so that they are clear and transparent.  Learning and Reinforcement Theories of Motivation: The Role of Consequences PRESENTED BY: JANIS DALE F. JIMENEZ  Learning can be LEARNING AND thought of as a REINFORCEMENT relatively permanent change in behavior THEORIES OF that occurs as a MOTIVATION result of experience. REINFORCING PERFORMANCE The law of effect: The law of recency: The law of exercise: People tend not to The most recent Repetition strengthens engage in behavior consequence of a the association that does not result in behavior is likely to between cause and a reward. govern the recurrence effect. of that behavior.  BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Use of rewards to increase Removal of current or future the likelihood that a behavior unpleasant consequences to will be repeated increase the likelihood that someone will repeat a behavior. Extinction Punishment Removal of any reinforcement Application of negative (positive or negative) following outcomes to decrease the the occurrence of the behavior to likelihood of a behavior be extinguished to decrease the likelihood of that behavior  The Timing of Reinforcement Fixed - ratio Variable - ratio Behavior is reinforced according to Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, the number of behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors but the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held needed to gain reinforcement constant. varies from one time to the next. Fixed - interval Variable - interval Behavior is reinforced Behavior is reinforced after according to some predetermined, periods of time, but the time span constant schedule based on time. varies from one time to the next. Rewards are one of the most powerful REWARDING motivational tools managers have at PERFORMANCE their disposal. Merit pay is a salary increase, Variable-pay plans are pay-for-performance plans that put a small amount of base pay at risk, usually permanent, given because of an in exchange for the opportunity to earn additional individual's past performance. pay. Spot awards are given immediately, Stock options are an incentive most often “on the spot,” as soon as a desired given to executives. behavior is seen. Pay-for-performance programs pay Gainsharing is when a firm shares the value employees based on some specific of productivity gains with the workforce. measure of their performance. PAY FOR PERFORMANCE Skill-Based Pay Skill-based pay pays employees for the range and depth of their knowledge and skills. THREE LEVELS OF SKILL IN THEIR JOB: Limited ability Partial proficiency Full competence ALTERNATIVE REWARDS Compressed Workweek Job sharing allows employees to work a forty- which allows two or more people to hour week in less than five days. split a single job, is another option. Flextime Telecommuting is another scheduling option that allows employees to work from lets employees decide when to go home and link to the company’s to work, within certain parameters. offices via computer. Thank You PRESENTED BY: GROUP 5 Chapter 8 Human Behavior in Organization Communicating Arlao, Kate Airyl O. Mañozo, Clara Mae D, Samson, Margarette Jasmin T.  Describe the communication process. Give three examples of noise that can interfere with effective communication. Learning Explain the difference between one-way and two-way communication. Objectives Describe and explain four communication barriers Explain how the way we communicate can be more important to the meaning of a message than the words we actually say. Explain how different communication media vary in richness and discuss why this is important. “Communication is the foundation of all conflict resolution and team building.” — Said Hmaidan (Senior Information Officer at The World Bank Group) THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person to another to create a shared understanding and feeling. Communicare (meaning to share or make common) - Latin word There a six parts of the models of the Communication process 1. Encoding 4. Decoding 2. Message 5. Feedback 3. Channel 6. Noise Encoding: occurs when the message sender converts a thought, idea, or fact into a message composed of symbols, pictures, or words. Message: is the encoded information being sent. Channel: is the medium used to send the message to the receiver, including voice, writing, graphs, videos, intranets, the Internet, television, and body language Decoding: is the interpretation and translation of the message back into something understood by the receiver. Feedback: is a check on the success of the communication. Noise: is anything that blocks, distorts, or changes in any way the message the sender intended to communicate MODELS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Defining NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Communications that are not spoken or written but that have meaning to other Body language: is a body movement such as a gesture or expression. Verbal Intonation: is the emphasis given to spoken words and phrases. ONE-WAY AND TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION Information flows in only one direction The sender communicates a message without expecting or getting any feedback from the receiver. Once a receiver provides feedback to a sender, the sender and receiver have engaged in two-way communication. Feedback enhances the effectiveness of the communication process by helping to ensure that the intended message is the one received. Task Interdependence Pooled interdependence: when employees work independently and their output is combined into group output. Sequential interdependence: like in an assembly line, requires tasks to be performed in a certain order Reciprocal interdependence: requires constant communication and mutual adjustment for task completion, such as a cross-functional research and development team, or an event planning team, and creates the highest potential for conflict. TYPES OF TASK INTERDEPENDENCE