Normandy Landings (HIST 3356C Notes) PDF

HIST 3356C Normandy Landings Why were the D-Day landings successful? What were the consequences? This was the decision agreed upon at the Tehran conference. Stalin was determined that OVERLORD was the primary focus. By the b...

HIST 3356C Normandy Landings Why were the D-Day landings successful? What were the consequences? This was the decision agreed upon at the Tehran conference. Stalin was determined that OVERLORD was the primary focus. By the beginning of 1944, everyone knew the Anglo-American invasion of north- western Europe was coming. “The decisive struggle of the war for the outcome of the war and our future” Elaborate and visible preparations on both sides of the channel were being developed. Germans had placed 2.5 million mines, concrete gun emplacements, Anti tank beach obstacles. 58 infantry divisions (varied in ability) as well as a Panzer Corps ( best fighting troops arguably in the world). How to use the troops? Did not know where they would land. “The destruction of the enemy’s landing attempt means more than a purely local decision on the Western front. It is the sole decisive factor in the whole conduct of the war, and hence in its final result. The 45 divisions which we now have in Europe, excluding the Eastern front, are needed in the east, and will and must be transferred there so as to effect a fundamental change in that situation as soon as the decision in the West has been reached.” Operation Fortitude Cover plan to mask the invasion and possibly persuade the Germans from moving reinforcements.  North and South. Creation of phantom field armies. Double agents, wireless communication. Patton in charge of the force. Allies tricked the Germans into how many divisions they had. Did have back up in America. Had over 10,000 aircraft – Germans had close to 600. Over a hundred combat ships – Germany had 3. Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force Was created in December of 1943. Would organize and control the landings. Planned for May 1st. Over a million troops. 5 beaches would be attacked. Utah beach was by far the most challenging. Juno beach landing encountered heavy resistance. Huge numbers on the beach. Bombing of Normandy Began at midnight with more than 2,200 planes. Coastal bombing was largely ineffective.  Airborne operations Use of gliders and paratroopers. Secure bridges and flanks. Help with the resistance. Their faces were darkened with cocoa; sheathed knives were strapped to their ankles; tommy guns strapped to their waists; bandoliers and hand grenades, coils of rope, pick handles, spades, rubber dinghies hung around them, and a few personal oddments, like the lad who was taking a newspaper to read on the plane... There was an easy familiar touch about the way they were getting ready, as though they had done it often before. Well, yes, they had kitted up and climbed aboard often just like this – twenty, thirty, forty times some of them, but it had never been quite like this before. This was the first combat jump for every one of them. The Beaches You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving people everywhere march with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers-in-arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war machine, the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for ourselves in a free world. Reached the D-day objectives. Canadians pushed further inland than any other landing force on D-day. Largest seaborne invasion in history. 160,000 Allied troops. 10,000 casualties. Deception was effective.  Air supremacy. Infrastructure destroyed. German response. Warrant Officer Douglass Smith Kirkwood Died May 22, 1944. He was part of the seven man crew of the Avro Lancaster. Was reported that his Lancaster was hit in the bomb bay, exploded and went into an uncontrollable descent. Mulberry Harbours Mulberries were created to provide the port facilities necessary to offload the thousands of men and vehicles, and tons of supplies necessary to sustain Operation Overlord. The harbours were made up of all the elements one would expect of any harbour: breakwater, piers and roadways. Had been planning and building them since the summer of 1943. On the 19th of June the worst storm in 40 years hit. What now? Series of battles to break out into the French countryside. From D-day to the 21st of August, the allies landed over 2,000,000 men. Suffered about 200,000 casualties.  The aftermath of the Second World War Europe in 1945 The living conditions in most of Europe were appalling. Eastern and Western zones of influence. The western allies desired a security system in which democratic governments were established. Soviet Social Republics were annexed countries that the Soviet Union had liberated. The new states would have Stalinist governments. Eastern Europe Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries. Soviet takeover of control at the outset generally followed a process: A general coalition of left-wing, antifascist forces. A reorganized 'coalition' in which the communists would have the upper hand and neutralize those in other parties who were not willing to accept communist supremacy. Complete communist domination, frequently exercised in a new party formed by the fusion of communist and other leftist groups. Western Europe United Kingdom. Italy. Austria. Finland.  