Midterm Preparation Politics PDF

Mid terms preparation Politics Political theory Positivism vs Interpretivism: Objective vs. Subjective Reality: Positivism sees social reality as objective and measurable, while interpretivism views it as subjective and constructed by individuals. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods: Positivists ty...

Mid terms preparation Politics Political theory Positivism vs Interpretivism: Objective vs. Subjective Reality: Positivism sees social reality as objective and measurable, while interpretivism views it as subjective and constructed by individuals. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods: Positivists typically use quantitative data, whereas interpretivists focus on qualitative, context-rich data. Generalization vs. Contextual Understanding: Positivists aim to find generalizable patterns, while interpretivists seek a deeper understanding of specific cases or contexts. Inductive vs Deductive Aspec Inductive Deductive t Reasoning Reasoning Directio Specific → General General → Specific n Purpos Generates new theories or Tests existing theories or e hypotheses hypotheses Approac Bottom-Up Top- h Down Outcom Probable Certain conclusions (if premises are e conclusions true) Example Observing patterns in data to form Testing a theory by applying it to Use theories cases In research, inductive reasoning is often used for theory-building, especially in exploratory studies, while deductive reasoning is used for hypothesis testing in confirmatory studies. States Evolution of States Initially, states were practically indistinguishable from their rulers, with officials serving at the ruler's pleasure and often financed by the ruler's personal income. Over time, particularly from the 17th century onwards, salaried bureaucracies emerged, tasked with collecting taxes and managing state finances. This shift towards a more structured and less personalized form of governance marked a significant step in the evolution of states. Early Societies and Tribes Nature: Early human societies were organized in small, kin-based groups (tribes or clans) where leadership was typically informal, based on family ties, strength, or respect. Governance: These societies were generally nomadic or semi-nomadic, with leaders emerging as chiefs or elders without formalized state structures. Evolutionary Shift: As societies began to settle and practice agriculture, they required more structured governance to manage resources, defend land, and maintain social order. 2. City-States and Ancient Empires (c. 3000 BCE)  City-States: Early states first emerged as city-states in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and the Indus Valley. Each city-state was a small, sovereign political entity centered around a city with its own governance. Empires: Over time, powerful city-states expanded their territories by conquering or allying with others, forming the first empires (e.g., Akkadian, Egyptian, and Roman Empires). These empires established centralized authority and formalized bureaucracies. Governance: Ancient empires developed early forms of administration, taxation, military organization, and law codes. 3. Feudal Systems (c. 800–1500 CE) Nature: In medieval Europe, East Asia, and parts of the Middle East, political organization evolved into feudal systems. These were characterized by a hierarchical distribution of land and loyalty, with kings granting land to nobles in exchange for military support. Governance: The feudal system lacked centralized authority, and power was distributed among local lords who controlled land and owed loyalty to higher-ranking nobles or a king. Evolutionary Shift: Feudalism began to weaken as trade grew, towns expanded, and centralized monarchies re-emerged, especially in Europe, paving the way for more centralized states. 4. The Rise of Nation-States (c. 16th–18th Century) Nation-State Emergence: The modern concept of a nation-state began in Europe after the Treaty of Westphaliain 1648, which established the principles of sovereignty and non- interference, marking the end of religiously motivated wars and the rise of secular states. Characteristics: Nation-states had defined territorial boundaries, centralized governments, and sovereignty, claiming authority over their people and land. Governance: The nation-state model emphasized centralized power and bureaucratic organization, with monarchies transitioning toward absolute or constitutional rule. 5. Colonialism and Global Empires (16th–20th Century) Expansion: European nation-states expanded globally through colonialism, establishing empires that spanned continents and brought vast regions under European control. Impact on State Evolution: Colonialism reshaped political boundaries, creating colonial states with borders and governance structures imposed by colonial powers. The legacy of colonialism remains a significant factor in state evolution in formerly colonized regions. Decolonization: After World War II, colonies gained independence, leading to the creation of new states, particularly in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean. 6. The Modern Nation-State and Globalization (20th Century to Present) International System: The post-World War II era saw the establishment of an international state system through institutions like the United Nations, designed to promote peace, sovereignty, and cooperation. Characteristics: Modern nation-states are sovereign entities with defined borders, centralized governments, and legal recognition on the international stage. Challenges to State Sovereignty: Globalization, economic interdependence, and supranational organizations (like the EU) have introduced complexities in sovereignty, with states balancing national interests with global responsibilities. Rise of Non-State Actors: Increasingly, multinational corporations, NGOs, and international organizations also influence governance, creating a networked, multipolar political environment. Types of states Night-watchman State: This type embodies a minimalist approach, prioritizing external and internal security while playing a limited role in civil society and the