Barriers to Effective Communication Selective Perception: occurs when we selectively interpret what we see based on our interests, expectations, experience, and attitudes rather than on how things really are Misperception: occurs when a message is not decoded by the receiver in the way the sender intended Filtering: occurs when people receive less than the full amount of information due to the withholding, ignoring, or distorting of information Information overload: When the amount of information available exceeds our ability to process it. Organizational barriers: Organizational barriers to communication come from the hierarchical structure and culture of the organization. Cultural Barriers: Words and gestures can mean different things in different cultures COMMUNICATION SKILLS Communicating effectively is an important managerial skill and a skill critical for effective leadership. Many barriers exist to good communications that are beyond your control, but improving your communication skills can help to overcome these barriers. LISTENING Skills Listening is not the same as hearing. Active listening plays an important role in communication and is especially important for effective leadership. Both parties should engage in active listening until it is clear that each understands the final message. Active listening requires the receiver to tune out noise and concentrate on the message.  Listen attentively and make connections Nonverbal and verbal listening cues how to became a BETTER Respectful listening LISTENER? Follow up on unusual cues Assess speaker’s motives Offer respectful acknowledgment GIVING AND RECEIVING Feedback To be most effective and acceptable for the recipient, feedback should be timely, frequent, consistent, specific, and private. Diplomatically and constructively addressing another person’s undesired behavior and its consequences to others is a skill that can be learned.  Give feedback in private Request permission GIVING Preface with positive feedback FEEDBACK Be specific, not harsh Suggest specific changes  Show appreciation responding to NEGATIVE Agree with what you can FEEDBACK Request more details Take responsibility WRITING skills Effective business writing is not just about grammar and punctuation—the style and tone also have to be appropriate for the audience. Business writing needs to be professional and direct and often needs to be persuasive. Always proofread your business communications, even if they are fairly short and ensure that spelling and grammar are correct.  Write to express, not to impress Back up your assertions EFFECTIVE Write for your audience WRITING Edit, revise, and ensure readability Use graphic aids and pictures if appropriate Write with energy and conviction  Deliver personal info in person or by phone Use professional email addresses WRITING Respond to emails promptly E-MAILS Review emails before sending Write clear, concise subject lines Avoid criticism via email PRESENTATION skills Effective presentation skills are crucial for anyone in a managerial role, as they help communicate ideas clearly and engage an audience. Whether presenting a proposal to a supervisor or leading a meeting with colleagues, the ability to speak confidently and connect with listeners is essential.  Speak clearly and loudly Build rapport early EFFECTIVE Channel nervousness into enthusiasm PRESENTATION Move naturally Use notes sparingly Highlight key points MEETING skills Effective meetings are crucial for managers to communicate with their teams and drive productivity. Poorly organized or inefficient meetings can waste time, frustrate employees, and even negatively impact well-being. To ensure meetings are productive, it’s essential for managers to be well-prepared, keep participants engaged, and stick to clear objectives.  Ensure there’s a clear purpose Prepare an agenda MEETING Send the agenda in advance TIPS Set and stick to a time frame Keep focused Follow up on assignment Communication MEDIA Managers can choose from a variety of communication media. Some of the most popular are the Internet, collaboration software, intranets, and oral communication. Media richness is an important factor for each form.  The Internet has changed how managers communicate, shifting their role from filtering information to aligning it with business goals. Managers now act as facilitators, bringing the right people together to solve problems collaboratively. The Internet allows for "information pull," where INTERNET individuals receive the specific information they request, in contrast to "information push," where information is broadcasted to people regardless of whether they ask for it. The rise of telework offers different work arrangements to improve flexibility and convenience for employees.  An intranet is a company-specific network where employees can access centralized information. It reduces the need for paper documents and allows secure access to resources. COLLABORATION Portals, webcasts, wikis, blogs, and SNS. SOFTWARE Better software and network bandwidth have made video communication more effective, enabling companies of all sizes to share messages, presentations, and information efficiently, even via tools like YouTube for internal videos.  Online tools (Slack and Asana) improve communication and performance by allowing team members to collaborate on projects in real time, regardless of location. Workflow automation systems streamline work INTRANET by routing tasks and information to the right people, improving efficiency, accuracy, and real- time updates, such as in healthcare or inventory management. Decision support systems use technology to help teams solve complex, unstructured problems, providing tools like brainstorming and voting to support collaboration and ensure balanced input from all members.  