Final Exam Review - COMPREHENSIVE PDF

The Scientific Method – Ch 1 Describe the steps of the scientific method 1) Make an Observation 2) Develop a Hypothesis 3) Perform an Experiment 4) Collect and Analyze Data 5) Develop a Conclusion Interpret a bar graph Effect of Toothbrushing Pressure on Gum Recessi...

The Scientific Method – Ch 1 Describe the steps of the scientific method 1) Make an Observation 2) Develop a Hypothesis 3) Perform an Experiment 4) Collect and Analyze Data 5) Develop a Conclusion Interpret a bar graph Effect of Toothbrushing Pressure on Gum Recession 9 8 7 Gum Recession (mm) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Light Brushing Pressure Moderate Brushing Pressure Heavy Brushing Pressure You will see a bar graph and you will be asked a question about the data in it. Here is a practice one from the sci method packet.  Atoms & Bonds – Ch 2 Describe the properties of protons, neutrons, and electrons Particle Where Found in an Charge Atom Proton nucleus positive Electron orbiting the nucleus negative Neutron nucleus neutral Define how many covalent bonds can be formed by hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon How many unpaired electrons H O N C determines how many covalent bonds 1 2 3 4  Water – Ch 2 Describe hydrogen bonds and compare them to covalent and ionic bonds (Strongest) Covalent bonds, Ionic bonds, Hydrogen bonds (Weakest) Covalent: shared electrons Ionic: opposite charges attract Hydrogen: partial opposite charges attract Know bond strength in order Contrast acids to bases and interpret the pH scale More H+ Less OH- More OH- Less H+ If given a pH, is it an acid or base? Does it have more H+ or OH-?  Macromolecules I – Ch 2 Contrast dehydration reactions to hydrolysis reactions The dehydration reaction BUILDS polymers. In this reaction, a water molecule is REMOVED to bond monomers together. The hydrolysis reaction BREAKS APART polymers. In this reaction, a water molecule is ADDED to break monomers apart. Just know which one builds polymers and which one breaks down polymers Know the monomers for each of the four types of macromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids) Polymer Monomer Carbohydrate Simple sugar (ex. glucose) (monosaccharide) Protein Amino acid Lipid Glycerol and 3 fatty acids Nucleic Acid Nucleotide  Macromolecules II – Ch 2 Detail the four levels of protein structure Primary Structure Sequence of amino acids Secondary Structure Hydrogen bonding between amino acids ⍺ (alpha) helix β (beta) sheet Tertiary Structure Protein folds into three dimensional structure R groups form bonds with one another Quaternary Structure Multiple tertiary structures combine to form a large, multi-subunit complex Structure in large, Multi-subunit proteins What is denaturation? How do you denature a protein? Denaturation is the unraveling of a protein due to extreme pH and high heat.  The Cell I – Ch 3 Describe diffusion and osmosis Diffusion Movement of molecules from high concentration gradient to low concentration gradient Osmosis Movement of water across a membrane Moves from low solute concentration toward high solute concentration Describe what happens to cells in hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions Hypotonic Solution Solution with low solutes Causes cells to burst/lyse Hypertonic Solution Solution with high solutes Causes cells to shrivel Isotonic Solution Equal solutes  The Cell II – Ch 3 Contrast the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Studded with ribosomes – proteins made here Smooth ER Synthesizes phospholipids and other lipids Detail the function of: ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, nucleus and lysosomes Nucleus The function of the nucleus is to store genetic information as long chains of DNA Ribosomes Function to synthesize proteins Golgi Apparatus Involved in processing, packaging, and secretion of proteins Lysosomes Contain enzymes to break down foreign matter  Cellular Respiration– Ch 3 Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration Aerobic: Requires oxygen Anaerobic: Does not require oxygen Describe the location of each of the following reactions: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle. Glycolysis: cytoplasm Pyruvate oxidation: matrix of mitochondria Citric acid cycle: matrix of mitochondria Describe the role oxygen plays during cellular respiration Oxygen accepts electrons at the end of the electron transport chain and becomes water (oxygen is also called the final electron acceptor)  Mitosis – Ch 19 Contrast autosomes and sex chromosomes Autosomes: Do NOT determine your biological gender Sex chromosomes: Determine your biological gender Outline the major events that occur during the five phases of mitosis and cytokinesis – know description and picture Prophase Early Prophase Prophase Nuclear envelope dissolves Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes Prometaphase Spindle fibers attach to centromeres Metaphase Metaphase Chromosomes are aligned at the cell’s equator Anaphase Sister chromatids are pulled apart by spindle fibers Anaphase Telophase Chromosomes at poles of cells Cytokinesis Telophase Division of the cytoplasm Cytoplasm pinches off to form 2 identical daughter cells  Meiosis – Ch 19 Outline the major steps of meiosis I and meiosis II – know description and picture Homologous chromosomes – Meiosis I Sister chromatids – Meiosis II MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II  Meiosis – Ch 19 Describe the two sources of genetic variation created during meiosis (crossing over and independent assortment), and at which stage of meiosis they occur Crossing over The exchange of genetic information between homologous chromosomes Occurs during prophase I of Meiosis I Independent Assortment Homologous pairs align independently at the equator i.e., there is no specific order in which they line up Occurs during metaphase I of Meiosis I  Cancer – Ch 20 Describe the characteristics of cancerous cells and what role they play in cancer development Characteristics of Cancer Cells Lack Differentiation: Cancer cells are non-specialized and do not contribute to the functioning of a body part. Abnormal nuclei: The nuclei of cancer cells are enlarged and may contain an abnormal number of chromosomes. Fail to undergo apoptosis: Cancer cells fail to undergo apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Unlimited potential to replicate: Cancer cells are immortal, and keep on dividing for an unlimited number of times. Chromosomes are capped with telomeres that get shorter after each cell cycle; in cancer cells, these are constantly rebuilt. Lack contact inhibition: Normal cells stop dividing when they come in contact with another cell, cancer cells pile on top of one another, forming a tumor. Cells undergo Angiogenesis and Metastasis: A tumor must have a well-developed capillary network to bring it nutrients and oxygen, so tumors form new blood vessels through a process called angiogenesis. When cancer cells invade blood vessels, they migrate to other parts of the body. Metastasis is the formation of a tumor far away from the primary tumor. Contrast radiation therapy and chemotherapy Radiation Localized cancer Chemotherapy Body-wide metastasized cancer  Patterns of Inheritance I – Ch 21 Contrast dominant and recessive alleles Know that dominant alleles mask recessive ones. Example: if a black dog and white dog have offspring and all dogs are black, which allele is dominant? Determine the genotypic and phenotypic ratios within a monohybrid cross using Punnett squares Here’s a practice one from your notes: Freckles (F) No Freckles (f) Homozygous recessive X heterozygous f f F Ff Ff f ff ff Genotypic ratio: 0 FF, 2 Ff, 2 ff à 0:2:2 Phenotypic ratio: 2 freckles, 2 no freckles à 2:2  Patterns of Inheritance II – Ch 21 Interpret pedigree charts including the mode of inheritance and genotype of individuals (the possibilities on the exam will be autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant) Remember to use hints to guess. Then test your guess, starting with “aa.” HINTS for determining Autosomal Recessive If parents are both affected, they can only have affected children Affected individuals can skip generations Not many individuals are affected in total HINTS for determining Autosomal Dominant Two affected parents can have unaffected children if both are heterozygotes Usually does not skip generations More individuals are affected in general  Patterns of Inheritance II – Ch 21 Outline the main features of polygenic inheritance, multifactorial traits, and pleiotropy Polygenic traits, such as skin color and height, are governed by several sets of alleles. The result is a continuous variation of phenotypes. Multifactorial traits are subject to environmental influences. Examples include schizophrenia, autism (not mentioned in book), allergies and alcoholism. Pleiotrophy occurs when a single, mutant gene affects two or more distinct and seemingly unrelated traits. An example is Marfan Syndrome, in which symptoms include long limbs, weakened aorta and poor eyesight.  