Final Biology Study Guide PDF

1) Microscopes - Formulas - Magnification = ocular lens x objective lens - Regular Compound Microscope = 10 x - Low = 4x - Medium = 10x - High = 40x 1. What is the total magnification if the ocular lens is 15x and you...

1) Microscopes - Formulas - Magnification = ocular lens x objective lens - Regular Compound Microscope = 10 x - Low = 4x - Medium = 10x - High = 40x 1. What is the total magnification if the ocular lens is 15x and you are on medium power? - (15x) x (10x) = 150x - Specimen Size = diameter of field of view (FOV) ÷ approximate number of specimens (fitting across the diameter) - Low = 4mm - Medium 1.6mm - High = 0.4mm 2. 4 cells fit across your field of view on low power. How big is one cell? - 4mm ÷ 4 cells = 1 (1 cell = 1 mm) - Scale Ratio/Diagram size = diagram size (measure on paper) ÷ specimen size 3. Your sketch/drawing is 9 cm (change to millimetres) in size and the actual cell is 2.5 mm. What is the scale ratio/diagram magnification? - 9 cm = 90 mm - 90 mm ÷ 2.5 mm = 36 (times larger) Labelling: Diagram: Structure: Function: Arm Joins body tube to the base Base Supports microscope Body Tube Contains Ocular Lens Supports Objective Lens Coarse Adjustment Knob Use with LOW POWER LENS ONLY Condenser Lens/Diaphragm Focuses/regulates the amount of light reaching the object being viewed Fine Adjustment Knob Used with MEDIUM AND HIGH POWER LENSES ONLY Light Source Used to illuminate the specimen Objective Lens Used to magnify object 3 lenses located on the nosepiece (low, medium, high) Low = 4x (shortest) Medium = 10x High = 40x (Highest) Ocular Lens Used to look through (10x) Revolving Nosepiece Rotates allowing the objective lens to be changed Stage Supports the microscope slide Stage Clips Used to hold the slide in position/place 2) Medical Technologies Type: Description: Purpose/Detect Risks: Examples: s X-Ray Radiation to Sees through Radiation Broken Bones, screen/film soft tissues exposure shrapnel, through soft (Muscles, pneumonia tissues nerves, ligaments, tendons), Detects certain  tumours, pneumonia, dental problems, foreign objects CT Scan Creates a 3D Good for all Exposure to Fractures, (Computerized image using tissues (bone radiation from damage to Axial X-rays (scanner and muscle), X-rays bones, clots, Tomography) that rotates detects tumours, tumours around the heart disease, body) and and diseases computers (liver/bladder) Ultrasound Uses Good for all Can slightly heat Fetal soundwaves to tissues (Fact some tissues development, Check), detects see blood clots, provide fetal gallbladder real-time development, disease movement and and imaging for either 2D or 3D many different organs (brain, imaging heart, muscles) MRI (Magnetic Uses radio Good for all Low-energy Finding tumours, resonance waves to create tissues, better waves are tracking cancer imaging) 2D/3D images for harmless to treatments, tendons/ligamen patients (even if diagnosing joint ts than CT, a patient injuries Detects requires many tumours, and scans) injuries in joints/spine, finds damaged ligaments Microscopy Transmission Good for both (Only risks for See into the Electron tissues (Fact oncologists cellular Microscope Check) To and medical structure, bird (TEM) magnify cellular professionals) flu, unhealthy 2D image only structures, cells (1,000,000x) denser portions Scanning seem darker, Electron allowing us to Microscope see in the cell. (SEM) Detects various 3D Image diseases, (200,000x) cancers, and To see small other health objects such as problems cells, viruses,  and grains using light and electron microscopes Endoscopy A flexible tube Good for all Infection Colon Cancer, inserted into the tissues (Fact Inflammation cancer, body with a tiny Check). Detects Ability to get swallowing camera and light ulcers in the stuck on an difficulties, stomach lining, organ taking tissue colon cancer samples, finding ulcers 3) Cell Structure and Function Cell Theory: - All living things are made of cells - The cell is the simplest form that can carry out all life processes - Cells are made up of cells by division Cell Activities: - Uses energy - Stores materials - Communicates - Removes waste - Transport materials - Reproduce Cellular respiration = Carbon dioxide (CO2) + Water (H2O) → Oxygen (O2) + Glucose (C6H12O6) Animal Cell: Diagram: Organelle: Function: Centrioles - Helps cell divide during Mitosis or Meiosis - Creates Spindle Fibres Cell Plasma Membrane - Is a semi-permeable covering that protects the cell from pathogens/bad waste products - Dictates what goes in and out