Geography 210 Finals PDF

Types of geological events Gradual events: occur over long periods, often unnoticed. Supported by James Hutton’s gradualism. Sudden events: sudden, explosive and transformative. Rare, but impactful. Supported by Whewell. Solar system The planet is travelling at 107 000 km/...

Types of geological events Gradual events: occur over long periods, often unnoticed. Supported by James Hutton’s gradualism. Sudden events: sudden, explosive and transformative. Rare, but impactful. Supported by Whewell. Solar system The planet is travelling at 107 000 km/hr around the sun The earth is rotating around its own axes at 1600 km/hr. The sun’s gravitational pull formed planets. Earth is 4,6 billion years old. Kepler telescope Used to study planets inside and outside our solar system, looks at how fast they move, their orbit and direction of travel and potential effects. At the moment 4000 planets have been discovered. Asteroids = junk of space rocks that move around the sun. Travel within the space from Mars to Jupiter known as the Asteroid Belt. Often less than 2 km in diameter. Usually not on a coalition path with Earth. Can be disturbed by planet's gravity and cause danger. Comets = made of ice and rocks, can be defined as dirty snowballs. Made up of Oort clouds (opik clouds). Lose water when near the sun which can dehydrate the comet. Usually affects the Earth more than asteroids and meteors. Most comet heads are less than 15 km in diameter. Travel at a speed between 60-70 km/s. Meteors = small pieces of rock from space that can enter the atmosphere at high speed. Friction develops as they approach earths atmosphere between the contact of the atmosphere and the rock there is a lot of heat and fire, aka fireballs from space. A lot of meteors shatter by the time they come to the surface of earth. Meteors are often called shooting stars. Meteorites = meteors that reach Earth’s surface. Iron meteorite = metallic and include nickel and iron, can pull a magnet. Stony-iron meteorites = iron which silicates and contains magnesium Chondrites meteorites = 93% of all meteorites in space made of pyroxene, magnesium and iron rich minerals Achondrites meteorites = full of basaltic material commonly found in rocks Impact of asteroids, comets and meteors Impact craters: Impact can lead to ejection of materials outward from the point of impact. ○ Asteroids impact the Earth's surface with incredible speed and explosion, there is a double amount of force for the explosion.  ○ Isostatic adjustment means that the amount of pressure results in raised edges, the amount of pressure is equivalent to the rise. ○ Anytime an asteroid impacts the Earth it is almost circular. ○ Examples: Arizona Crater. Chicxulub in Mexico which is linked to dinosaur extinction. Manicougan crater in Canada, the center of this crater has uplifted when the pressure is released. Manson impact crater in Iowa. Popigai crater in Siberia. Shatter cones: conical structures that goes outward from the point of impact (from meteorites) typically found in rocks at the site of a crater. Apexes (the highest point/top) of the shatter cones point upward and outward from the shock source. Impact melt = a rock that has melted due to the intense heat and pressure generated during a meteorite impact Meteoric dust = tiny particles that originate from meteors as they travel from earth's atmosphere ○ Consists of dust particles that occur when a meteorid burns up in the atmosphere due to intense heat by friction ○ Are spread across the planet and can end up in the oceans, on land or in glaciers where they can block sunlight and result in cold temperatures which impacts vegetation and animals. Results of impact from asteroids, comets and meteors Dust and soot: can block sunlight, disrupt agriculture and cause acid rain. ○ Acid rain = when large amount of heat is generated from the impact it causes nitrogen oxide and when this combines with water it results in acid rain Tsunami and volcanoes: when a huge asteroid lands in the ocean it can cause a tsunami as ocean water is displaced ○ Causes for tsunami: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes and asteroids Mass extinction: Chicxulub crater in Mexico caused extinction of dinosaurs, acid rain kills vegetation and plant species leading to mass death. Mitigation of asteroids and comets Current methods remain experimental and untested for larger objects Three things we can do: 1. Kinetic impact = use fast heavy moving spacecraft to heat the asteroid to divert their course 2. Gravity impactor = spacecraft can be stationed to pull the asteroid of its trajectory 3. Nuclear bombs = use nuclear explosions in space to blast the asteroid away from its course Nuclear hazards  Example: Chernobyl = nuclear power plant exploded leading to a spread of highly radioactive and dangerous materials, many died from radiation Sarcopagus = When trying to get rid of the remaining radiation build sarcophagus which is metal around the nuclear power plant to stop the spread of the radiation. Nuclear energy production Two ways: 1. Nuclear Fission = uranium is split to generate heat 2. Nuclear Fusion = materials are mixed together