DNA Biology – Ch 22 Describe the structure of DNA vs. the structure of RNA DNA RNA Number of Strands 2 1 Sugar deoxyribose ribose Bases ATCG AUCG Backbone Sugar / Phosphate Sugar / Phosphate What are the end products of: DNA replication, transcription and translation? Replication: DNA à DNA Transcription: DNA à mRNA Translation: mRNA à protein  Nervous System I – Ch 14 Know the parts of the neuron and their functions: dendrites, cell body, axon and axon terminals No diagram – only description Axon Terminal: End of the neuron where signal is relayed Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and other organelles Dendrites: Receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons Axon: Conducts signal down neuron Explain what is happening in and around the axon during depolarization and repolarization. Where are the Na+ and K+ ions? If they are moving, which way are they moving and why? Axon – Action Potential Depolarization Na+ gated Na+ channel OPEN K+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ Na+ +35mV Na+ Na+/K+ pump K+ gated channel closed Axon – Action Potential Repolarization Na+ gated channel CLOSED Na+ Na+ -70mV Na+ Na+ K+ K+ gated Na+/K+ pump K+ K+ K+ channel OPEN  Nervous System II – Ch 14 Outline the main structures of the brain and their functions, including: cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata Corpus Callosum: Extensive bridge of nerves that allow the two cerebral hemispheres to communicate Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of gray matter that covers the hemispheres, accounts for sensation, voluntary movement and consciousness Cerebellum: Receives sensory input from the eyes, ears, joints and muscles to help maintain posture and balance Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis, regulates hunger, sleep, thirst, body temperature and water balance Medulla Oblongata: Contains reflex centers for regulating heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, vomiting, coughing, sneezing and swallowing. Contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system: when are each of these systems active? Sympathetic: excitement, emergency Parasympathetic: rest, digestion  Sensory System – Ch 15 Know the types of sensory receptors and give an example of each (chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors) Receptor Type Description Example(s) Respond to chemical Chemoreceptor Taste, smell substances Photoreceptor Respond to light energy Sight Mechanoreceptor Stimulated by forces, Hearing, touch pressure Thermoreceptor Stimulated by temperature Touch (skin) changes Compare and contrast rods and cones Rods: best at seeing white light Cones: best at seeing color  Epithelium and Homeostasis – Ch 4 Detail the different classes of epithelial cells (simple, pseudostratified, and stratified), the different cell shapes (squamous, cuboidal, and columnar). Be able to determine if a pathway is negative feedback or positive feedback Negative Feedback Effect is opposite of the stimulus Positive Feedback Effect is the same as the stimulus  Receptors detect (sensor) Blood pressure increases (stimulus) Nervous system decreases heart rate and increases vessel diameter (control center) Normal blood pressure Blood pressure decreases (effect) Is the effect the opposite of the stimulus?  Receptors detect (sensor) Brain stimulates Stretch against pituitary gland to cervix secrete oxytocin (stimulus) (control center) Oxytocin stimulates contractions, stretch against cervix increases (effect) Is the effect the opposite of the stimulus?  Muscular System I – Ch 13 Compare and contrast the three muscle types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac Skeletal Smooth Cardiac Spindle (narrow Cell shape Tubular cylinder, pointed Tubular ends) Are they striated (striped in Yes No Yes appearance)? Number of nuclei Multiple Single Single Voluntary or Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary Involuntary Where found in the Muscles attach to Blood vessels, internal Heart wall body skeleton organs Detail the steps in order of muscle contraction starting from when the electrical signal reaches the muscle fiber and ending with the muscle relaxing Hint: only study the following: 1) Action potential --→ Skeletal muscle cell Action potential is conducted from nervous system to motor neuron. Motor neuron secretes acetylcholine. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on sarcolemma. 2) Action potential on cell surface --→ Cell interior Action potential travels along the sarcolemma and travels down into the membrane through a T-tubule. This triggers the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.  Muscular System II – Ch 13 Explain how the number of muscle fibers in a motor unit influences fine motor control The smaller the motor unit, the smaller and more exact the muscle movement (aka it has more fine motor control) The larger the motor unit, the larger and less exact the muscle movement (aka it has less fine motor control) Name the four energy molecules used by muscles to make ATP, which is the preferred source of energy? HINT: Just know that glycogen is the preferred source of energy for muscles  Digestive System I – Ch 9 Contrast mechanical vs chemical digestion Mechanical digestion is when food is broken into smaller pieces by chewing. Chemical digestion is when the bonds in food are broken down by enzymes. What do the following enzymes break down and where are they released from: pepsin, amylase, trypsin Pepsin: Proteins, Stomach Amylase: Starch, Mouth and Pancreas Trypsin: Proteins, Pancreas  