economy. Its primary duty is safeguarding individual rights to life, liberty, and property, refraining from active promotion of social programs or welfare provisions. This model, popular in 19th-century Britain, Canada, and the US, aligns with classical liberal thought. Developmental State: This model emphasizes active state intervention for economic growth and development. Often found in East Asia, these states prioritize industrial policy, strategic investments, and close collaboration with private businesses to achieve national economic goals. Social Democratic State: While not explicitly labeled in the sources, this type can be inferred. It aims to balance capitalist markets with a robust social safety net. It involves significant state intervention in areas like healthcare, education, and social welfare to ensure greater social and economic equality. Scandinavian countries are often cited as examples. Totalitarian State: This represents the most extreme interventionist model, where the state exerts total control over all aspects of life – political, social, and economic. Citizens have minimal freedoms, and dissent is ruthlessly suppressed. The 20th-century Soviet Union under Stalin exemplifies this type. Involvement of the States: Minimal-Totalitarian 1. Minimal State Role: Provides basic security, law enforcement, and defense but otherwise stays out of citizens' lives and the economy. Examples: Classical liberal democracies, libertarian states. Features: Low taxes, limited regulations, a focus on personal freedoms and private enterprise. 2. Regulatory State Role: Protects citizens’ rights and regulates key areas (like public safety, labor laws, and environmental protections) to maintain order and fairness. Examples: Many modern democracies, like the United States or Canada. Features: Moderate taxes, some economic and social regulations, protection for consumers, but still allows for significant individual freedom. 3. Welfare State Role: Actively provides public services (education, healthcare, social welfare) and redistributes resources to reduce inequalities. Examples: Scandinavian countries, Germany, and much of Western Europe. Features: Higher taxes, extensive social programs, and government involvement in welfare, healthcare, and education. 4. Interventionist State Role: The government takes an active role in the economy to achieve specific goals, such as economic stability or industrial growth. Examples: Countries with heavy state involvement in certain industries, like China and some Latin American countries.  Features: State-owned enterprises, subsidies, and more direct control over certain economic sectors, though some private enterprise remains. 5. Authoritarian State Role: Centralized control over political life, with limited political freedoms and restrictions on dissent, though some aspects of the economy or private life may be less controlled. Examples: Modern Russia or certain Middle Eastern states. Features: Restrictions on free speech and opposition, a central authority that limits political competition, and moderate government influence over the economy. 6. Totalitarian State Role: The state exerts total control over all aspects of life, including politics, economy, media, and even personal beliefs. Examples: Nazi Germany, Stalin’s Soviet Union, North Korea today. Features: Absolute authority, no political freedom, strict censorship, surveillance, and punishment of dissent. All aspects of life are subordinated to the state’s goals. Liberal Democracy vs Illiberal Democracy vs Authoritarian Feature Liberal Illiberal Democracy Authoritarianism Democracy Elections Free and fair Held but often unfair Rarely free, often symbolic Civil Rights Strong protections Restricted in practice Severely limited or non- existent Government High Low None Accountability Rule of Law Strong and equal Weak, favors those in Minimal, controlled by the for all power state Media Freedom Independent and Often restricted or Controlled, censored free controlled In short, liberal democracy upholds democratic principles and freedoms, illiberal democracy has elections but restricts rights, and authoritarianism concentrates power without meaningful democratic processes or personal freedoms. Sovereignty Sovereignty is the authority of a state to govern itself and make its own laws without interference from outside sources. In other words, it’s the right and power of a state to control its territory, population, and political decisions independently. Internal Sovereignty: The state has full authority over its internal affairs, such as making laws, enforcing order, and managing resources. External Sovereignty: The state is recognized by other countries as an independent entity, free from external control or influence. Philosophers THOMAS HOBBES: Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an English philosopher best known for his work on political theory, particularly his ideas about the nature of human beings and the formation of government. His most influential work, Leviathan (1651), argues for a powerful, centralized government to prevent chaos and ensure security. Key Ideas: State of Nature: Hobbes believed that, without government, humans would live in a "state of nature" where life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." In this state, people act primarily out of self- interest, leading to constant conflict and insecurity. Social Contract: To escape the state of nature, Hobbes argued that individuals collectively agree to give up certain freedoms and submit to an authority in exchange for protection. This agreement, or "social contract," is the foundation of society. Leviathan and Absolute Authority: Hobbes proposed that a single, strong leader or governing body (the "Leviathan") should have absolute authority to maintain peace and prevent disorder. For Hobbes, this authority, ideally a monarchy, is justified because it prevents the chaos of the state of nature. Influence on Political Thought: Hobbes is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy. His ideas about the social contract influenced later philosophers, including John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, though they developed different views on government and individual rights. Summary Hobbes viewed human nature as inherently self-interested and argued that a powerful government is necessary to maintain order and prevent conflict. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU(1712–1778) was a Swiss-French philosopher whose ideas on human nature, society, and government had a profound influence on political philosophy, especially regarding democracy, freedom, and social equality. His most famous work, The Social Contract (1762), presents his vision for a fair society based on the "general will" of the people. Key Ideas: State of Nature and Human Nature: Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Rousseau saw humans in their natural state as peaceful, free, and equal, uncorrupted by the inequalities of society. He believed that humans became corrupted by civilization, property, and inequality, which led to social conflict. The Social Contract: Rousseau argued that people should agree to form a society based on a "social contract" in which individuals give up some personal freedoms for the collective good. This contract binds individuals to the general will—the common interest or collective good of the people—which should be the basis of all laws. General Will: For Rousseau, the "general will" represents the shared interests and desires of society as a whole. He believed laws should reflect this general will, not individual desires, so that they serve everyone’s best interests and maintain freedom and equality. Direct Democracy: Rousseau advocated for a direct democracy where citizens have an active role in decision-making. He thought true freedom could only be achieved when people participate directly in shaping the laws and policies that govern them. Education and Civic Virtue: In his work Emile, Rousseau also explored education, arguing that children should be educated to be virtuous and independent thinkers, capable of contributing to society. Influence on Political Thought: Rousseau's ideas deeply influenced the French Revolution and modern democratic thought. His emphasis on equality, individual freedom, and participatory government has shaped theories of social justice, civic responsibility, and education. Summary Rousseau viewed society as corrupting human nature and advocated for a social contract that promotes equality and the general will through direct democracy. JOHN LOCKE(1632–1704) was an English philosopher and political theorist, widely regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment. His ideas on government, individual rights, and the social contract laid the groundwork for modern liberal democracy and constitutional government. Key Ideas: State of Nature: Locke believed that in a natural state, humans are generally rational and capable of living peacefully. In this state, individuals possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Natural Rights: Locke argued that everyone has certain inherent rights that cannot be taken away. These rights include: Life: The right to live and be free from harm. Liberty: The right to act freely as long as it does not infringe on others' rights. Property: The right to own and enjoy personal possessions. Social Contract: According to Locke, to protect their natural rights, individuals consent to form a government through a social contract. This government’s primary role is to safeguard the rights of its citizens. If the government fails to protect these rights or becomes tyrannical, the people have the right to revolt and establish a new government. Consent of the Governed: Locke emphasized that legitimate government derives its authority from the consent of the governed. This idea is foundational to modern democratic theory, where the government is accountable to the people. Separation of Powers: Although not as explicitly articulated as in later political theory, Locke's ideas implied the need for separating legislative and executive powers to prevent abuses and protect individual rights. Influence on Political Thought: Locke’s philosophy greatly influenced the development of liberal political theory, the American Revolution, and the drafting of the U.S. Constitution. His ideas on government and rights inspired later thinkers like Thomas Jefferson and other Enlightenment philosophers. Summary Locke viewed individuals as rational beings entitled to natural rights, arguing that governments exist to protect those rights. His belief in the social contract, consent of the governed, and the right to revolt against tyranny laid the foundations for modern democracy and human rights principles. JOHN STUART MILL(1806–1873) was a British philosopher, political economist, and civil servant, known for his contributions to liberalism, social theory, and ethics. He is best known for his works on liberty, utilitarianism, and social and political philosophy. Key Ideas: Utilitarianism: Building on the ideas of Jeremy Bentham, Mill advocated for utilitarianism, which suggests that the best action or policy is the one that maximizes overall happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. He emphasized qualitative differences in pleasures, arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to mere physical pleasure. On Liberty: In his influential essay On Liberty (1859), Mill defended individual freedom and autonomy. He argued that individuals should be free to act as they wish unless their actions harm others (the "harm principle"). This work is a cornerstone of liberal political thought, emphasizing the importance of personal liberties and limited government intervention. Freedom of Expression: Mill championed freedom of speech and the open exchange of ideas, believing that all viewpoints should be expressed and debated. He argued that suppressing ideas, even those considered false or harmful, prevents society from discovering truth and achieving progress. Women's Rights: In his work The Subjection of Women (1869), Mill argued for gender equality and women's rights. He advocated for legal and social reforms to promote equality and the full participation of women in society, including