to generate heat Nuclear energy production leads to chain reactions that must be controlled otherwise explosions can occur. An accident leads to loss of cooling water, power outages and people can steal radioactive material to make nuclear bombs, therefore radioactive materials are buried in nuclear facilities. Nuclear reactors around the world France = 70% of energy from nuclear power, reactors include Chooz and Bugey UK = early reactors like Magnox stations South Africa = Koeberg power plant Canada = Pickering (Ontario), Bruce Complex (Ontario), Gentilly 2 (Quebec), St. Lepreu Site (New Brunswick) and Darlington site (Ontario). Reason for having many power plants in Canada is because Athabasca in Saskatchewan has a high level of uranium used in production. Advantages of Nuclear Energy Clean energy source since it is free from fossil Creates jobs Foreign exchange earnings (export of energy) Electricity production Problems of Nuclear Energy Economics = high costs of construction and maintenance Nuclear waste management = difficult because spent fuel remains radiative for centuries, so future generations inherit the burden of waste disposal. Debate on how and where to dispose of waste of nuclear energy, no solution for future generations. Security problems = potential for weapon production or theft by terrorists, can be used for bombs. Political tensions and threats of war = conflicts involving nuclear facilities raises ethical questions about nations rights to nuclear technology. Safety and environmental problems = birth defects and risks of long term radiation exposure. One example of this concern is Chernobyl and Fukushima that still suffer the consequences. Water contamination Freshwater = groundwater that comes from rock or soil underground or surface water that comes from lakes and ponds for example Mississippi river, Columbia river, Victoria lake and the Great lakes. Harmful chemicals are often discharged into surface water.  Major sources of contamination of lakes is agricultural runoff, creating algaes which is the process of Eutrophication. Aquifers = underground layers of rock, sand, gravel or sediment that hold water and allow it to flow. These formations store water that can be accessed through wells or springs, a critical source of freshwater for drinking. Unconfined aquifer = the water bearing layer (upper layer) is directly below the surface allowing water to infiltrate from above (rain water for example), are more vulnerable to contamination as pollutants can seep into them easily. Confined aquifer = sandwiched between two layers of rock or clay that prevents water from seeping in or out freely. Chemicals and nitrates often sink into groundwater causing issues like Blue Baby syndrome (high concentration of nitrate and little oxygen) Contamination Physical contamination = soil, sand or debris from construction sites get into rivers and streams clogging them and making it hard for fish and plants to survive. Hot water (thermal discharge) or changes to water channels can also contaminate water. Chemical contamination = occurs when harmful chemicals are introduced into the water ○ Some chemicals can cause serious health problems like DNA changes, birth defects, cancer or nerve damage. Teratogens = cause birth defects when embryos are exposed cells can be affected Thalidomode = medication given to pregnant women in the 1950s and 60s to reduce nausea and allow mothers to sleep during pregnancy, also caused birth defects (shriveled arms and legs). Carcinogens = cause uncontrollable growth of cells in humans and animals when exposed (cancer), can come from drinking contaminated water or eating meat from animals that have been contaminated has affected native communities among rivers in Canada Neurotoxins = chemicals such as Mercury that assault the nerve system, occured in Minimata Bay in Japan where Mervery poisoning caused people to lose muscle control and have slurred speech (ate fish from contaminated water). ○ Toxic metals = heavy metals like lead or other chemicals can harm mental health, cause obesity or affect metabolism Obisogenes = can interfere with human metabolism and cause obesity, food is not digested properly. Endocrine disruptors = high amounts of endocrine effects the endocrine system that is used for mental development, appetite and sexual lust. ○ Persistent organic pesticides (pollutants) =some pesticides stay in the environment for a long time causing lasting harm, for example DDT or radioactive waste Biological contamination = bacteria from feces can make water unsafe to drink or use  ○ Pathogens = disease causing microorganism such as bacteria, viruses and parasites, contamination of these in water is often fecal coliform bacteria found in animals (e. coli and salmonella). ○ Nutrient overload = too many nutrients (fertilizers) cause algae to grow excessively using up oxygen and killing fish and other species. Can lead to death of a lake's ecosystem. ○ Eutrophication = when algae dies bacteria breaks them down using up the oxygen in the water, causing death or migration of fish. Examples of Hazardous chemicals events Mirex pollution = Beluga whale deaths in Lake Ontario and St