of the cell Cytoplasm - Gel-like substance holding/supports the organelles Golgi Apparatus - Acts like a post office and helps the proteins by sorting/shipping off the ribosomes to the final destination Golgi Vesicles - Transports/sorts proteins and lipids (helps GA) Lysosomes - Acts like a garbage disposal by breaking down waste Microchondrion/Mitochondria - Organelle that generates energy from cellular respiration (in the form of ATP) - Known as the powerhouse of the cell Microtubules/Cytoskeleton - Helps maintain the shape of the cells (lack of cell wall) Nucleolus - Produces and assembles ribosomes Nucleus - Contains the cell’s DNA (Genetic code) - Also known as the brain/boss of the cell Pinocytotic Vesicle - Absorbs fluids from extracellular molecules or acidic enzymes Ribosome - Builds proteins (grows and repairs tissues) Rough ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) - Has proteins (ribosomes) - Synthesized/created by the nucleolus and then placed in ER - Transported to GA Smooth ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) - Has no ribosomes but enzymes that detoxify drugs and synthesize membrane lipids Small Vacuole - Stores waste products, water, and other nutrients Plant Cell Diagram: Organelle: Function: Amyloplast starch grain - Stores extra glucose that can be used if not enough glucose is present Cell membrane - Is a semi-permeable covering that protects the cell from pathogens/bad waste products - Dictates what goes in and out of the cell Cell Wall - Gel-like substance holding/supports the organelles Chloroplasts - To produce energy through photosynthesis and cellular respiration - Helps plant growth and colour Cytoplasm - Gel-like substance holding/supports the organelles Druse crystal - Controls and stores excess calcium (the form is calcium oxalate) Golgi Apparatus - Acts like a post office and helps the proteins by sorting/shipping off the ribosomes to the final destination  Golgi vesicles - Transports/sorts proteins and lipids (helps GA) Large central vacuole - Stores waste products, water, and other nutrients Mitochondrion/Mitochondria - Organelle that generates energy from cellular respiration (in the form of ATP) - Known as the powerhouse of the cell Nucleolus - Produces and assembles ribosomes Nucleus - Contains the cell’s DNA (Genetic code) - Also known as the brain/boss of the cell Raphide crystal - Like Druse crystal - Stores calcium, and heavy metals, and protects plant's defences from herbivores Ribosome - Builds proteins (grows and repairs tissues) Rough ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) - Has proteins (ribosomes) - Synthesized/created by the nucleolus and then placed in ER - Transported to GA Smooth ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum - Has no ribosomes but enzymes that detoxify drugs and synthesize membrane lipids 4) Plants vs Animal Cells / Prokaryotic v.s. Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic: Similarities: Eukaryotic Cells: - Has no nucleus - Both have Cell - Has a nucleus - Doesn’t have membranes - Has membrane-bound membrane-bound - Both have DNA or organelles organelles genetic material - Larger than - Small Prokaryotes - Binary Fission - Goes through Mitosis - Bacteria and archaea - Has many kingdoms - Unicellular (Plants, animals, - Can live without fungi, protista  oxygen - Is both uni and - Asexual reproduction multicellular - One circular - Can’t survive without chromosome oxygen - Reproduces both sexually and asexually - Many chromosomes Plant Cell: Similarities: Animal Cell: - Has a cell wall - Have the same - Doesn’t have a cell - Has a large vacuole organelles wall - Has chloroplasts - Mitochondria - Has a small vacuole - Has crystals (druse - Cell - Has a and raphide) membrane cytoskeleton/microtub - Has the amyloplast - Golgi ules starch grain apparatus/vesi - Has pinocytotic - Boxy, rigid shaped cles vesicles - Nucleus - Has centrioles - Nucleolus (Mitosis) - Ribosome - Blob shaped - Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough) 5) Microviewers Photo: Description: Slide 1: Cheek Cells Type of Cell: Skin/Epithelial Cell Type of Tissue: Epithelial Tissue Function: To keep food in the mouth and protect the cheek lining and salivary glands Location: Mouth Slide 2: Blood Cells Type of Cell: Blood Cell Type of Tissue: Connective Tissue Function: Transport substances throughout the body and bloodstream (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste products) Location: Circulatory System Slide 3: Lymph Gland Cells Type of Cell: Blood cells Type of