Final Exam Prep - Dr. Len Karakowsky PDF

lOMoARcPSD|34964041 Final Exam Prep - Dr. Len Karakowsky Organizational Behaviour (York University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|34964041 Final Exam Prep - Dr. Len Karakowsky Organizational Behaviour (York University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041 CHAPTER 6 – Group Dynamic Team vs. Groups: what is the difference? Groups: 2 or more people with a common relationship Teams: small number or people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose performance goals, & approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable  Companies find team-based work can be efficient & effective  More motivational, allow for greater task identity Types of teams Self-managed teams = groups of 10-15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors  Planning, scheduling work, assigning tasks, taking action on problems  Why no leader? Cross-Functional teams = employees from about the same -hierarchical level, but from different work areas, working together to accomplish a task  Different specialities blend talents to accomplish a task such s product development Understanding team dynamics Team development 5 stage model 1. Forming - teams & leaders begin working out their specific responsibilities. Training is the leaders main task 2. Storming - questions typically arise regarding who is leading the team & what its structure & purpose should be. The leader ensures that team members continue to learn & eventually exercise leadership skills 3. Norming - team members agree on purpose, structure & leadership and are prepared to start performing. The leader's job is to emphasize the need for the team to temper cooperation with the responsibility to supervise its own members 4. Performing - period of productivity, achievement & pride as the team members work together to get the job done. 5. Adjourning –  Groups do not necessarily progress clearly through the stages one at a time  Groups can sometimes go back to an earlier stage  Conflict can sometimes be helpful to the group The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model A. Phase 1 – first meeting sets the groups direction & first phase of group activity is one of inertia B. Transition – transition takes place at the end of the first phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time & transition initiates major changes. C. Phase 2 – second phase of inertia follows the transition  Last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity Team Roles 1. Task Roles  enable the group to define, clarify & pursue a common purpose a. Activities directly related to the effective completion of the team’s work i. examples: initiating activities, seeking information, summarizing ideas, evaluating effectiveness, coordinating activities 2. Maintenance Roles  foster supportive &constructive interpersonal relationships & keeps the group together a. Activities essential to the effective, satisfying interpersonal relationships within a team or group i. Examples: supporting others, setting standards, reducing tension, following others’ leads Team Norms = norms cover performance (work ethic, work quality, levels of tardiness), appearance (personal dress, when to look busy, when to ‘goof off’, how to show loyalty), social arrangement (how team members interact), allocation of resources (pay, assignments, tools & equipment) - They develop norms by: critical events in teams history, explicit statements from leaders/members, carryover from other experiences, primacy: first behaviour precedents Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041 CHAPTER 12 – Decision Making Effectiveness & Efficiency Measures of Effectiveness: accuracy, speed, creativity, acceptance Efficiency: group decision making consumes more work hours than if an individual were to tackle the same problem alone Groupthink  Phenomenon in which the norms for conformity prevents the group from critically appraising unusual, minority or unpopular views  Symptoms  illusion of invulnerability, assumption of morality, rationalized resistance, peer pressure, minimized doubts, illusion of unanimity  Why does it happen? Tendency in highly cohesive teams to value consensus at the price of decision quality CHAPTER 9 – Conflict & Negotiation Conflict = process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict? - Functional = supports the goals of the group & improves its performance - Dysfunctional = hinders group performance Types of Conflict 1. Task Conflict: relates to the content & goals of the work 2. Relationship Conflict: focuses on interpersonal relationships & almost always dysfunctional 3. Process Conflict: conflict over how work gets done….how we go about doing this Loci Conflict (conflict that happens in organizations) a. Dyadic Conflict = conflict btw 2 people b. Intragroup Conflict = conflict which occurs within a group or team c. Intergroup Conflict = conflict btw different groups or teams Sources of Conflict Communication = through semantic difficulties, misunderstandings and “noise” in the communication channels Structure = size, specialization & composition of the group – ambiguity of responsibility – reward systems – leadership style – diversity of goals – if one group is dependent on another Conflict Resolution a. Cooperativeness  degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns b. Assertiveness  degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns Conflict Management Strategies 1. Forcing  imposing one’s will on the other party 2. Problem solving  trying to