Germany Divided depending on where the USSR, Great Britain, and the USA finished the war. Berlin was split amongst four powers. Forced removal of German populations. Mass starvation. The United Nations Decided to form this organization at the Tehran Conference in 1943. The creation of the United Nations in April of 1945. Membership would be open to all nations who had joined the Allies by March 1st 1945. 50 nations signed the Charter of the United Nations on June 26th. The League of Nations formally dissolved itself on the 18th of April 1946. The purposes of the United Nations are: To maintain international peace and security, to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situation which might lead to a breach of the peace. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and  encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends. Lines drawn The term “Iron Curtain” was a metaphor for both the physical and ideological barrier between Eastern and Western Europe. NATO Western European anxieties. Brussels treaty. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was created for mutual self defense. Originally twelve countries signed. Why Canada? Article Four Article Five What did this really mean?  Canada and the Korean War Our treaty is no mere Maginot Line against annihilation, no mere foxhole from fear, but the point from which we start for yet one more attack on all those evil forces that would block our way to justice and peace. Bitted against each other. Charter 51 – undermine the principals. Security council. No international military force. NATO. Nuclear weapons and Canada “The United States and the Soviet Union now confront one another with the prospect of mutual devastation by thermonuclear and nuclear weapons. It is this prospect and not the mere existence of such destructive power, which is deterrent to war...” Did not need them. The Korean War Soviet invasion of Manchuria. Americans and Soviets bypassed Koreans and occupied their country. Korean forces in the Chinese civil war. 2/3rds of Korea in the American zone. Kim Il Sung Discrepancies about his early life.  Spent early years in Manchuria as part of anti- Japanese partisan groups affiliated with the CCP. Returned to Korea in 1945. Established the North Korean Provisional People’s Committee. In the late 1950’s seen as a traditional communist leader. Inspired by the Vietnamese conflict. Switched the communist government to a divine monarchist government. Proposal for attacking ROC In March of 1949 Kim Il Sung approaches Stalin about an attack on South Korea. Stalin gives different advice. Why Stalin finally agrees China. US secretary of state Dean Acheson. The guerilla war. Total surprise ROC forces in disarray. Seoul falls in three days. Douglas MacArthur visits the battlefield. America provides limited support. Soviet Union boycott of the UN. UN Security Council passes two resolutions:  1) violation of peace. 2) “To furnish such assistance to the Republic of Korea as may be necessary to repel the armed attack and to restore international peace and security in the area.” Why did the United States commit its armed forces to repulse it? American leaders regarded the attack as Soviet inspired aggression. Factors for committing troops. President Truman ramps up the American military presence in Asia. Under the UN Umbrella it became a regional conflict: Taiwan straits, Indochina , and Japan. Escalation in Europe. “Special force brigade...trained and equiped to be available for use in carrying out canada’s obligations under the United Nations Charter or North Atlantic Pact. Naturally, this brigade will... Be available for service in Korea as part of United Nations forces, if it can be most effectivley used in that way when it is ready for service.” The Battle of Kap’yong Was a route to Seoul. Canada had 10 soldiers killed. Became a war of patrols. Royal Canadian NAVY and Airforce in Korea 3 destroyers. RCAF saw no combat role. A ceasefire was established on 27th July 1953.  Between 1950 and 1956 over 25,000 Canadians served in Korea. 516 died.  The American Influence on the Canadian Military Britain's weakness in 1940 pushed Canada into its first defense alliance with the United States. Ideology and geography. Many policies were in tandem with the USA. The military was not. The Military Cooperation Committee was developed in 1946. “military authorities made plans based entirely on potential enemy capabilities, whereas it was the practice in Canada to take into consideration not only capability, but probability” Korean war and America. The Navy switched to that of being closer to Americans. American equipment. American high tech sector. Avro Canada Started in 1945 and 13 years later was Canada’s third largest company. Wanted a Canadian made product. CF-100 Canuck. C102 Jetliner. Rolled out on 4th of October 1957. Fastest fighter out there. Long range.  