Despite the speed and convenience of technology-based message channels, many of them promote one-way communication and decrease feedback op-portunities. ORAL Technology has certainly changed the ways many managers communicate, but there will always be a need for managers to communicate Communication verbally. Communicating in person is important to building credibility and trust.  1. Interactivity, or the availability of feedback. Immediate feedback allows senders to adjust their messages. Richer media provide faster feedback. 2. The ability to transmit multiple cues, such as MEDIA physical presence, voice inflection, nonverbal cues, and pictures. Richer media allow the Richness communication of multiple cues. 3. Language variety for conveying a broad set of Communication media can be classified in concepts and ideas. terms of their richness, or the media’s ability to carry nonverbal cues, provide 4. The personal focus of the medium, or the rapid feedback, convey personality traits, degree to which it allows the expression of and support the use of natural language. emotions and other social cues. Richer media allow for more personal focus. The richness of a medium depends on four things: Organizational Communication The exchange of information among two or more individuals or groups in an organization that creates a common basis of understanding and feeling Downward Communication Upward Communication Horizontal Communication Diagonal Communication Downward occurs when higher-level employees communicate to those at lower levels the organization—for example, from a manager to a subordinate. Downward communication typically consists of messages about how to do a job, performance goals, the firm’s policies, and how the company is performing. Upward occurs when lower-level employees communicate with those at higher levels—for example, when a subordinate tells a manager about a problem employees are having meeting a customer’s request. Encouraging upward communication can help managers check that subordinates understand their goals and instructions, keep managers informed of employee challenges and complaints, and cultivate acceptance and commitment by giving employees the opportunity to express ideas and suggestions. Horizontal occurs when someone in an organization communicates with others at the same organizational level. Managers often depend on each other to help get the job done, and communication is necessary for them to coordinate resources and workflow. Although horizontal communication occurs between peers, as in all organizational communications, it is best to stay professional and avoid confrontational words and negative body language. Diagonal When employees communicate across departments and levels, they are engaging in diagonal communication. Diagonal communication is common in cross-functional project teams composed of people from different levels drawn from different departments. Organizational Communication  Formal Informal Formal communications are official, Informal communication is organization-sanctioned anything that is not official. communications. They can be upward, Informal communications include downward, horizontal, or diagonal. gossip and answering another Formal communication channels employee’s question about how typically involve some sort of written to do something. The grapevine is communication that provides a an example of an informal permanent record of the exchange. communication channel. Formal communication is usually interpreted accurately. SOCIAL Networking social network The set of relationships among people connected through friendship, family, work, or other ties social networks consist of both formal and informal ties. Formal ties refer to relationships with coworkers, bosses, and others we know because of the roles we hold. Informal ties are relationships based on friendship and choice. Thank You! Chapter 7 Human Behavior in Organization Making Decisions Anselmo, Brian Carl A. Niones, Marc Andrei L. Peña, Kenard L.  Chapter Outline 01 Types of Decisions 02 The Rational Decision-Making Process 03 How are Decisions Really Made in Organizations 04 Group Decision-Making 05 Creative Decision-Making 06 Making Decisions Ethically  Learning Outcomes Describe the difference between programmed versus non- programmed, strategic versus operational, and top-down versus decentralized decisions. Describe the steps in the rational decision-making process and why they are difficult to follow. Explain the role of emotion in decision making. Discuss the effects of culture on decision making. Describe some of the challenges faced by decision-making groups. Describe the five types of ethical standards. Describe how managers can enhance decision-making creativity. Types of Decisions Managers make many types of decisions including how to allocate a budget, who to hire or fire, and how to handle a disgruntled customer. They also decide when and how to introduce new products, when to buy new equipment, and how to best motivate subordinates. All decisions are essentially choices—even choosing to not do something or to not pursue an opportunity is a choice. Some decisions are made to determine whether we want to pursue an opportunity or not, and in what way. Other decisions are made to address a problem. Decisions can be described in three ways: programmed or non-programmed, strategic or operational, and top- down or bottom-up.  