reach an agreement that satisfies both one’s own & the other party’s aspirations as much as possible 3. Avoiding  ignoring or minimizing the importance of the issues creating the conflict 4. Yielding  accepting & incorporating the will of the other party 5. Compromising  balancing concern for oneself with concern for the other party in order to reach a solution Conflict Outcomes 3 desired outcomes of conflict = - Agreement: equitable & fair agreement are the best outcomes - Stronger relationships: when conflict is resolved positively, this can lead to better relationships & greater trust - Learning: handling conflict successfully teaches one how to do it better next time An example of where conflict must be managed: NEGOTIATION  Distributive bargaining  negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041  Integrative bargaining  negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create win-win situation CHAPTER 10 – Organizational Culture Organizational Culture  refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations What does it accomplish?  Guides & shapes the attitudes & behaviours of employees  Provides standards for what employees should say or do – ‘control’  Conveys a sense of identity for organization members & Encourages goal alignment among members  Builds cohesiveness, loyalty & organizational commitment Culture eats Strategy….so what? - Competitive advantage - Facilitator or Barrier to Change  culture often represents the established mindset of employees & managers - Facilitator or Barrier to Diversity  strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to conform - Facilitator or Barrier to Mergers & Acquisitions  merging the cultures of 2 organizations can be difficult, if the cultures “clash” 7 Characteristics of Organizational Culture 1. Innovation & Risk-taking the degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative & take risks 2. Attention to detail  the degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis & attention to detail 3. Outcome orientation  degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on technique & process 4. People Orientation  degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organization. 5. Team Orientation  degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals 6. Aggressiveness degree to which people are aggressive & competitive rather than easygoing 7. Stability  degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to growth Levels of Organizational Culture  Artifacts = visible symbols of culture in the physical & social work environment o Personal enactment, ceremonies & rituals, stories, symbols  Values = stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is important (reflected in the way individuals behave)  Assumptions = deeply held beliefs that guide behaviour and tell members of an organization how to perceive & think about things Strong vs. Weak Cultures  Strong cultures: organization’s core values are both intensely held and widely shared, have great influence on the behaviour of their members, build cohesiveness, loyalty & organizational commitment  Organizational culture with a consensus on the values that drive the company and with an intensity that is recognizable even to outsiders  Facilitate performance BECAUSE they’re characterized by goal alignment, create high level of motivation bc of shared values by the members. They provide control without the oppressive effects of bureaucracy How does Culture begin? Stems from the actions of the founders: - Founders hire & keep only employees who think and feel the same way they do - Founders indoctrinate & socialize these employees to their way of thinking & feeling Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041 - Founders own behaviour acts as a role model that encourages employees to identify with them & thereby internalize their beliefs, values, assumptions Maintaining Organizational Culture 1. Selection  identify & hire individuals who will fit in with the culture 2. Top Management  senior executives establish & communicate the norms of the organization 3. Socialization  socialization is the process that helps new employees learn & adapt to the organization’s culture CHAPTER 7– Communication The Nature of Communication: the importance of communication, functions, directions, process, channels & grapevine Barriers to Effective Communication: filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence Gender Communication challenges Why is it important at the organizational level? - Communication is about trust, failure to communicate & not share information implies a lack of trust Why is it important at the individual level? - Interviews, team work, job advancement, career success Functions of Communications 1. Control member behaviour 2. Foster motivation for what is to be done 3. Provide a release for emotional expression 4. Provide information needed to make decisions Organization communication (direction of communication) - Downward  communication that flows from one level of a group to a lower level - Upward  communication that flows to a higher level of the group - Lateral  communication among members of the same work, or individuals at the same level Terms: Encoding: converting a message to symbolic form Decoding: interpreting a senders message Message: what is communicated Channel: the medium through which a message travels; channels differ in capacity to convey information - Formal channel = established by the organization & transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of members - Informal channel = used to transmit personal/social messages in the organization. These informal channels are spontaneous & emerge as a response to individual choices - Channel richness: amount of info that can be transmitted during a communication episode Characteristics of Rich Channels 1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously 2. Facilitate rapid feedback 3. Are very personal in context Noise: communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message Feedback: checks how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. Had understanding been achieved? Interpersonal Communication Advantages Disadvantages Oral Communication Speed & feedback Distortion of the message Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041 Written Communication Tangible & verifiable Time consuming & lacks feedback Nonverbal Communication Supports other communities & provides Misperception of body language or observable expression of emotions & gestures can influence receiver’s feelings interpretation of message The Grapevine Three Main Grapevine Characteristics 1. Informal, not controlled by management 2. Perceived by most employees as being more believable & reliable than formal communication 3. Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it Result from a: desire for information about important situations, ambiguous conditions, conditions that cause anxiety Barriers to Effective Communication Communication is rarely ‘objective’. Both the sender’s & receiver’s reality affects the framing & understanding of the message I. Filtering  the sender manipulates information so that it will be seen more favourably by the receiver II. Selective perception  the receiver selectively sees & hears based on their needs, motivations, experience, background & other personal characteristics III. Information overload  occurs when the info we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity IV. Emotions  individuals may interpret the same message differently when you are angry/distraught than when you’re happy V. Language  words mean different things to different people VI. Silence  defined as an absence of speech or noise; not necessarily inaction – can convey Gender Challenges Men talk to: Women talk to: - Emphasize status, power & independence - Establish connection & intimacy - Complain that women talk on and on - Criticize men for not listening - Offer solutions - Speak of problems to promote closeness - To boast about their accomplishments - Express regret & restore balance to a convo Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041 CHAPTER 8 – Power & Politics Power: a capacity that ‘A’ has to influence the behaviour of ‘B’, so that ‘B’ acts in accordance with ‘A’s’ wishes Dependency: The Key to Power - Dependence: ‘B’s’ relationship to ‘A’ when ‘A’ possesses something that ‘B’ needs o The greater ‘B’s’ dependency on ‘A’, the greater the power ‘A’ has over ‘B’ o Possession/control of scarce organizational resources that others need makes a manager powerful …increases when resources are: - Important: things you control must be important - Scarce: resource must be perceived as scarce - Non-substitutable: the resource cannot be substituted with something else Types of Individual Power (5 bases of power) Formal Power: established by an individual’s position in an organization; conveys the ability to coerce or reward, from formal authority, or from control of information 1. Legitimate power  the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization 2. Reward power  compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable…how is this used? How effective is it? 3. Coercive power  power base dependent on fear…can coercive power be used productively? That dark side of coercive power: bullying Personal Power 4. Referent power  influence based on special skills or knowledge 5. Expert power  influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits Evaluating the Bases of Power/consequences People will respond in one of three ways: 1. Commitment – person is enthusiastic about the request & carries the task out ‘ (expert/referent) 2. Compliance – the person goes along with the request grudgingly, putting minimal effort (legitimate/reward) 3. Resistance – the person is opposed to the request & tries to avoid it (coercive) Leaders’ Use of Power: the least effective power bases are the ones most likely to be used by managers; coercive/legitimate/rewards are the easiest to implement. Effective leaders use referent/expert power Power/Influence Tactics Power tactics = ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions Influence tactics = legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals, integration, pressure, coalitions Empowerment: The freedom & ability of employees to make decisions & commitments - Managers view it several ways: empowerment as delegating decision making within a set of clear boundaries VS. empowerment as a “process of risk taking & personal growth” Makes employees feel… - Meaning: feel their work is important to them; develop a sense of caring about their work - Competence: belief that one has the ability to do the job well - Self-determination: sense of control over the way one does one’s work - Impact: sense that one’s job makes a difference within the organization Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041 Conditions for True Empowerment 1. There must be a clear definition of the values & mission of the company 2. Company must help employees acquire the relevant skills 3. Employees need to be supported in their decision making & not criticized when they try to do something extraordinary 4. Employees need to be recognized for their efforts Politics: Power in Action  Political behaviour refers to those activities that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages & disadvantages within the organization. Why do politics exist in organizations?  