Developing other models. NASA would use its technology. Funding of projects carried out by the American military. Moved towards joint development or being able to buy American technology. Built some parts in Canada. RCAF received the lion's share of the defense budget. Decided to arm Canadian planes with Nuclear weapons. Creation of NORAD The North American Aerospace Defence Command is a bi-national United States and Canadian organization charged with the missions of aerospace warning and aerospace control for North America. Aerospace warning includes the monitoring of man- made objects in space, and the detection, validation, and warning of attack against North America whether by aircraft, missiles, or space vehicles. Aerospace control includes ensuring air sovereignty and air defense of the airspace of Canada and the United States. NORAD uses a network of satellites, ground-based radar, airborne radar and fighters to detect, intercept and, if necessary, engage any air-breathing threat to North America. As a part of its aerospace control mission, NORAD assists in the detection and monitoring of aircraft suspected of illegal drug trafficking. This information is passed to civilian law enforcement agencies to help combat the flow of illegal drugs into North America. The missile crisis On October 16th, 1962 Kennedy learned of the missiles. On the 24th the US Navy quarantined the island.  Khrushchev called the Quarantine an act of aggression. Soviet ships tried to run the blockade. Secret talks between the President and Premier. Castro urged Khrushchev to launch a pre-emptive nuclear strike. “You are disturbed over Cuba. You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety-nine miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America. But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Italy and Turkey, literally next to us... I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive... Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States... will remove its analogous means from Turkey... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made.” The US secretly removed missiles from southern Italy and Turkey. The US seems to have “won”, definitely not the case. RCAF and RCN and the Cuban missile crisis. Canadian-American militaries cutting the government out. Superpower as a neighbor.  Canada and Peacekeeping What is peacekeeping? Three Principles Consent of the parties. Impartiality. Non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate. Post Cold War Political engagement. Civilian experts, including Child Protection Advisers, Women’s Protection Adviser’s and Protection of Civilians Advisers, engage in a range of activities, including demobilizing child soldiers, persuading armed groups to stop sexual violence and coordinating military operations to protect civilians. Military and Police. Massive constraints. The Security Council placed the protection of civilians on its agenda and developed an architecture of resolutions that strengthened the role of peacekeepers to protect. Mandates and rules of engagement were clarified to ensure that peacekeepers had the authority to act. The Council also passed resolutions to establish frameworks to address children in armed conflict and conflict related sexual violence. States always have the primary responsibility to protect their populations. Peacekeepers first role is to support governments to uphold their protection responsibilities through advice, technical and logistical support and capacity building. Peacekeeping missions also seek, through political good offices and mediation, to take a preventive approach to protecting civilians. As a last resort, however, many peacekeepers are authorized to act to physically protect civilians. Middle East as a Cold War Battleground  Geopolitical struggle to recruit allies and secure access to strategic resources. Diplomatic maneuvers to prevent the Arab-Israeli conflict from escalating into a superpower confrontation. Ideological competition for the future of the Muslim World. British Empire and Egypt Imperial lifeline for the last 75 years. Canal operated by the Anglo-French Company and protected by 30,000 troops and a Royal Air force base. Their control of Egypt almost amounted to that of a protectorate. Anthony Eden Educated at Eton. Fought in World War One. Foreign secretary. In Churchill’s shadow. Architect for the British withdrawal from Egypt in 1954. Resigned in January of 1957. Gamel Abdel Nasser Came from a middle class family. Tried to join Military Academies. Finally found a Wasta. Founded the Free Officers Movement.  Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Failed assassination attempt. Policies collided with the interests of European powers. On July 26th,1956 Nasser announced that Egypt was expropriating the Anglo-French company that operated the Suez Canal. Anthony Eden was apoplectic. Americans were also outraged but believed military action was not appropriate. Cautioned the UK and France. Nasser closed the straits of Tiran. Britain and France conspired to regain the Suez Canal with the help of Israel. All three had their reasons. On October 23rd all three parties met to finalize the plan. Israel would attack and British and French troops would intervene. On October 29th the Israeli forces struck. Operation Musketeer. Nasser scuttled several ships to block the Suez Canal. Syria blew up pipelines. Washington sought an immediate ceasefire under UN auspices. Washington talked to London, Paris, and Moscow. Attack came one week before the presidential elections.  