Decisions Decisions can be described in three ways: programmed or non-programmed, strategic or operational, and top-down or bottom-up. Programmed versus non-programmed decisions Programmed Decisions Programmed decisions are routine decisions that address specific problems and result in relatively structured solutions. Programmed decisions follow a set of policies, procedures, or rules developed through past experience with similar decisions. The information needed to make a programmed decision is readily available, and the problem is highly structured. Deciding how to handle a subordinate’s overtime request or how to discipline an employee are examples of programmed decisions—rules and procedures exist that must be followed. Programmed decisions can sometimes be delegated to subordinates or others who understand the predetermined decision rules Non-programmed Decisions Non-programmed decisions are novel decisions that require unique solutions. Introducing a new product, like when Apple introduced the iPad, and developing an advertising campaign for a new service are examples of non-programmed decisions. Non-programmed decisions are unstructured, and re-quire managers to use creativity rather than experience to find good solutions. The information used to make non-programmed decisions is usually incomplete or ambiguous, and the solution relies on judgment or creativity. Because non-programmed decisions require customized solutions, managers are generally unable to delegate them. Strategic versus operational decisions Strategic Decisions Strategic decisions address the long-term direction and focus of the organization. Deciding how to increase profitability, market share, and product quality are all strategic decisions. Determining what businesses to enter, what products or services to offer to what markets, and what talent and other resources will be needed to execute these plans are also strategic decisions. Strategic decisions are usually made by executive-level managers and the CEO. Operational Decisions Operational decisions focus on the day-to-day running of the company. Determining work schedules, equipment utilization, and production schedules as well as handling unexpected absenteeism and equipment failures are common managerial operational decisions. Operational decisions require faster decision making than do strategic decisions. Operational decisions are made by the middle- and lower-level managers responsible for the daily operations of the business. Top-down versus decentralized decisions Top-down Decisions Top-down decisions are directive decisions made solely by managers who then pass them down to lower-level employees for implementation. Market share goals and companywide budget decisions are top-down decisions in organizations. Decentralized Decisions In contrast, decentralized decisions (or bottom-up decisions) occur when employees, not managers, make decisions about their work, including staffing, production scheduling, and resource allocation. Motorola was one of the first companies to facilitate decentralized decision making through its quality improvement teams. Decentralized decision making empowers employees to make decisions themselves, rather than having to always go to a manager. The Rational Decision-Making Process The rational decision-making process assumes that we use a systematic decision- making process and consistently try to maximize our expected utility. Expected utility includes all the objective (e.g., economic gain) and subjective (e.g., being ethical) outcomes associated with a decision.  The Process has Six Stages Define the problem or opportunity Set goals, identify evaluation criteria Identify alternatives Evaluate alternatives Choose the best alternative Implement decision, monitor results © CENGAGE LEARNING 2012 The Six Stages of the Rational Decision-Making Process Define the Problem or Opportunity The first step in the rational decision-making process is the identification of a problem or opportunity. What will we be making a decision about? Status quo bias Our tendency to not change what we are doing unless the incentive to change is compelling. Set Goals and Identify Evaluation Criteria Once we have identified the problem or opportunity, we need to determine our goals for the decision outcome and identify the characteristics a good solution must have. We also establish weights for the various criteria— we give goals and criteria that are more important than others greater weight in the final decision. If some criteria must be met at a certain level (e.g., below a certain cost or at a certain speed or level of quality), these levels should be identified at this stage. Identify Alternatives After identifying and weighting the decision criteria, we next identify alternatives to solve the problem or to determine if the opportunity is worth pursuing. Because only alternatives that are included on the list that is evaluated in the next stage can be ultimately chosen as our decision, it is important to not be too critical of alternatives at this stage. It is difficult to identify all the possible alternative solutions to a decision problem. It is also impossible to know when all possible alternatives have been identified. Involving multiple people and even outside consultants can improve the generation of alternatives. Evaluate the Alternatives The next step is to evaluate each of the alternatives we identify based on each criterion we identified earlier. It is rare to find an optimal solution—alternatives often involve trade-offs among different goals. The purpose of this stage is to try to thoroughly understand the strengths and limitations of each alternative. Alternatives that do not meet minimum criteria (e.g., are too expensive or too low in quality) are removed from the list, as they are not viable alternatives. Choose the Best Alternative After evaluating each alternative, a decision is made that best meets all of the criteria. No perfect alternative may exist, making trade-offs among the criteria necessary. Appropriately weighting the criteria to reflect their relative importance is critical—equal weighting is usually not optimal. Typically, the alternative with the highest score is chosen because it maximizes the outcomes. Implement and Monitor the Decision Once a decision is made, the decision must be implemented. We then monitor the outcomes of the decision and use the feedback to ensure that the original problem is solved and the goals have been met. If the decision did not work, the problem remains to be solved. Sometimes a failed decision creates a new problem to solve. Implement and Monitor the Decision We often have difficulty recognizing when our