suffrage. Representative Government: Mill supported representative democracy, arguing that it is the best form of government for promoting individual liberty and social progress. He believed in a system where citizens actively participate in governance and are educated to make informed decisions. Influence on Political Thought: Mill's ideas have had a lasting impact on liberal thought, ethics, and political philosophy. His emphasis on individual rights, freedom of expression, and gender equality has influenced modern debates on civil liberties, human rights, and social justice. Summary John Stuart Mill was a key figure in promoting liberalism and utilitarianism, advocating for individual liberty, freedom of expression, and gender equality. Concepts Rights 1. Legal Rights vs. Natural Rights Legal Rights: Rights that are granted and protected by a legal system or government. These rights vary depending on a country's laws and can be added, changed, or removed by legislation. Examples include the right to vote, property rights, and contractual rights. Natural Rights: Rights believed to be inherent to all individuals, regardless of laws or governments. These are often considered universal and fundamental, such as the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Philosophers like John Locke argued that natural rights exist independently of government and should be protected by it. 2. Positive Rights vs. Negative Rights Positive Rights: Rights that require others (often the government) to provide certain benefits or services. These rights impose a duty of action on others. Examples include the right to education, healthcare, or social security, where the government or society must take steps to fulfill these rights. Negative Rights: Rights that require others to refrain from interfering in certain freedoms, imposing a duty of non-interference. Examples include the rights to free speech, privacy, and freedom from violence, where others (including the government) must not infringe upon these freedoms. Legal Rights are created by governments and can change with laws. Natural Rights are seen as inherent and universal, not dependent on laws. Positive Rights require action to provide a benefit.Negative Rights require non-interference, protecting freedoms. Freedom Freedom refers to the ability to make choices and act without undue restraint or interference from others. However, freedom in society often comes with certain limits to ensure it doesn’t harm others or disrupt social order. Absolute Freedom vs. Limits to Freedom Absolute Freedom: This would mean complete freedom to do anything one wishes without any restrictions, regardless of its impact on others. However, absolute freedom is often considered impractical in society because unrestricted actions can harm others or infringe upon their rights. Limits to Freedom: In most societies, freedom is limited to prevent harm, maintain public order, and respect the rights of others. Laws and social norms serve as boundaries to keep individual freedom from negatively affecting the collective good. The Harm Principle John Stuart Mill proposed the Harm Principle as a guideline for limiting freedom. In his view, individuals should be free to do as they please unless their actions harm others. Mill’s Harm Principle was intended to ensure that personal freedom is respected while protecting others from harm. John Stuart Mill's Idea of Freedom Mill was a proponent of liberty and individual autonomy. His ideas on freedom focused on allowing people to think, express, and act freely, fostering creativity and progress. However, Mill believed that freedom must be limited when it directly harms others, making the Harm Principle a way to balance personal liberty with social responsibility. Absolute Freedom is unrestricted freedom, but it’s impractical in society. Limits to Freedom are necessary to protect others and maintain social order. The Harm Principle (by Mill) suggests freedom should be limited only to prevent harm to others. Mill’s View advocates for individual liberty balanced with the well-being of others Justice Justice is the principle of fairness, ensuring that people receive what they are due or deserve in both legal and moral contexts. It’s about creating a system where individuals are treated equitably, rights are protected, and fairness is upheld. Types of Justice Procedural Justice: Focuses on the fairness of the processes used to make decisions. If the process is transparent, unbiased, and consistent, then procedural justice is achieved. For example, a fair trial where both sides have an equal chance to present their case reflects procedural justice. Social Justice: Emphasizes fairness in the outcomes of society. This includes the equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and rights so that individuals and groups receive fair treatment, often with a focus on reducing inequalities. Justice Based on Need vs. Justice Based on Merit Justice Based on Need: This approach allocates resources or opportunities based on an individual’s needs. The idea is to provide extra support to those who are disadvantaged, so they can achieve a fair standard of living or opportunity. For example, welfare programs or scholarships for underprivileged students are based on need. Justice Based on Merit: This approach allocates rewards or opportunities based on individual achievement, talent, or contribution. Those who perform better or contribute more receive more benefits. For instance, bonuses for top performers at work are examples of merit-based justice. Procedural Justice = Fairness in the decision-making process. Social Justice = Fairness in the outcomes and distribution of resources. Justice Based on Need = Prioritizing support for those with the greatest needs. Justice Based on Merit = Rewarding individuals based on performance or contributions. Equal Opportunity is the principle that everyone should have the same chances to pursue life’s opportunities—like education, employment, and personal development—regardless of their background, identity, or circumstances. The goal is to create a level playing field so that personal attributes unrelated to