Canada’s solution Lester B Person. Forty officers in Kashmir between India and Pakistan. UN Truce Supervisory Organization. United Nations Emergency Force Was created on November 7th 1956. Enter Egyptian territory with the consent of the Egyptian Government, in order to help maintain quiet during and after the withdrawal of non-Egyptian forces and to secure compliance with the other terms established in the resolution... to cover an area extending roughly from the Suez Canal to the Armistice Demarcation Lines established in the Armistice Agreement between Egypt and Israel. E.L.M. Burns. Sent 1000 troops. Canada was accepted because of logical support.  Canadian Soldiers in the Congo Colonial rule in Congo began in the late 19th century. King Leopold was wanting Belgium to be an empire. Congo basin largely unexplored by Europeans. State. Missionary. Private companies. Urbanization after the Second World War. Also the beginning of an African nationalistic movement. Movement National Congolais (MNC). "within a reasonable" time. Leopoldville riots. White community began to become radicalized. 30th of June 1960. Did not expect the social order to change. "Independence brings changes to politicians and to civilians. But for you, nothing will be changed... none of your new masters can change the structure of an army which, throughout its history, has been the most organized, the most victorious in Africa. The politicians have lied to you." White citizens were attacked. Belgium intervened. The role of the United Nation.  Patrice Lumumba (2 July 1925- 17 January 1961) “How can a beret coloured blue erase, just like that, the prejudices of conservative officers from Sweden, Canada or Britain? How does a blue armband vaccinate against the racism and paternalism of people whose only vision of Africa is lion hunting, slave markets and colonial conquest; people for whom the history of civilization is built on the possession of colonies? Naturally, they would understand the Belgians. They have the same past, the same history, the same lust for wealth.” UN Goals Restore law and order. Keep other nations out of the crisis. Build the country's economy. Restore stability. UN troops arrived on July 15. Break away states. Local authorities were sensitive to their new independence, nonetheless they were clearly waiting for someone to take action; indeed, the ONUC troops were initially welcomed as saviors from the Belgians. While relationships with the ANC were complicated by the latter's lack of responsible commanders at any level, in most instances the ANC during that first month did lay down arms wherever there were UN troops, and ONUC took over custody of arms, ammunition depots, and arsenals. Local UN commanders used their own judgment as to how to keep the Congolese troops under control, with outstanding success in many areas." Canadian forces Operation Rumpunch.  If outside help was required to resolve the developing crisis, they preferred non-African states to be used as a last resort." "Canada: [was] Just West of Neutral.” Canadian signals and logistics were wanted. Canadian forces were attacked. The USSR was furious that Canada was there. From 1960-1964 -1,900 served. Currently the largest peacekeeping mission.  Canada and State to State The Gulf War (2nd of August 1990- 28th February 1991) Throughout most of the Cold War Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union. US support for Iraq grew in the 1980’s. Massive debt was owed to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. The Iraq-Kuwait dispute. “We have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts.” The difference in the militaries. Quickly overran Kuwait forces. Battle of the Bridges. A diplomatic solution? Resolutions were quickly passed. "propose[d] that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, be resolved simultaneously.” "We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war." The main concern for the West was the threat to Saudi Arabia. Strong Islamic rhetoric. Operation Desert Shield. Creating a coalition The UN passed resolution 678.  34 countries joined the coalition. Justification for involvement in the conflict. Operation Friction Naval destroyers were sent to the Gulf. Sent 4800 troops. Sent a field hospital (Feb 25- March 4th). 29 heavy lift. Gulf War air campaign Aerial bombing on the 17th of January. Iraqi air forces have 1 confirmed “kill.” Iraqi lost 259 aircraft. Canada sent 48 airplanes. Iraq launches missile strikes Made no secret that it would attack Israel if invaded. Five hours after the first attack, Iraq fired eight missiles on Israel. A total of 42 Scuds would be fired. Ground campaign Battle of Khafji. Operation Desert Storm lasts from 24th- 28th of February. Would guess if we had gone in there, we would still have forces in Baghdad today. We'd be running the country. We would not have been able to get  everybody out and bring everybody home. And the final point that I think needs to be made is this question of casualties. I don't think you could have done all of that without significant additional U.S. casualties, and while everybody was tremendously impressed with the low cost of the (1991) conflict, for the 146 Americans who were killed in action and for their families, it wasn't a cheap war. And the question in my mind is, how many additional American casualties is Saddam (Hussein) worth? And the answer is, not that damned many. So, I think we got it right, both when we decided to expel him from Kuwait, but also when the President made the decision that we'd achieved our objectives and we were not going to go get bogged down in the problems of trying to take over and govern Iraq.  