decisions have failed. We also tend to succumb to post-decisional justification, which makes us more likely to remember our decisions as better than they actually were. When we base future decisions on the outcomes of decisions we previously have made, this bias can distort our evaluation of the alternatives. Implement and Monitor the Decision Hindsight bias describes how our impression of how we acted or would have acted changes when we learn the outcome of an event. Hindsight bias can occur when we make a decision and are later asked to recall our choice. If we have learned the correct decision in the interim, our memory of our decision may become biased toward the new information. How are Decisions Really Made in Organization Bounded rationality - Our rationality is limited by the amount of information, time, and resources available. Satisficing - Making a satisfactory rather than optimal decision Intuition Cultural Differences Understanding Yourself: Emotion The Role of Emotions in Decision Making Based Decision Making INTUITION - "gut feeling" - Evidence-based practices When is Intuition most Useful? Intuition can be most useful when: Fast decision making is required Chnage is rapid The problem is novel or poorly structured Decision making rules are unclear Available information is ambigious, conflicting, or incomplete The decision maker is an expert and has experience making similar decision The Role of Emotion in Decision Making - Because emotion interfere with our ability to make good decisions, try not to make important decisions when you are feeling strong emotions. - We tend to base complicated decisions on how we feel - Mood swing Cultural Differences - Decision making process used by a manager is influenced by his/her cultural background. Understading Yourself: Emotion Based Decision Making Group Decision Making Univerity of Iowa Leadership Styles When Should Groups Participate in Decision Making? Group Decision Making Errors Groupware and Group Decision Support System Enhansing Group Decision Making Effectiveness University of Iowa Leadership Styles Autocratic leadership style Democratic leadership style Laissez-faire leadership syle Consultative - Seeking input from others but makig the finnal decisioon alone Participative - giving eployee a say in the decision When Should a Group Participate in Decision Making 1. Manager factors: personal values, tolerance for ambiguity, confidence in subordinates, and the leadership behavior the manager is comfortable engaging in 2. Subordinate factors: need for independence, willingness to take responsibility, tolerance for ambiguity, problem-solving interest, comprehension of goals and commitment too them , relevant knowledge and experience, expectation about participating 3. Situation factors: time constraints, abiliy of the group to work together, organizational type, nature of the problem  Group Decision Making Errors Group polarization - The tendency of people to make more extreme decision in a group than when alone Groupthink - A mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternnativee courses of action Risky shift - Pople who tent to make more risky decisions as indiividuals will make even riskier decisions in a group Groupware and Group Decision Support System Effective communication Instant poll capabilities Group support system Videoconferencing World Health Organization Enhancing Group Decision Making Effecttiveness Brainstorming - A process for developing creative solution Nominal Group Technique - A structure variation of a small-group discussion to reach consensus Social resources Another metric of a well-being economy is public access to resources and opportunities. Fostering community engagement, education, healthcare programs, and social services gives people a solid foundation to achieve prosperity and to thrive. Social resources also give people a sense of belonging in their community, dignity, empowerment, and purpose. CREATIVE DECISION MAKING Rational Problem-Solving: A key skill for managers. Missed Opportunities: Overlooking creative approaches can limit alternatives. Why Creativity Matters: Drives novel, competitive products and processes. Enhances non-programmed decision-making. Expert Insight: "Almost every job has room for more creativity." Model of Creativity Teresa Amabile’s Three-Component Model of Creativity This model identifies the key factors that influence creative performance in individuals and teams. 1.Creative Thinking Skills Refers to how well individuals can imaginatively approach problems. Enhanced by mood, creative colleagues, and traits like: Self-discipline. Tolerance for ambiguity. Perseverance despite frustration. Model of Creativity 2. Expertise The technical, procedural, and intellectual knowledge relevant to the task. It serves as the foundation for generating creative solutions. Example: Limited biology knowledge hinders pharmaceutical innovation. 3. Task Motivation Intrinsic drive to tackle challenges stimulates creativity more than external rewards. Nobel Laureate Arthur Schawlow: "Curiosity and love for the work matter more than talent." Managers can enhance creativity by: Motivating employees effectively. Matching expertise and creative thinking to roles. Allowing freedom in task approaches to spark innovation. Enhancing Creativity Supervisors and organizations play a pivotal role in fostering a culture where creativity thrives, leading to innovation and better decision-making. Through: Key Strategies for Leaders, Techniques to Enhance Creative Decision-Making, Physical and Social Environments  Enhancing Creativity: Key strategies for leaders Encouragement & Support Goal Setting for Creativity Foster a supportive environment; avoid harsh criticism, which Define clear goals that stifles creativity. emphasize creative outputs (e.g., Model creative behaviors to novelty and appropriateness). inspire teams. Hire individuals with a natural Balance creativity goals with predisposition f