ability (such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, or religion) do not disadvantage anyone. Key Aspects of Equal Opportunity: Access to Resources: Ensuring everyone has fair access to essential resources like education, healthcare, and job training, so they can develop their potential. Fair Treatment: Removing discrimination and bias in institutions and policies, so that opportunities are available to all on equal terms. Merit-Based Advancement: Opportunities, particularly in education and the workplace, should be based on skill, effort, and potential, rather than on factors like family background or personal connections. Support for Disadvantaged Groups: Sometimes, providing equal opportunity means actively supporting those from historically marginalized or disadvantaged groups to ensure they can fully participate and compete fairly. Power Power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of others to achieve desired outcomes. Power plays a key role in political, social, and organizational contexts, and it manifests in various forms and uses. Power as a Resource: Power can be viewed as a resource—something that people or groups possess. This can include resources like wealth, technology, information, or military strength. Those with more resources generally have more influence. Power as a Relation: Power can also be seen as relational, existing in the dynamics between individuals or groups. It’s not just about what one possesses but how one interacts with others and exercises influence over them. Steven Lukes' 3 Faces of Power Political theorist Steven Lukes described three "faces" (or dimensions) of power: Decision-Making Power: This is the visible, direct form of power where decisions are made that affect others. For example, passing laws or setting policies are exercises of decision-making power. Agenda-Setting Power: This form of power shapes the agenda by controlling what issues are discussed and which are kept off the table. By controlling the discourse, some topics are never open to debate or change. Perception-Setting Power: The most subtle form, ideological power, shapes people's perceptions, beliefs, and preferences so they accept the status quo as natural or desirable. This influence is often invisible and can make people act against their own interests. Hard Power vs. Soft Power Hard Power: Involves coercive tactics like military force, economic sanctions, or other forms of pressure to compel behavior. It’s a direct way to influence others through tangible means. Soft Power: Relies on attraction and persuasion rather than force. This can include cultural influence, diplomacy, or moral authority. By shaping preferences through values, culture, and ideas, soft power gains influence in less confrontational ways. Power vs. Authority Power: The capacity to make others do what one wants, regardless of their willingness. Power can be exercised with or without consent and doesn’t always require legitimacy. Authority: A form of power that is viewed as legitimate by those it affects. Authority implies that people accept and respect the right of a leader or institution to direct or make decisions. For example, elected officials have authority because people recognize the legitimacy of their role. Power as a Resource = Power from assets and resources. Power as a Relation = Power existing in the dynamics between people. Lukes' 3 Faces of Power: Decision-Making (direct control), Non-Decision-Making (agenda-setting), Ideological (shaping perceptions). Hard Power = Influence through coercion. Soft Power = Influence through attraction. Power vs. Authority = Power can be used without legitimacy; authority requires acceptance and respect from others. Weber’s 3 types of Authority: 1. Traditional Authority Definition: Authority based on longstanding customs, practices, or social structures. Characteristics: People obey leaders out of respect for tradition and established norms. Leadership roles are often hereditary or passed down, such as kings, tribal chiefs, or elders. Example: Monarchies, where a king or queen’s authority is inherited and respected due to the historical continuity of the royal lineage. 2. Charismatic Authority Definition: Authority based on an individual’s charisma, personal qualities, or exceptional leadership abilities. Characteristics: Followers are drawn to a leader’s vision, personality, or extraordinary qualities, which inspire devotion and loyalty. This form of authority can be unstable, as it depends heavily on the individual leader. Example: Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. or Mahatma Gandhi, whose followers supported them due to their personal charisma and moral influence. 3. Rational-Legal Authority Definition: Authority based on formal rules, regulations, and laws. Characteristics: Power is vested in legally established positions, and individuals follow the system because it is seen as fair, predictable, and impartial. This form of authority is typical of modern governments and organizations, where authority is linked to office or role rather than personal attributes. Example: Elected officials or government bureaucrats, who hold power based on laws and a structured legal system. Traditional Authority: Based on customs and tradition. Charismatic Authority: Based on personal qualities or charisma. Rational-Legal Authority: Based on laws and formal rules. Democracy Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives. It values principles like equality, freedom, and participation. Direct Democracy vs. Representative Democracy Direct Democracy: Citizens directly participate in decision-making, voting on laws and policies themselves rather than electing representatives. This form is rare in large nations but common in small communities or through referendums. Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives who make decisions on their behalf. This is the most common form of democracy, allowing large populations to have a voice through elected officials. Party systems One-Party System: Only one political party exists or is allowed to govern, often leading to an authoritarian regime. Elections, if held, are controlled by the single party, with little to no competition (e.g., North Korea, China). Two-Party System: Two major parties dominate politics, and while other parties may exist, they have little influence. This system often creates stability but limits political diversity (e.g., the United States with Democrats and Republicans). Multi-Party System: Multiple parties exist and compete for power, allowing for a broad spectrum of political representation. It often results in coalition governments, where parties join forces to govern together (e.g., Germany, Italy). Voting Systems Majoritarian System: The candidate or party with the most votes wins, often used in single-member districts. Examples include "first-past-the-post" and "winner-takes-all" systems. This system favors larger parties and often leads to more stable but less diverse governments. Proportional Representation (PR): Seats in the legislature are allocated based on the proportion of votes each party receives. This system encourages a multi-party setup, representing a wider range of views but sometimes resulting in coalition governments. Legislature Unicameral: A single legislative body makes all the laws and decisions. Unicameral systems are often simpler and can make decisions faster but may lack in-depth checks and balances (e.g., Denmark, New Zealand). Bicameral: The legislature has two separate chambers (e.g., the House of Representatives and the Senate in the U.S.). This system provides additional checks and balances, allowing one chamber to review and potentially revise the decisions of the other. Consociational Democracy Consociational Democracy is a form of government that aims to achieve stability in deeply divided societies by sharing power among different social groups. It typically includes: Power-sharing across groups (e.g., ethnic or religious groups). Mutual vetoes so that one group can block decisions that threaten its interests. Proportional Representation in government positions and resources. Autonomy for each group in areas important to its identity. This model is used in countries with diverse populations where the goal is to ensure peace and fair representation, such as in Belgium or Lebanon. Democracy = Government by the people. Direct vs. Representative Democracy = Direct citizen involvement vs. elected representatives. Party Systems: One-party (authoritarian), two-party (stability-focused), and multi-party (diversity- focused). Voting Systems: Majoritarian (winner-takes-all) vs. Proportional (representative diversity). Legislature: Unicameral (one chamber) vs. Bicameral (two chambers). Consociational Democracy = Power-sharing model for deeply divided societies. Ideology Left vs. Right Ideology refers to a set of beliefs and values that shapes how people think about politics, society, and governance. Right-wing ideologies typically emphasize tradition, order, hierarchy, and often limited government intervention. Left-wing ideologies focus on equality, social justice, reform, and often support government involvement in addressing inequalities. Conservatism Core Beliefs: Conservatism emphasizes maintaining traditional institutions and values. It’s cautious about change, preferring stability, and often supports a hierarchical view of society. Anti-Rationalism: Many conservatives are skeptical of radical social engineering and the idea that society can be perfected through reason alone. They value practical wisdom and historical experience over theoretical ideals. Liberalism Core Beliefs: Liberalism is rooted in Enlightenment ideals of individual liberty, rationalism, and equality. Liberals advocate for freedoms of speech, religion, and equal rights under the law. Progressive and Rationalist: It promotes reform to expand personal freedoms and typically supports democracy, free markets, and limited government intervention to protect individual rights. Nationalism Nationalism emphasizes the interests of a particular nation and aims to create unity and pride among people who share cultural, historical, or linguistic bonds. Hans Kohn identified two types of nationalism: Ethnic Nationalism: Identity based on shared ancestry, culture, and ethnicity. It tends to emphasize the nation as a community rooted in blood ties, often excluding those from other backgrounds. Civic Nationalism: Identity based on shared political values and citizenship rather than ethnic background. It’s inclusive and centers on the idea of national membership through participation and loyalty to the state’s ideals. Socialism Core Beliefs: Socialism advocates for social ownership or regulation of resources and the economy to reduce inequality. It sees human behavior as socially conditioned and emphasizes cooperative over individual interests. Concept of Social Development: Socialists believe society should evolve toward greater equality and collective welfare. Types of Socialism: Revolutionary Socialism: Argues that true socialism requires a complete overthrow of existing political and economic systems (e.g., Marxism). Revisionist Socialism: Seeks to achieve socialist goals through gradual reform within existing democratic systems (e.g., social democracy). Anarchism Core Beliefs: Anarchism opposes all forms of hierarchical authority, including the state, advocating instead for a self-managed, stateless society based on voluntary cooperation. Key Principle: Anarchists argue that human beings can organize their lives without coercion, and they reject centralized control, believing it leads to oppression. Conservatism = Tradition, hierarchy, resistance to change, anti-rationalism. Liberalism = Freedom, rationality, progressive reform, individual rights. Nationalism = National pride; Ethnic (ancestry-based) vs. Civic (values-based). Socialism = Equality, social ownership; Revolutionary (radical change) vs. Revisionist (gradual reform). Anarchism = Anti-authoritarian, voluntary cooperation, stateless society. Conservatism vs. Liberalism o Conservatism often resists change, supports traditions and historical institutions; anti- rationalism o Liberalism is based off the Enlightenment and rationalist values, progressive the idea of "liberty" and on