Canada and the deployment to Somalia In the summer of 1992, Canadian troops were serving in various UN missions (Cyprus, Golan heights, Cambodia, El Salvador, Kuwait, the western Sahara, Nicaragua and the Balkans). Knowledge of Somalia. Local governments. Canadian government. 750 troops to execute Operation Cordon. Sending the Airborne. Rules of engagement. “minimum use of force” “maximum use of deterrence” “conflict resolution at the lowest level” “To deploy and return from Somalia without having discharged a single weapon in anger” Problems in the airborne group. Did not work as a team. Was already seen as a disaster. The United Nations changed the mission at the behest of the United States. New peace enforcement mission. Disarm and suppress the military forces of the Somali warlords. How to rebuild areas?  There would be no white-painted vehicles, blue berets , or UN flags for this mission. 2 problems for the Canadian contingent. Had not trained for a combat mission. No rules of engagement had been devised for the mission. “ensure that your soldiers do not believe or advertise that they are trained or mandated to execute assassinations, kidnappings and counter-terrorist operations.” Initially began to meet mission objectives. Worked with local leadership to re-establish civil police, rebuild and restart schools, repair damaged or destroyed bridges or other key structures. Canadian leadership was not in control. Overly aggressive. Challenged authority. Somali infiltration and Canadian response. “The prisoners were increasingly treated as prisoners of war might have been in a brutal campaign.” Canadians firing into crowds. Boredom and excessive drinking. Unauthorized missions. Over 50 incidents by UNITAF forces. “constant pressure”  Bait. Shidane Abukar Arone was beaten and kicked to death by Canadian forces. The Canadian government and military had failed.  Canadian Deployment to Rwanda Rwanda's population in the early 1990’s was 85% Hutu and 14% Tutsi. In 1959 there was a revolution. On April 6th 1994 President Habyarimana plane was shot down. April 7th was the beginning of the genocide. World initially stood by fearful of another failure. Killing of moderate leaders. Reports of genocide. United Nations protection force to the Prime Minister Uwilingiyimana. "by noon on April 7 the moderate political leadership of Rwanda was dead or in hiding, the potential for a future moderate government utterly lost." 1000 European troops arrived but did not aid UNAMIR Relief agencies targets. UNAMIR UNAMIR mandate was :"(a) To contribute to the security of the city of Kigali inter alia with in a weapons-secure area established by the parties in and around the city; (b) To monitor observance of the cease-fire agreement, which calls for the establishment of cantonment and assembly zones and the demarcation of the new demilitarized zone and other demilitarization procedures; (c) To monitor the security situation during the final period of the transitional government’s mandate, leading up to the elections;(d) To assist with mine clearance, primarily through training programmes;(e) To investigate at the request of the parties or on its own initiative instances of alleged non-compliance with the provisions of the Arusha Peace Agreement relating to the integration of the armed forces, and pursue any such instances with the parties responsible and report thereon as appropriate to the Secretary-General; (f) To monitor the process of repatriation of Rwandese refugees and resettlement of displaced persons to verify that it is carried out in a safe and orderly manner; (g) To assist in the coordination of humanitarian assistance activities in conjunction with relief operations; (h) To investigate and  report on incidents regarding the activities of the gendarmerie and police. Romeo Dallaire and 10 Canadian officers were deployed in October of 1993. Was told he was exceeding his mandate. After the start of the genocide. The UN wanted to pull out. “the [UN] force has been prevented from having a modicum of self-respect and effectiveness on the ground.” UNAMIR 2. Genocide lasted 100 days and cost an estimated 800,000. Rwandan Patriotic Front swept into Kigali. 27 members of UNAMIR - 22 soldiers, three military observers, one civilian police and one local staff - lost their lives during the mission.  The Balkans The wars in the former Yugoslavia were fought initially between the republics that sought sovereignty and the government based in Belgrade. Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War 1 and was composed mostly of south Slavic Christians with a large Muslim minority. Yugoslavia can be seen as a microcosm of what was happening in the rest of Eastern Europe. No effective leadership. The rise of Slobodan Milosevic. The European Community finally steps in. The Ten-Day War ended with the Brioni Accord. Croatian war of independence (1991-1995) Yugoslav forces (JNA) and Croat forces clashed. The minority Serb population that lived in Croatia fought with the JNA. The 1992 ceasefire A new UN-sponsored ceasefire, the fifteenth one in six months: Sarajevo Agreement. The deployment of the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). Fighting was renewed at the beginning of 1993 when Croatian forces attacked Serb positions. Canada would send 1000 troops. Highest levels of reserve troops. Trained in Winnipeg and California.  