Tissue: Lymphatic Tissues (Muscle Tissue) Function: helps the body fight infection and disease Location: Neck, chest, abdomen, and groin Slide 4: Bone Cells Type of Cell: Bone Cell Type of Tissue: Connective Tissue Function: Helps grow, maintain, and repair bones Location: Skeletal System Slide 5: Voluntary Muscle Cells Type of Cell: Skeletal/Striated Muscle Cell Type of Tissue: Muscle Tissue Function: Allows various movements, and controls when they move or work Location: Arms, legs, back, neck Slide 6: Involuntary Muscle Cells Type of Cell: Smooth Muscle Cells Type of Tissue: Muscle Tissue Function: moving waste through intestines, and helping lungs expand Location: In the walls of the heart, and other organs like the liver, pancreas, intestines, and stomach Slide 7: Nerve Cells Type of Cell: Nerve Cell Type of Tissue: Nervous Tissue Function: Sending electrical impulses throughout the body Location: Brain, Spinal Column, Nerves Slide 8: Gland Cells Type of Cell: Epithelial Cells Type of Tissue: Epithelial Tissues Function: To create/release a product into the bloodstream Location: Lining of an organ such as the stomach, lung, colon, pancreas DNA, Genes, Chromosomes Name: Description: DNA (Made of Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, - The DNA molecule is very long/basic and Cytosine) Gene’s - A short section of the DNA molecule with a very specific code (Eye/hair colour) - Average 1000 genes on 1 DNA molecule Chromatin - DNA molecules folded/coiled into long threads (Would be 2 metres long if uncoiled) Chromosomes - Made of single DNA molecules - humans have 46 chromosomes Examples: Russian Nesting Dolls - Within the nucleus is the chromosome - Within the chromosome is DNA - Within DNA are genes 6) Cell Division and Mitosis Why are cells so small - The cell gets larger, materials grow faster than the cell membrane - The cell gets too big, and not enough cell membrane surface area for nutrients to come/left causes the cell to die - What is the name of the rule describing why cells must remain small: - Allen’s Rule - Materials increase=nutrients take longer/diffusion of waste between organelles. Why do cells divide - Limit to how big a cell can grow - Division = instead of growing larger, helps organisms survive - Needs small size of nutrients, oxygen, and water to rid of wastes Stages of Cell Division - Interphase - The longest stage prepares for division, DNA replication - Mitosis (4 phases - PMAT) - Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides - Animal Cells: Membrane pinches in the centre  - Plant Cell: Cell Wall forms - Cell division = process of cell (nucleus) dividing, producing two identical cells - Original cell = Parent cell, New cells = daughter cells - Mitosis - Prophase (prepare) - Centrioles move to either side of the cell - Chromosomes condense and become visible - Nucleus breaks down - Metaphase (middle) - Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell - Spindle fibres connect to chromosomes - Anaphase (away/apart) - Centromere splits, turning chromatids into daughter chromosomes - Chromosomes pulled from the middle (centrioles position) - Telophase (terminate) - Daughter chromosomes thin, nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes - Cells begin to narrow Three Functions of Cell Division - Growth - Cell division enables single-celled organisms to turn into multicellular organisms. - Repair - Cell division replaces/repair millions of cells (bones, cuts, blisters) - Reproduction - Asexual - one parent, identical offspring (commonly single-celled) - Sexual - two parents, offspring not identical, traits mixed. 7) Cancer/mutations: - Mutations take place in DNA controlling the cell (out of control cell division) - Mutation causes - Hereditary - commonly colon and breast cancers - Carcinogens (Environmental Factors) - X-rays, UV Rays (sunburns, tanning beds, medical procedures) - Drugs in CIgarettes, drugs, and/or vapes - Pollution (lead, mercury) - Radiation (Nuclear accident, repeated exposure) - Tumours - a mass of cells that continue to divide without benefit to the body - Benign - no tendency to spread, no serious effect on surrounding cells - Malignant - capable or spreading to other parts of the body (metastasis), interferes and destroys surrounding cells - Preventions - Eating less red/processed meat, saturated fat, refined sugar - Choose not to smoke, quit smoking  - Protect skin from UVA/UVB rays, quit going to tanning salons - Learn about self-examination - Regular exercise prevents ⅓ of cancers - Eating a lot of fruits and