Enlightenment and progressive, rationalist values and "Liberty" Nationalism Sees the world as divided into nations, each with self-determination, and our primary identity as our nation Kohn's distinction: Ethnic nationalism vs. civic nationalism o Ethnic nationalism: traditional view about nationalism - nations are people groups with shared traits (such as language, culture, religion etc.) o Civic Nationalism: nationalism in context of countries like the United States or Singapore where identity is based on political Socialism Concept of social development Human self interest as socially-conditioned (not inherent) Implementations of Socialism: o Revolutionary Socialism #Soviet Union, China o Revisionist (Social-Democracy) #European Social Democrats, Labour Movement Anarchism Believes that society should have no government, laws, police or other authority Rule of law What is the rule of law? The principle that everyone in a society, whether ruler, minister, or ordinary citizen, is expected to obey the law and (at least in theory) everyone is equal before it. Why is the rule of law so important? The rule of law is essential because it ensures fairness, protects rights, holds everyone accountable, and prevents abuse of power. It provides stability, resolves disputes peacefully, fosters trust in government, and supports economic growth by creating a predictable and just society. What is Separation of Power? Separation of powers is a principle that divides a government into three branches to ensure no single entity has absolute control. Each branch has distinct roles: o Legislative: Makes laws (e.g., Congress or Parliament). o Executive: Enforces laws (e.g., President or Prime Minister). o Judicial: Interprets laws (e.g., Courts). Why is it important? This division prevents abuse of power by creating checks and balances, ensuring each branch can limit the others and maintain a balanced government. Constitutions What are constitutions and why do countries have them? A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or rules that defines how a country is governed. It establishes: o The structure of government: Outlines the roles and powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. o The rule of law: Ensures all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to the law. o Rights and freedoms: Protects the rights of citizens and sets limits on government power. o Checks and balances: Provides mechanisms to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. In essence, a constitution is the supreme law that guides the functioning and fairness of a society. Countries have constitutions to define government powers, protect citizens' rights, ensure accountability, prevent abuse of power, and provide stability and unity. They are the foundation of fair and orderly governance. Civil Society What is Civil Society and why is it important for democracy? “society considered as a community of citizens linked by common interests and collective activity.” In politics, it is often considered to be citizen participation in political (especially government) processes. Importance for Democracy: o Promotes Participation: Encourages citizen engagement in public life and decision- making. o Holds Government Accountable: Monitors and challenges abuse of power or corruption.  o Protects Rights: Advocates for human rights and marginalized communities. o Strengthens Communities: Builds trust, cooperation, and shared values among people. o Fosters Pluralism: Ensures diverse voices and perspectives are heard in a democracy How does civil society work with protest? Civil society supports protests by organizing them, raising awareness, advocating for change, providing resources, and protecting the right to dissent, ensuring citizens’ voices are heard and governments are held accountable. Civil society in Mongolia and South Korea enabled protests that led to government change and accountability. In Mongolia, protests in 1990 ended one-party rule, while in South Korea, the 2016-2017 Candlelight Protests led to the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye. Civil society groups organized and mobilized citizens to demand reform. How does the media and news function in civil society? The media in civil society informs the public, promotes accountability, facilitates dialogue, and supports advocacy, helping ensure transparency and democratic participation. Comparative Politics How do different countries/systems work? Presidential Systems A presidential system is a form of government where the president is both the head of state and the head of government, elected separately from the legislature. Key Features: o Separation of Powers: The executive (president), legislature (Congress), and judiciary are distinct and have separate powers. o Direct Election: The president is elected by the people, not chosen by the legislature. o Fixed Term: The president serves for a fixed term (e.g., 4 years in the U.S.), and cannot be removed by the legislature except through impeachment. #In the USA, the president enforces laws, while Congress makes them, and the judiciary interprets them, ensuring checks and balances. Parliamentary system A parliamentary system is a government where the executive (prime minister and cabinet) is chosen from and accountable to the legislature (parliament). Key Features: o Prime Minister: The head of government, elected from the majority party or coalition in parliament. o Fusion of Powers: The executive and legislature are closely linked, with the prime minister and cabinet being members of parliament. o No Fixed Term: The government can be dissolved, and elections called by the parliament or prime minister. # Examples: o UK: Prime minister is chosen by the majority in the House of Commons. o Netherlands: Prime minister leads a coalition government. o Germany: Chancellor is elected by the Bundestag and accountable to it. Semi-Presidential system A semi-presidential system combines elements of both presidential and parliamentary systems, with a president and a prime minister sharing executive powers. Key Features: o Dual Executive: The president is the head of state, while the prime