Expectations of combat were low. Canadians brought a level of professionalism that did not exist elsewhere. Five months in theater training. A growing reputation. Operation Medak Pocket Was an attack launched by the Croatian Army between 9-17th of September. Pushed rebel Serb forces back. The Canadians were among the best trained troops at UNPROFOR. Show of force was believed to have UN troops pull out. Canadian forces moved in and firefights broke out. It was the most important force operation the UN conducted in the former Yugoslavia... While we could not prevent the slaughter of the Serbs by the Croatians, including elderly people and children, we drove back to its start line a well-equipped Croatian battalion of some thousand men. Together, the Canadians and the French succeeded in breaking the Croatian lines, and with their weapons locked and loaded and ready, firing when necessary. They circled and disarmed an eighteen-soldier commando from the Croatian Special Forces who had penetrated by night into their location. They did everything I expected from them and showed what real soldiers can do. Ethnic cleansing was a tool to be used: Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces—the military, the police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers—applied the same pattern: Muslim houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down, Muslim villagers were rounded up or captured and, in the process, sometimes beaten or killed. Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the former KP Dom prison.  The methods used during the Bosnian ethnic cleansing campaigns included "murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, rape and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property". Many different groups carried out ethnic cleansings. "It was almost like a game, a cat-and-mouse hunt. But of course we greatly outnumbered the Muslims, so in almost all cases, we were the hunters and they were the prey. We needed them to surrender, but how do you get someone to surrender in a war like this? You starve them to death. So very quickly we realized that it wasn't really weapons being smuggled into Srebrenica that we should worry about, but food. They were truly starving in there, so they would send people out to steal cattle or gather crops, and our job was to find and kill them... No prisoners. Well, yes, if we thought they had useful information, we might keep them alive until we got it out of them, but in the end, no prisoners... The local people became quite indignant, so sometimes we would keep someone alive to hand over to them [to kill] just to keep them happy." Srebrenica Massacre Between 11th and 22nd of July 8000 Men and boys were murdered. Was a “safe area” protected by UNPROFOR forces. Siege of Sarajevo The Siege of Sarajevo was the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. Lasted from 5th of April 1992-29th of February 1996. Serb forces encircled Sarajevo with a siege force of 13,000 stationed in the surrounding hills. Life was incredibly hard. NATO intervention  On February 9th 1994, three days after the Markale massacre NATO forces bombed the surrounding hills of Sarajevo. Bosnian and Croat forces began to lift the siege with the support of NATO air strikes. Operation Deliberate Force (30th August - 20th September 1995) Over 3500 bombing raids. "The appalling accounts of mass killing in Kosovo and the pictures of refugees fleeing Serb oppression for their lives makes it clear that this is a fight for justice over genocide.” On April 29, 1999, Yugoslavia filed a complaint at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) at The Hague against ten NATO member countries (Belgium, Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United States) and alleged that the military operation had violated Article 9 of the 1948 Genocide Convention and that Yugoslavia had jurisdiction to sue through Article 38, para. 5 of Rules of Court SFOR The Stabilization Force (SFOR) operated under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, deriving its authority from UN Security Council Resolution 1088 of 12 December 1996. A peace enforcement operation that was more generally referred to as a peace support operation. SFOR’s primary task was to contribute to a safe and secure environment conducive to civil and political reconstruction. Specifically, SFOR was tasked to deter or prevent a resumption of hostilities; to promote a climate in which the peace process could continue to move forward; and, to provide selective support within its means and capabilities to civilian organizations involved in this process. Arresting war criminals.  