Lawrence Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in Alaska = Oil tanker struck a reef and spilled around 11 million gallons of crude oil, caused by human error as the driver went of course. The spill coated the shoreline and ocean with oil, killing thousands of seabirds, sea otters, seals and fish it also evaporated into the atmosphere and spread across the ocean further contaminating the environment. Tried to clean up by spraying hot water (steam) to remove oil but this killed microorganisms and plants vital to the ecosystem, causing long-term damage to the environment. BP Oil Spill = occurred in the Gulf of Mexico after the drilling rig exploded which released around 210 million gallons of oil into the ocean over 87 days. Considered one of the worst environmental disasters in history. The ship broke down and the oil evaporated into the atmosphere and spilled into the ocean, the spill devastated marin ecosystems killing animals and contaminated coastal areas. ○ Spatial displacement = Wind and ocean currents carried the oil across areas, spreading the impact. ○ Medial displacement = Oil also evaporated into the atmosphere introducing toxins into the air, ○ Temporal displacement = the effects lasted for years with oil persisting in environment and harming wildlife. ○ Efforts to contain the spill was using chemical dispersants to break down the oil which introduced additional toxins into the environment. Some oi still remains in the Gulf of Mexico. Sources of contamination Point sources = specific identifiable locations of contamination, such as pipes, ditches or chimneys. Easier to deal with. Non-point sources = Unidentifiable sources like agricultural runoff and vehicle oil leaks, can be transboundary pollutants from one country to another. Managing water resources Input approach = increasing water supply via new sources Output approach = improving water usage efficiency and reducing contamination of existing sources Violence, Terrorism, Wars and Crimes Threats to human security Global crime  ○ Criminal businesses can use marketing and public relations tools to promote their product, they are a threat to global security. Human trafficking ○ Women and children are often victimized and controlled by traffickers which is a global issue ○ The International Justice Movement of Canada works to rescue victims. Unstable financial markets ○ Global financial crisis for example the one in 2008 have widespread economic impacts around the world Wars and political instability ○ Can be caused by political instability, state sponsored wars and guerrilla warfare, for example the war in Ukraine that is rooted in geopolitical and nationalistic motives. Spread of diseases ○ New/emerging diseases for example Covid19 are worsened by misinformation and resistance to science Terrorism and counter-terrorism ○ Examples; Suicide bombings, hijacking, abductions, gun violence, etc. Terrorism Defined as the deliberate violence to instil fare for political aims What one person defines as a terrorist might be a revolutionary freedom fighter to another, no international definition. Tactics used for terrorism: hostage takings, suicide bombing, kidnappings, assassinations, abductions, hijacking for bargaining reasons, indiscriminate bombing and beheadings. Global examples: Middle East: Al-Qaeda, Hamas, Israeli-Palestinian conflicts ○ Reasons for Hamas attacks: conflict about if the land is Palestinian or Israeli, revenge on Israeli attacks. ○ 1948: Israel extends their occupation to Gaza, forming the Al-fatha group (Palestinian organization) in the 1960s. ○ The black september: 1972 in Munich they stormed an olympic village and took israeli hostages that were killed ○ In 1985 the PLO (Palestinian Liberation organisation) hijacked an Italian cruise ship with 600 passengers on board. ○ Hamas was founded in 1987 and they are responsible for the first uprising against the Israeli government. ○ Al-Qaeda was founded in 1989 by Osama Bin Laden with the goal to replace secular governments with islamic rule (Kalifate), enforce sharia law and target US interests in the middle east. Behind the 9/11 attack. Asia: ○ The Thuggee in India: criminal group that abducted and strangled people offering them as sacrifices to the goddess of Kali. ○ Shishi terror in Japan: Samurai group who fought against the higher casts of samurais and targeted foreign interests including attacking a British fort, abducted and killed leaders and governing officials.  ○ Japanese Red Army (JRA): carried out 18 terrorist attacks between 1970-1991, including hijacking airlines (LOD airport in Israel), attacking oil refinery (Singapore) and the Canadian embassy bombing. They operated globally with cells in various regions, collbabed with middle east groups. Europe: ○ IRA (against British government): was active from the 1970s and fought against British rule in northern Ireland, over 5000 people died. ○ Russian conflicts with Chechnya: islamic fundamentalist group attacking Russia, in 2002 took 800 teater hostages, security resolved it. ○ Russia Beslan: terrorist attack in 2004 where 365 people were killed, mainly children in a school hostage situation by militants. Africa: ○ Kikuyu terrorists in Kenya led the Mau-Mau rebellion against the British government, ○ Apartheid rebellions in South Africa, ○ Boko Haram in Nigeria: responsible for numerous attacks and abductions, including kidnappings of school girls ○ Nelson Mandela: former leader of South Africa who was freed from prison after advocating for the end of Apartheid North America: World Trade Centre bombings by Al-Qaeda (9/11) Impact of terrorism Psychological impacts ○ Anxiety, fear, PTSD that threatens psycho-social well being Counter-terrorism efforts through war against terrorism and convictions of terrorists ○ Challenges of counter-terrorism can threaten innocent lives intelligence gathering = gather information about people's personal lives without them knowing, can violate their right to privacy Personal freedom can be limited due to government actions that might violate individual rights, such as the right to privacy and to a fair trial. War Different definitions of war: ○ Carl von Clausewirz: “an act of violence intended to compel our opponent to fulfill our will” ○ Mao Tse-tung: “Politics is war without bloodshed, while war is politics with bloodshed” Reasons for war Rivalry for resources and territory: countries or groups compete over valuable resources or territories Beliefs and ideologies: For example, Hitlers belief in Aryan superiority fueled war this is part of psychological maladjustments or complexes and false stereotyped images held by decision makers and leaders. Economic inequality: class struggles as described by Karl Marx can lead to conflict, bourgeoises (upper class) vs proletarians (working class).  Nationalism and bad decisions: overconfidence or poor judgement by leaders can trigger wars, for example many autocrats in totalitarian regimes believe they are the smartest in the country Recent wars Russia - Ukraine war: ○ Reason: Russia wants to stop Ukraine from aligning with western nations and NATO and Putin argues that Nazis exist in Ukraine ○ Impact of the war: destruction of hospitals in Ukraine, civilian infrastructure destroyed, bombings to electricity network which impacts schools, hospitals, train stations etc. Nova Kakhovka Dam was bombed spreading bacteria, chemicals and dangerous animals after severe flooding. Cluster bombs that are left unexploded in soil, harmful for civilians and farmers long after the war ends. Phosphorus bombs that are used to burn cities, forestes, and everything in their path causing widespread devastation Economic impact where attacks on oil refineries cause fuel shortages and higher prices for civilians (inflation) Syrian war ○ Reason: triggered by the Arab spring movement which aimed to overthrow oppressive regimes started in Tunisia and spread to Syria, external nations got involved which escalated the conflict. ○ Impact of the war: loss of water and food which later resulted in an outbreak of Cholera and other diseases spreading from dead bodies. Afghanistan war ○ Reason: Started after the 9/11 attacks in 2001 to target Osama Bin Laden and destroy Al-qaeda and talibans Iraq war ○ Reason: The US claimed Iraq had weapons of mass destruction which was proven false, used 9/11 as justification Hamas-Israeli war ○ Reason: Conflict is flued by historical disagreements over land and governance in the region ○ Impact of the war: Bombardments escalate local conflicts which affects civilians and critical infrastructure, disrupts global stability. Impacts of wars Physical and social ○ Destruction of infrastructure, cultural sites and natural resources ○ Spread of diseases due to lack of clean water and sanitation ○ Child soldiers recruited in conflicts, for example in Liberia ○ Wars lead to loss of food, water and power making people vulnerable to diseases ○ Many children suffer psychological trauma Environmental and wildlife impact ○ Burned landscapes when weapons like phosphorus bombs and thermite spewing drones destroy ecosystems and kill wildlife  ○ Cluster bombs and landmines remain deadly for years after conflicts Economic ○ Inflation, public debt, loss of tourism and trade for example sanctions on Russia have impacted finance and trade ○ Military spending takes away resources from healthcare and education ○ Opportunity cost for example decline in health care to promote war ○ Higher oil prices ○ Cost-push inflation = overall prices increase due to higher costs for raw materials and wages because conflicts can threaten supplies ○ Leads to higher public debt and unemployment Epidemiological hazards Epidemiological transition theory = describes the shift from infectious diseases to chronic diseases as societies develop 1. Age of pestilence and famine = High mortality from infectious diseases like measles, cholera and plague 2. Age of receding pandemics = innovations in medicine and sanitation reduce pandemics, for example by vaccines and antibiotics 3. Age of degenerative diseases = lifestyle diseases dominate for example diabetes, obesity and heart disease AIDS and Hiv HIV = attacks the immune system, reducing white blood cells AIDS = occurs when the immune system becomes severely weakened ○ Origin: Transferred from primates (mangabeys or chimpanzees) or trough biting