Organizations are made up of groups & individuals who have differing values, goals & interests  Resources in organizations are limited  Performance outcomes are not completely clear & objective Types of Political Activity  attacking or blaming others, using information, managing impressions, building support for ideas, praising others, building coalitions, creating obligations Impression Management (IM) - The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them - More likely used by self-monitors than low self-monitors - IM Techniques: conformity, excuses, apologies, flattery, favours, association, self-promotions CHAPTER 11 – Leadership Management  use of formal authority to obtain compliance from organizational members (organize & plan) Leadership  ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals (influence people & inspire to follow) Leader  someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority Leadership Theories 1. Trait theories: are leaders different from others? o Characteristics that might be used to differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Proved to be impossible to identify a set of traits that would always differentiate leaders from non-leaders o Theories that consider personality, social, physical or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from non-leaders o Leadership Traits: ambition & energy, honest & integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, high self-monitoring, Big 5 Personality traits o Limitations: no universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations. Traits predict behaviour better in “weak” than “strong” situations. Better predictor of the emergence of a leader but not good at predicting effective & ineffective leaders 2. Behavioural theories: do leaders behave a particular way? - Ohio State Studies: o Initiating structure: extent to which a leader was likely to define & structure her/his role and the roles of group members to seek goal attainment o Consideration: extent to which a leader had job relationships characterized by mutual trust & respect for group members’ ideas and feelings - University of Michigan Studies o Employee oriented: emphasized interpersonal relationships o Production oriented: emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job o Leadership is a skill set & can be taught to anyone so we must identify the proper behaviours to teach potential leaders 3. Contingency theories: does the situation matter? - Basic assumptions = leader effectiveness depends on the situation & must identify situational conditions or contingencies in order to understand which leadership style will work best o Fiedler’s Contingency Theory  assumes leadership style is fixed: either relationship oriented or task oriented leadership. Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|34964041 Effective group performance depends on matching the leader’s style and degree to which the situation permits the leader to control & influence  3 contingency factors that identify (8) possible leadership situations that vary in favourability  leader-member relations: degree of confidence, trust & respect members had for leader  task structure: degree to which job assignments were formalized & had procedures  position power: degree of influence a leader had over power-based activities o results = task oriented leaders performed better in situations that are very favourable to them & in situations that are very unfavourable. Relationship-oriented leaders performed better in situations that are moderately favourable o Hersey & Blanchard Situational Theory  appropriate leadership style (task or relationship oriented) is contingent on the followers readiness  Readiness – extent to which people have the ability & willingness o accomplish a specific task  ARE FOLLOWER’S “WILING & ABLE” TO FOLLOW LEADERS GOAL  Based on a parent-kind of relationship…as child mature parent releases control Supportive Laissez Faire Participative High Task & Directive Relationship Orientations Transformational Leadership: inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization Transactional Leadership: leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role & task requirements Charismatic Leadership: these leaders possess a certain quality that set them apart from ordinary people & who are treated as if they are endowed with exceptional powers/qualities - 4 Characteristics: o have a vision o are willing to take a personal risk to achieve the vision o are sensitive to followers needs o exhibit behaviours that are out of the ordinary - charismatic issues o importance of vision: must be inspirational, value centred, realizable o charismatic effectiveness & situation: charisma works best when – followers task has been ideological component, lot of stress and uncertainty in environment, leader is at the upper level of org Substitutes for leadership Factors that reduce leadership importance include: 1. follower factors: experience, training professional orientation, need for independence replace need for leader support 2. job factors: unambiguous & routine tasks, or tasks that are intrinsically satisfying 3. organizational factors: explicit goals, rigid rules & procedures Downloaded by Alex Johnson ([email protected])