Although the apprehension of indicted war criminals was officially the responsibility of the authorities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, NATO forces were instrumental in most arrests that have taken place. In total, SFOR brought 39 war crimes suspects to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in The Hague (ICTY). SFOR also provided security and logistical support to ICTY investigative teams as well as surveillance of and ground patrolling around alleged mass graves. Former Bosnian Serb commander Ratko Mladic has been jailed for life for genocide and other atrocities in the 1990s Bosnian war (Nov 22nd). International Criminal Court The ICC is intended to complement existing national judicial systems and it may therefore only exercise its jurisdiction when certain conditions are met. Came into creation in 1998. 41 people from 11 different states.  DART and Haiti Disaster Assistance Response Team To provide basic medical care: To serve, with its medical platoon of 40 staff, up to 250 outpatients and 10 inpatients per day. Although the medical station will not perform surgery, it treats minor injuries and attempts to prevent the spread of disease. The aid station includes a laboratory, a pharmacy, limited obstetrics services and rehydration and a preventative medicine section. To produce safe drinking water: Water purification staff can produce up to 50,000 liters of drinking water a day, as well as chlorinating local wells and monitoring water supplies. To repair basic infrastructure: Engineers can fix roads and bridges, repair electrical and water supply systems and build refugee camps. To make communications easier: DART sets up facilities to make communications easier between everyone involved in the relief effort, including the afflicted country, non-governmental organizations and UN aid agencies. The Canadian government decides how it is used. Strategic Support Team. 40 day limit. What is the composition? A military engineering troop with 37 personnel (field and construction engineers). A medical platoon with 40 personnel (doctors, nurses and medical corps staffers) who operate an aid station. A defence and security platoon with 45 personnel (military police and soldiers who guard camps and support DART operations). A logistics platoon with 20 personnel to provide maintenance, transportation and supplies.  A headquarters platoon with 45 personnel who oversee operations and co-ordinate DART's response with other countries and aid organizations. Operation Central (Honduras), 1998. 250,000 pounds of food, drinking water for 15,000, 7,500 patients. Operation Torrent (Turkey), 1999. Infrastructure, tented camp, 5000 patients, 2.5 million liters of water. Operation Structure (Sri Lanka), 2004. 200,000 litres of clean water a day, 5,800 patients, infrastructure. Operation Plateau (Pakistan), 2005. 12,000 patients, drinking water, infrastructure. Operation Hestia (Hati), 2010. Operation Renaissance 13-01. Operation Hestia Canadian forces deployed 2000 personnel. Destroyer. Land forces. Heavy lift. Communications and logistics. Track down Canadians. Criticism of DART  Expensive. Very specific role? Is it rapid?  Canada and Afghanistan What is terrorism? What is the internet? Impression has been abetted partly by modern media. Any especially abhorrent act of violence perceived as directed against society. French Revolution. Great terror. Paris Airport March 18th 2017. Terrorism Ineluctably political in aims and motives. Violent – or equally important, threatens violence. Designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target. Conducted either by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure or by individuals or a small collection of individuals, motivated, or inspired by the ideological aims or example of some existent terrorist movement and/or its leaders. Perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity. September 9/11 The attacks killed 2,996 people and injured over 6000 others. Al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979. 1996 issued a fatwa, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia.  “It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam.... It is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. … We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim umma (nation) has occurred.” NORAD scrambled fighters. Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids. Operation Yellow Ribbon. War on Terror On September 13th for the first time ever, NATO invoked Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty. Operation Eagle Assist. Operation Active Endeavour. Operation Enduring Freedom (2001-2014) Identified Afghanistan as harboring terrorist training camps and infrastructure. Special forces. Canadian troops deployed to Afghanistan in numbers in 2003. Afghanistan Afghanistan was never thought to play a defining role in the Cold War. Afghanistan was a heterogeneous country, where a weak state functioned in dynamic relationships with strong micro-societies largely under the influence of the Sunni sect of Islam. Had a large border and extensive ethnic ties with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.  