insects, believed to have North American or Haitian origin Mode of transmission: sexual contact, blood transfusion, needle sharing and breastfeeding, not spread by casual contact, food or air (coughing and sneezing is not included) Treatment: ○ Reverse Transcriptase inhibitors that attacks the HIV enzyme and reverse ○ Abacavir, delavirdin, didanosine, Lamivudine, nevirapine and stavudine are medications that people take ○ Protease inhibitors also attach the enzyme ○ Highly Active Anti Retroviral Therapy (HAART) improves the immune system and the white blood cells rebound over time ○ There is no cure, but medication helps to manage the disease HIV in Canada Up to 3000 people every year are affected in Canada, one new infection every 3 hours 75 000 Canadians live with HIV but 1/5 doesnt know they have it Sascatchewan has the highest rate in the country Interventions for limiting the impacts of HIV/AIDS epidemic Strengthen surveillance Widespread voluntary testing and counseling Education of the youth and promotion of the rights for women  Condom promotion in schools and hospitals STD control Services for AIDS orphans Treatment services for drug users and abusers Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) First appeared in China 2002 and spread globally through air travel High transmission in hospitals, leading to 774 deaths world wide Symptoms: high fever, cough, shortness of breath etc Spread: close contact with infected individuals or contaminated surfaces, is airborne. Prevention: Quarantine, hand washing, masks and international coordination Treatment: Antibiotic therapy, protease inhibitor, human immunoglobulins, corticosteroids mainstay of immunodulatory therapy for SARS Avian Flu Affects birds, occasionally transmitted to humans, rare but can be deadly when it mutates. Symptoms resembles those of human influenza such as fever, cough, aching muscles and sore throat, difficult to detect. Mode of transmission: direct contact with live infected birds such as turkeys, gees and chickens Prevention: Monitoring poultry farms and avoid contact with sick birds and flu vaccines, Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) can monitor and issue warnings. West Nile virus Mosquito borne disease causing infection, can cause meningitis and encephalitis which are neurological diseases Transmission: Bird that is bitten by a mosquito and then human is bitten, can spread through infected blood transfusions and from a pregnant mother by breast feeding Prevention and control measures: ○ Larviciding - target mosquito larvae by using spray that kills them, use nets, remove water collective items ○ Adulticiding - Spray to kill adult mosquitos ○ Public education and involvement - educate the public ○ Spread awareness through local media and organizations ○ Monitor the virus Covid-19 pandemic (Canada) Financial support for individuals ○ Emergency care benefit: financial aid for ill, in quarantine or caring for affected family members provided every 2 weeks for 14 weeks ○ Emergency support benefit: help for self-employed workers and those who lost jobs due to Covid-19 ○ Canada child benefit boost: additional support for families with young children ○ GST payment increase: extra financial aid for low-income households ○ Student loan relief: six-month without interest for student loans Business support  ○ Wage subsidy for small businesses: encouraged employers to retain workers during the pandemic ○ Export development canada: support for businesses impacted by economic disruptions ○ Canada account: funding to help large companies whether the economic impact of Covid-19 Support for vulnerable groups ○ Homelessness support: doubled funding for the reaching home program ○ Shelters for domestic violence survivors: increased funding for shelters to support those who couldnt stay home ○ Indigenous communities: indigenous community support fund to assist with pandemic challenges Travel and supply chain policies ○ Travel restrictions: closed air borders, except for essential travel and commerce ○ Supply chain disruptions: temporarily restricted truck shipments between canada and the US Economic measures: 27 billion CAD for individuals and businesses, and 55 billion CAD through tax measures Criticism for policies: ○ Raised by national citizens Inquiry: they feared mandatory vaccination by the military would be imposed on individuals and a lack of trust in politicians and government transparency. Measuring risks, vulnerabilities, mitigation and management of Hazards Risk = unavoidable part of life influenced by government policies, distance to hazards and individual behaviour Risk = likelihood x Consequence Hazard = condition/event that can cause danger Likelihood = can be either probability or frequency ○ Frequency = the number of times an event will occur within a specific time frame or specific size of the population. Example; the frequency of auto-accident death is one death per 80 miles travel or driving. ○ Probability = singel event scenario, value is expressed as a number between 0-1. 