Digestive System II – Ch 9 Describe the role of the pancreas and role of each of the enzymes and hormones secreted by the pancreas Pancreatic juice contains: Sodium bicarbonate: neutralizes acid chyme (juices from the stomach). Pancreatic amylase: enzyme that digests starch. Trypsin: enzyme that digests protein. Pancreatic lipase: enzyme that digests fat. The pancreas is also an endocrine gland, because it releases the hormones insulin and glucagon (glucagon is not mentioned in this chapter). Outline the function of the large intestine Large Intestine Dry out / storage of feces Absorbs what’s left of water  Respiratory System– Ch 10 Describe the function of pulmonary surfactant Pulmonary surfactant lowers surface tension in the alveoli so the alveoli don’t collapse when you breathe out. Describe when pressures for O2 and CO2 are high/low in the alveoli/tissues and which direction O2 and CO2 diffuse based on those pressure differences CO2 at Alveoli O2 at Alveoli alveolus plasma pulmonary capillary CO2 CO2 External respiration low ß O2 O2 high ß high low RBC pulmonary RBC capillary alveolus plasma lung pulmonary artery pulmonary vein heart tissue cells systemic vein systemic artery CO2 at Tissues O2 at Tissues plasma plasma systemic systemic CO2 capillary capillary O2 low ß CO2 Internal respiration O2 ß high high low RBC RBC tissue tissue interstitialtissue fluid cell fluid fluid  Heart and Blood Vessels I – Ch 5 Know the order in which blood travels through vessels (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins) Track the circulation route of blood, focus on blood circulating within the heart Right atrium → Right atrioventricular valve → Right ventricle Left atrium → Left atrioventricular valve → Left ventricle Heart and Blood Vessels II – Ch 5 Outline the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure Systolic pressure is reached during ejection of blood from the heart. Diastolic pressure occurs while the left ventricle is relaxing. Describe the three mechanisms that aid in moving blood through veins HINT: just know valves and skeletal muscles Venous valves Valves close as blood flows upward Prevents retrograde flow Faulty valves = varicose veins Skeletal muscle pump Skeletal muscles contract around veins Propels blood upward  Red Blood Cells – Ch 6 How many oxygen molecules can hemoglobin carry? Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules Contrast oxygen and carbon monoxide binding to hemoglobin Oxygen forms a WEAK bond with hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide forms a STRONG bond with hemoglobin. White Blood Cells – Ch 6 Outline the function of each of the five types of white blood cells discussed in class Eosinophils: Protect the body from large parasites (parasitic worms). Monocytes: Largest of the white blood cells, mature into macrophages (big eaters). Lymphocytes: Responsible for specific immunity to particular pathogens. Come in two varieties: B-cells and T-cells. Neutrophils: Most abundant white blood cells in the body. Usually the first responders to bacterial infection. Basophils: Along with mast cells, release histamine associated with allergic reactions. Describe in detail the ABO blood groups and how they affect blood compatibility, focus on O and AB blood types Just know that O is the universal donor and AB is the universal receiver.  Immune System I – Ch 7 Compare and contrast innate immunity and adaptive immunity Innate Immunity: non-specific, occurs immediately after infection Adaptive Immunity: specific, occurs after infection spreads beyond innate immunity Describe the roles of helper T-cells, cytotoxic T cells and memory T cells Helper T: release cytokines, activate B-cells Cytotoxic: kill already infected cells Memory: stay in body and remember infection Immune System II – Ch 7 Contrast active and passive immunity Active: individual makes their own antibodies Passive: antibodies are given to an individual Describe the use of vaccines and booster shots in developing the immune system First exposure leads to: small increase in antibodies, short lived response Second exposure (booster) leads to: high increase in antibodies, faster, longer lasting  Infectious Disease – Ch 8 Describe the common structures in bacteria and the function of each, including: Cell wall, flagella, fimbriae, pilus Bacterial Structure Function Protects the bacteria, can contain peptidoglycan. Allow Cell wall for classification (gram positive and gram negative). Flagella Rotates 360-degrees, which allows bacteria to move. Stiff fibers that allow bacteria to stick to surfaces like Fimbriae host cells. Elongated, hollow appendage used to transfer DNA from Pilus one cell to another. Define the different classifications of infectious disease Epidemic When a disease has more cases than expected for a period of time. Outbreak Epidemic confined to a local region Pandemic Global epidemic