The Taliban Appeared in 1994 and was the ruling government by 1996. ISI allowed extremists to enter Afghanistan: Osama Bin Laden, Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Aymen Al-Zawahiri. The Taliban’s reign of terror turned Afghanistan into a hub for international terrorism, poppy growing, and drug trafficking. Part of Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. Guantanamo Bay detention camp created in 2002. Detained indefinitely without trial. Torture. "I would bring back waterboarding, and I’d bring back a hell of a lot worse than waterboarding... Don’t tell me it doesn’t work—torture works... if it doesn’t work, they deserve it anyway, for what they’re doing to us." 2003-2005: Operation Athena Canada became the commanding force of the International Security Assistance Force. Post Conflict Environment An effective operational doctrine using both military theories and historical context will allow the operational commander to know what his armed forces expect of them, and solutions to deal with a wide variety of situations. Canada’s doctrine was outdated for the realities of Afghanistan. The Canadian government requires the armed forces to accomplish a variety of tasks both militarily and humanitarian. Doomed to Failure  “If the conditions have been properly set and met for ending conflict, the necessary leverage should exist to prevent the adversary from renewing hostilities...the opponent may have to accept defeat, terminate active hostilities, or revert to other types of conflict such as geopolitical actions or guerilla warfare.” Issues such as civil, governmental, and economic rehabilitation are as important a factor for the operational commander as military issues. In an operation where a regime change is called for, (as in Afghanistan) the goal should not be the destruction of the old system, but the creation of a new one, with the goal of rehabilitating the citizens to this new system. The creation of a new, successful regime would need the operational commander to focus on areas such as reconstruction, renewal and development of the state, engaging the citizens in a positive manner, as well as military matters Building and supporting institutions such as schools and other necessary institutions is critical for conflict resolution. First, it shows the enemy or hardliners that there is a functioning system in place, which will undermine the power and influence that the enemies can bring to bear on local populations. No current guidelines. Having a doctrine that explains issues such as: civil, governmental, religious, judicial, economic, and environmental will help with rebuilding and stabilizing an area and should be a fundamental part of the operational doctrine. Though there may be missions in the future where a traditionally military mission is required, there is also a possibility that the missions will take on a more peace-building slant where civil issues like the ones listed above would be. Missions such as Afghanistan show that this traditional approach is not conducive to how all the Canadian missions will be fought. The Canadian Army’s operational doctrine needs to deal with PCE to help the operational commander. The Canadian Armed forces needs an operational doctrine that is not just current for the circumstance that they are in but is a long term doctrine that can be  applied to many different situations over a large period of years and still remain relevant. Resource-budgeting. Salary Support. Vocational Training. Sports. Infrastructure. Income generating. Teacher relocation allowances. Be intelligent about gender equity. Operation Archer Was under American military command. Were deployed to Kandahar. Had to fight strong Taliban forces. Captain Nichola Goddard, 1980-2006 Goddard was killed on May 17, 2006, during a firefight in the Panjwaye District. It was part of a joint two-day operation between Canadian and Afghan troops, to secure Kandahar's outskirts after a rumor of Taliban preparations to launch an assault on the city. As troops were moving into a mosque to capture 15 alleged Taliban members, several dozen hidden militants began firing from neighbouring houses. As a crew commander, Goddard was standing half-exposed in her LAV III, which was hit by two rocket-propelled grenades early in the battle. Defence Policy NATO and Canadian commitments.  NORAD. Missile Crisis. Interoperability. BMD. Canadian Arctic Sovereignty. Russia.  Canadian Response to Ukraine Since February 2022, Canada has committed over $1 billion in military assistance to Ukraine. Operation (Op) UNIFIER, the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) military training and capacity building mission in Ukraine, was launched in 2015 at the request of the Ukrainian government, and early in 2022, was expanded and extended until March, 2025. Since the start of Op UNIFIER, the CAF has trained over 34,000 Ukrainian military and security personnel in battlefield tactics and advanced military skills. As the mission progressed, much of the direct training undertaken by CAF members transitioned to members of the Armed Forces of Ukraine with Canadians acting as advisors and mentors, as well as assisting in the development of courses. Aspects of Op UNIFIER were temporarily paused following the February 2022 full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Large scale training has since resumed in third locations. Additionally, Canada is supporting NATO’s assurance and deterrence measures in Central and Eastern Europe, to reinforce NATO’s collective defence, and show the strength of Allied solidarity. The CAF is also assisting with the delivery of aid within Europe, and has transported 5 million pounds of military donations both from Canada and on behalf of our Allies and partners.