0 indicates no chance, for example probability of auto accident death in the US is 0.000001 of miles you travel. ○ Likelihood can be expressed in qualitative and quantitative form ○ Quantiative = numerical probabilities or frequencies, provides specific data points for assessing risk such as number of injuries, dollars, probability or frequency ○ Qualitative = subjective assessment of likelihood, easier to do this assessment as it needs less resources as time, money and expertise ○ Can be measured as follows: 1. Certainty: is greater than 99% chance of occurring in a given year. 2. Likely: 50% to 99% chance of occurrence 3. Possible: 5% to 49% chance of occurring 4. Unlikely: 2% to 5% chance of occurring  5. Rare: 1% to 2% chance of occurring 6. Extremely rare: less than 1% chance Consequence = describes the effects of risk on humans, built structures and the environment Three factors to determine the consequences of a disaster: 1. Deaths/fatalities (human impact) 2. Injuries (human) 3. Damages (costs, reported in currency) Changes in disaster consequence Population growth: more people = more exposure for example more people will be affected by a landslide if more people live in the affected area Land pressure: industrial processes can cause ecological degradation for example chemicals discharged into the environment Economic growth: pollution and sickness can occur from development Technological innovations: can raise concerns as more knowledge about for example nuclear energy production raises concern about safety Social expectations: demands for social services and government compensation for example during Covid 19 Growing interdependence: global events affect multiple regions, for example Covid19 and wars that effect many people Different types of consequences Direct consequences: ○ Impact on people: injuries or deaths ○ Damage to infrastructure: high repair costs for buildings sometimes requiring relocation of affected people ○ Agricultural loss: loss of farmland and crops, for example after bombing of Nova Kakhova dam in Ukraine that destroyed crop fields ○ Business impact: disruption to operations and loss of important documents Indirect consequences: ○ Economic impacts: loss of income, business inputs and outputs and tax revenue ○ Community impact: population decline, loss of community character and displacement of residents ○ Critical services: limited access to medical care, housing, and other essential services ○ Psychological and emotional impact: trauma, stress and grief ○ Loss of connection: disruption of the bond with the community and neighborhood Tangible consequences: ○ Measurable and financial losses, such as costs of repairs and unemployment, loss of wages and shortage of skilled workers or specialists. Intangible consequences: ○ Emotional and cultural losses, such as loss of sentimental values tied to places or objects, stress or cultural artifacts. These cannot be recreated or measured in monetary terms. Mitigation = actions to reduce the likelihood and/or consequences of hazards 5 goals of mitigation 1. Likelihood reduction = prevent hazards through policies, for example the act of counter terrorism to track, monitor and destroy terrorist cells before a terrorist act happens. 2. Consequence Reduction = minimize impacts on people and property from a potential hazard, for example establishing emergency evacuation plans and conducting public drills to minimize the amount of injured people in the event of a terrorist attack. 3. Risk Avoidance = eliminating risks entirely by avoiding exposures to hazards, for example relocating embassies to safer locations with higher security. Can not have total avoidance of risk. 4. Risk acceptance = acknowledging that some risks can not be avoided and must be endured, for example accepting the risks of snow storms in common areas where they occur, and focusing on preparedness measures instead. 5. Risk transferring, sharing and spreading = sharing the financial or operational burden of risk management with other organisations, for example insurance and organisations like UN and governments working together. Types of mitigations 1. Structural and non-structural mitigation Structural mitigation = physical changes like building channels to reduce flooding, these involve construction, engineering or mechanical solutions to reduce the likelihood or impact of hazards. Non-structural mitigation = changing human behavior or actions to reduce risks, for example public awareness campaigns and warning systems to train people to act when warnings are issued 2. Building codes Governments enforce hazard-resistant construction codes to build structures that can withstand risks like earthquakes. 3. Resistant construction Structures are designed using materials that address specific hazards, for example the floating villages in Cambodia built to resist flooding. 4. Relocation Moving populations homes or infrastructure away from hazardous areas to safer locations. 5. Structural modifications Damaged structures are modified or rebuilt to better deal with new risks after a disaster. 6. Community shelters Specialized shelters like nuclear resistant bunkers protect human lives from extreme hazards. 