minister is the head of government. o Shared Power: The president and prime minister work together, but the president often holds significant authority, especially in foreign affairs and defense. o Parliamentary Accountability: The prime minister is accountable to the legislature, and may be dismissed by it. #Example: o France: The president handles foreign policy, while the prime minister focuses on domestic issues. o Russia: The president holds strong power, with the prime minister managing daily affairs. o Mongolia: The president is head of state, while the prime minister, appointed by parliament, runs the government. Socialist one-party system A socialist one-party system is a government where a single political party, typically a communist or socialist party, controls all aspects of governance, and other political parties are either banned or heavily restricted. Key Features: o Single Party Rule: One party holds all political power, with no competitive elections or opposition parties allowed. o Centralized Control: The government controls the economy, media, and public life, aiming to implement socialist or communist ideals. o Authoritarian: The government often exercises strict control over dissent and limits individual freedoms. #Examples: o USSR: The Communist Party was the only legal political party, and it controlled the state, economy, and military. o China: The Communist Party of China is the sole ruling party, with power concentrated in its leadership, and other political groups are not allowed. Voting and party systems Majoritarian vs. Proportional Majoritarian System: Definition: The candidate with the most votes wins, often requiring a simple plurality or majority. Key Features: o Single-Member Districts: Each district elects one representative. o Winner-Takes-All: The candidate with the most votes in a district wins the seat. #UK, USA Impact: Tends to favor larger parties and leads to stable governments but can result in disproportionate outcomes (e.g., a party wins many seats without a majority of votes). Proportional Representation (PR): Definition: Seats are allocated based on the percentage of votes each party receives. Key Features: o Multi-Member Districts: Multiple representatives are elected from each district. o Proportional Allocation: If a party wins 30% of the vote, it gets roughly 30% of the seats. #Germany, Netherlands Impact: Encourages a wider range of parties and more accurate reflection of voter preferences but may lead to coalition governments and political fragmentation. Party Systems One-Party System: Definition: Only one political party is allowed to exist or hold power, and no opposition is permitted. Key Features: o Single-party rule: The ruling party controls the government, and opposition parties are either banned or heavily restricted. o Often found in authoritarian or socialist states. #China, North Korea Two-Party System: Definition: Two major political parties dominate the political landscape, and one typically controls the government at a time. Key Features: o Competition: Only two parties have a realistic chance of winning significant power. o It can lead to political stability but may limit diversity of political views. #USA, UK Multi-Party System: Definition: Multiple political parties compete for power, and no single party typically dominates. Key Features: o Coalitions: Often requires parties to form alliances or coalitions to govern, leading to more diverse representation. o Common in democracies with proportional representation. #Germany, India How does the voting system impact the party system? The voting system directly impacts the party system by influencing how votes are translated into seats, which in turn shapes party competition, representation, and the overall political landscape. Legislatures: unicameral vs bicameral Unicameral Legislature: Definition: A legislature with only one chamber or house. Key Features: o Simpler structure: All legislative decisions are made by a single body. o Efficiency: Can pass laws more quickly since there’s only one chamber to approve them. #Denmark, Sweden, New Zealand, Finland Bicameral Legislature: Definition: A legislature with two chambers or houses, typically an upper and a lower house. Key Features: o Two chambers: Each chamber has distinct powers, roles, or representation systems (e.g., one may represent regions, the other the population). o Checks and balances: The two chambers can check each other’s decisions, leading to more thorough debate and scrutiny. #USA, UK, Germany Federal vs. Unitary Federal System: Definition: Power is shared between a central government and regional governments (such as states or provinces). Key Features: o Constitutional Division: The constitution defines the powers of both central and regional governments. o Autonomy for Regions: Regions (like states or provinces) have significant authority and can make decisions on certain issues independently. #USA, Germany, India Advantages: Encourages diversity and local governance, while still maintaining national unity. Unitary System: Definition: Power is concentrated in the hands of a central government, with little or no power devolved to regional authorities. Key Features: o Centralized Authority: The central government has the primary decision-making power, and any regional authorities are granted power by the central government. o Uniformity: Laws and policies are generally uniform across the entire country. #France, Japan, United Kingdom Advantages: Ensures consistency in laws and policies, and the government can act swiftly in emergencies. Consociational Democracy Consociational democracy is a political system designed to manage and govern deeply divided societies, where different groups (such as ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups) coexist. It emphasizes power-sharing and cooperation among these groups to ensure stability and inclusivity. It features proportional representation, coalition governments, group autonomy, and a mutual veto to prevent domination by any one group. Example: Belgium, where power is shared between Dutch-speaking, French-speaking, and German-speaking communities.