vegetables - Detection techniques - X-rays - Good for finding internal tumours in bones, muscles, and organs like the stomach, and kidneys (Denser spots = white, softer parts = grey, air = black) - Mammogram - a type of x-ray used for breast cancer, screening used to help detect cancer early (shows as a dense blueish area for a suspected tumour) - Biopsy -The tumour is surgically removed by doctors, and then viewed under microscopes to indicate the presence of cancer - Treatments - Radiation Therapy - usage of ionized radiation (removal of atoms from molecules), kills DNA in cancer cells which stunts their growth and can harm healthy cells. - Chemotherapy - Usage of chemicals to stop cancer from dividing (seen as most effective method), the drugs used are toxic, side effects are painful (hair loss, bladder and kidney problems) - Surgery - If possible, surgeons remove the tumour and repair organs damaged by cancer, recovery can be painful, and can be difficult to operate on if the tumour is malignant for it could have damaged vital organs. 8) Body Systems Different Organ Systems Organ System Basic Function Circulatory (Heart, blood, vessels, blood) Transports blood, nutrients, gases and wastes (major organs are the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries) Digestive (Mouth, esophagus, stomach, Takes in food, breaks it down/absorbs pancreas, gallbladder, liver, intestine, rectum nutrients, removes solid waste from the body Endocrine (glands - pituitary, hypothalamus, Manufactures/releases hormones, keeping thyroid, adrenals), pancreas, ovaries, testes the body systems ‘balanced’ Excretory (Skin, kidney, bladder, ureter, Removal of liquid waste from the body urethra) Integumentary (skin, hair, nails, glands) Creates a waterproof barrier around the body Lymphatic/immune system (White blood Defends the body against infections 9forign cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph substances) vessels Muscular (Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, Moves parts of the body (attached to bones - cardiac muscle, tendons, ligaments about 800 muscles) Nervous (Nerves, brain, spinal column) Detection of environmental changes signals bodily response, as higher thinking Reproductive (Ovaries, fallopian tubes, Producing offspring vagina, uterus, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, penis, urethra Respiratory (Nose, mouth, trachea, lungs, Gas exchange between internal and external bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm environments (CO2 and O2) Skeletal (Bones, cartilage) Supports and protects the body, works with muscles to move body parts (206 bones by adulthood) Circulatory System: - Functions: - Transports substances around the body - Nutrients, oxygen, waste, blood cells - Regulates body temperature - How does exercise change your heart rate? - Exercise exhausts the body, making the heart pump more blood for the constant need for blood and oxygen. Artery: Capillary Vein: - Travels away from the - Goes between the - Blood travels towards heart Artery and Vein the heart - No valves - One cell thick - Prevents blood from - Very thick walls pooling in lower extremities - Thin Walls - Different BPM - Pulse: how many times your heart beats per minute - Resting Heart Rate: heart rate when resting - Maximum Heart Rate: the highest level your heart should go - Target Heart Rate Zone: Zone where we receive the exercise benefit - Recovery Heart Zone: The speed that your heart rate goes back to normal to exercise - Calculations: # of beats over 15 second span x 4 = BPM  - Heart: - Made of 3 different kinds of tissues (Cardiac Muscle, Nerve, Connective) - BPM factors - Activity Level - Stress Level - Body Temperature - General Health - Blood: - Considered connective tissue - 4 components - moves as a unit (collectively) - Plasma - Red Blood Cells - White Blood Cells - Platelets - Injured Artery = Bright Red colour - Injured Vein = Reddish-Purple - As blood exits the blood oxygenates and turns dark red Component: Description: Function: Red Blood Cell - Makes up half of our - Carries a protein blood (45%) and is called hemoglobin most abundant which allows RBC to - Shape = small transport oxygen oval-shaped organism - Hemoglobin is a (divet in middle to protein-rich carry substances) substance, giving the blood its rust colour White Blood Cell - Makes up less than - Fights infections by 1% of our blood recognizing/destroyin - The only cells that g any sort of invasive don't have a nucleus bacteria and viruses - Looks like a virus (Snake?) Platelet - Makes