7. Barrier, deflections and retention systems Barriers = block dangerous forces like a tsunami wall Deflections = redirect hazards away from critical areas, for example rows of trees or fences placed around farmland to reduce strong winds from reaching the field of crops  Retention systems = designed to contain a hazard to prevent their release for example building a dam to prevent flooding Difference between mitigation and disaster preparedness Disaster preparedness = actions taken before a disaster to ensure effective reaction and recovery Goal = Know what to do before, during and after a disaster all community stakeholders, like governments and agencies, play a role and therefore those roles need to be assigned to improve coordination. Key components Capacity building = build disaster response capabilities at all levels of government, includes resources, communication, governance and institutional structures. Planning = Governments must plan tasks, The Emergency Operations Plan (EOP) essential for local and national planning. Hurricane Katrina highlighted the need for good planning. Exercises = train individuals to practice and validate their roles and responsibilities. ○ Tabletop: stakeholders talk through scenarios, these are low stress and not time sensitive, verbal exercise. ○ Functional exercise: simulated scenarios where the hazard might occur with some real activity, which is time sensitive. Each individual acts within their role to compare with others solutions. ○ Full–scale exercises = mimics real life disaster, most realistic. Full blown situation and stress. ○ Drill is a part of an exercise which is controlled situation where a single disaster management operation is practiced or tested, for example firedrills. Education = training government officials and citizens on disaster management, this is challenging since high costs and limited availability. Acquisition and Procurement = includes equipment, supplies, medicines and protective gear, expensive but essential for readiness. Public preparedness and awareness = educate and empower the public to help themselves or others, promote preparedness behavior and correct apathy towards preparedness Disaster response = actions to limit injuries, save lives and reduce damage during disasters Search and rescue = locating victims under debris or trapped in hazardous areas, first 6 hours are critical for saving lives First aid and medical treatment = critical for the survival of victims ○ First aid measures include: 1. Victims triage = nurses use letters to rank victims according to the seriousness of their injuries. D = diseased, I = immediate need advanced medical care within 1 hour, DeL = delays, need care but not urgent, M = minor victim can wait several hours 2. Triage tagging = tagging injuries with color codes. Black = cannot survive, Red = immediate attention needed for survival, Yellow = stable but requires care, Green = minor injuries, can wait and White = minimal or no treatment needed 3. Advanced triage = prioritizes lifesaving decisions in resource limited scenarios, for example during Covid19 who should get respirator out of 2 sick people. Evacuation and shelter-in-place = move people away from hazards using planned routes, effective evacuations require clear communication and facilitation. Command, control and coordination = command is the authority to direct actions, control is the power to enforce rules, and coordination is to ensure everyone knows their roles for effective response. Disaster recovery = rebuilding and regaining what was lost after a disaster, this is the most expensive phase Two types of disaster recovery: 1. Short-term = temporary measures like bringing in outside medical staff from other regions that are not effected 2. Long-term = permanent rebuilding, for example establishing hospitals and permanent staff Components of recovery Planning = includes pre-and post-disaster activities, for example pre can be developing mitigation plans and post is long term rebuilding strategies. Coordination = local, national and global efforts to distribute aid and resources. Difficult thing to do, for example during the Thailand soccer team cave trap. Damage assessment = identify affected infrastructure and estimate repair needs Money and supplies = funding is essential for rebuilding Insurance = helps mitigate financial losses if purchased pre-disaster Relief Funds and donations = provided by governments and external entities Types of recovery Government recovery = governmental efforts to provide funding and organizational support for disaster affected communities Infrastructure recovery = focus on rebuilding and repairing physical systems such as roads, bridges, schools, hospitals etc. Debris removal = for example removing fallen trees, disposing hazardous materials to make areas safe for rebuilding and recovery.  Environmental management = focuses on restoring the natural environment and ecosystems damaged by disasters, for example after an oil spill. Economic and livelihood recovery = restoring livelihoods, businesses, and the overall economy in the disaster area. Individual, family and social recovery = helping individuals return to normal, addressing mental health needs and rebuilding community networks, often done by non profit organisations.