Exam 3 Study Guide PDF

LO 12.1: Evolutionary, Cultural, and Learning Explanations of Aggression Definition and Types of Aggression ​ Aggression: Intentional behavior causing physical or psychological harm. ○​ Hostile aggression: Goal is harm itself. ○​ Instrumental aggression: Harm as a means to anoth...

LO 12.1: Evolutionary, Cultural, and Learning Explanations of Aggression Definition and Types of Aggression ​ Aggression: Intentional behavior causing physical or psychological harm. ○​ Hostile aggression: Goal is harm itself. ○​ Instrumental aggression: Harm as a means to another end. Evolutionary Explanations ​ Genetic Basis: ○​ Aggression aids in defending groups and ensuring genetic survival. ○​ Males often aggress due to sexual jealousy or dominance. ​ Hormonal Influences: ○​ Testosterone: Modestly linked to aggression; effect depends on context: ​ Dual-Hormone Hypothesis: Aggression tied to dominance opportunities. ​ Challenge Hypothesis: Aggression arises in mating contexts. ​ Animal Behavior: ○​ Variability in aggression among species (e.g., chimpanzees vs. bonobos). ○​ Inhibitory mechanisms suppress aggression when necessary. Cultural Explanations ​ Cultural Variability: ○​ Cooperative, collectivist cultures: Low aggression. ○​ Cultures of honor: High aggression linked to economic and social contexts. ​ Trends Over Time: ○​ Global decline in violence (e.g., war, murder, torture). ​ Gender and Cultural Norms: ○​ Men more prone to physical aggression; women, relational aggression. ○​ Provocation and societal norms influence the degree of gender differences. Learning Explanations ​ Social Cognitive Learning Theory: ○​ Aggression learned via observation and imitation. ○​ Influenced by beliefs, perceptions, and situational interpretations. LO 12.2: Situational and Social Causes of Aggression Situational Factors 1.​ Frustration–Aggression Theory:  ○​ Frustration heightens aggression, especially under illegitimate or unexpected obstacles. ○​ Relative Deprivation (feeling worse off compared to others) sparks aggression more than absolute deprivation. 2.​ Provocation and Reciprocation: ○​ Aggression often a response to being provoked. ○​ Mitigating factors can reduce this response. Social Influences 1.​ Aggressive Cues: ○​ Objects like guns can increase aggression when present in frustrating contexts. 2.​ Institutional Violence: ○​ Dehumanization and lack of empathy enable large-scale violence. ○​ Psychological distancing and moral reasoning diminish personal accountability. LO 12.3: Effects of Observing Violence Media and Aggression ​ Media Effects: ○​ Watching violence correlates with increased aggression, especially in children. ○​ Violent video games elevate hostility and diminish empathy. ​ Sexual Violence and Media: ○​ Violent pornography promotes acceptance of sexual violence, particularly in predisposed individuals. ​ Long-Term Effects: ○​ Greater exposure to media violence in childhood leads to higher aggression in adulthood. Causation Challenges: ​ Aggressive individuals may seek violent media, complicating causal interpretations. ​ External factors (e.g., violent families, abusive environments) also play a critical role. LO 12.4: Reducing Aggression Ineffective Strategies ​ Punishment: ○​ Severe punishment often fails; can model aggressive behavior. ○​ Effective only if prompt and certain.  ​ Catharsis Myth: ○​ Venting aggression intensifies, rather than reduces, future aggression. Constructive Approaches ​ Handling Anger: ○​ Techniques: Cooling off, journaling, distanced perspective, clear communication. ○​ Develop problem-solving and empathy skills. ​ Addressing Social Rejection: ○​ Programs in schools focusing on empathy, awareness, and anti-bullying improve outcomes. LO 13.1: The Three Components of Prejudice Definition of Prejudice ​ A hostile or negative attitude toward a group based solely on their membership in that group. ​ Contains cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. 1. Cognitive Component: Stereotypes ​ Stereotype: A generalized belief about a group, assigning identical traits to its members, regardless of individual differences. ○​ Positive Stereotypes: Can still be limiting and unfair (e.g., benevolent sexism). ○​ Negative Stereotypes: Maladaptive and promote discrimination. 2. Affective Component: Emotions ​ Deep-seated emotions (e.g., admiration, envy, contempt) tied to stereotypes. ​ Emotional prejudice is resistant to change because it is not easily countered by logic or facts. 3. Behavioral Component: Discrimination ​ Discrimination: Negative or harmful actions toward individuals based on group membership. ○​ Examples: ​ Institutional discrimination (e.g., biased hiring practices). ​ Microaggressions (subtle insults and put-downs). LO 13.2: Measuring Hidden Prejudices Detecting Suppressed Prejudices ​ Unobtrusive Measures: ○​ Sending out identical résumés with varied identifying details to test biases. ○​ Using the “bogus pipeline” to make participants believe their true attitudes are being measured. Detecting Implicit Prejudices ​ Implicit Association Test (IAT): ○​ Measures speed of associations between target groups and attributes. ○​ Controversial regarding what it truly reflects. LO 13.3: Effects of Prejudice on Victims Self-Fulfilling Prophecies ​ Prejudice and stereotypes can shape victims’ behavior, confirming the stereotype. Social Identity Threat ​ Anxiety caused by the activation of stereotypes about one’s group. ​ Impacts performance and well-being due to fear of being judged or devalued. LO 13.4: Causes of Prejudice 1. Conformity to Normative Rules ​ Prejudice is influenced by societal norms and institutional discrimination. ​ Normative Conformity: Desire for acceptance leads individuals to adopt societal prejudices. 2. Social Identity Theory: Us vs. Them ​ In-group Bias: Favoritism toward one’s own group. ​ Out-group Homogeneity: Perception that all members of an out-group are alike. ​ Blaming the Victim: Justifying prejudice by attributing fault to the victim. 3. Realistic Conflict Theory ​ Prejudice arises from competition over limited resources (e.g., jobs, power). ​ Scapegoating: Displacing frustration and aggression onto a visible and powerless out-group. LO 13.5: Reducing Prejudice The Contact Hypothesis ​ Bringing in-group and out-group members together can reduce prejudice, but only under certain conditions: ○​ Optimal Contact: ​ Equal status between groups. ​ Shared goals requiring cooperation. ​ Authority endorsement of interaction. ○​ Superordinate Goals: Tasks that require mutual dependence. The Jigsaw Classroom ​ Cooperative learning strategy where students from diverse backgrounds work together. ​ Benefits: ○​ Improves self-esteem and performance in minority students. ○​ Increases empathy and intergroup friendships. ○​ Reduces intergroup hostility. SPA 2.1: Defining Stress and Its Effects on Health Definition of Stress ​ Stress: Negative feelings and beliefs arising when individuals feel unable to cope with environmental demands. Impact on Health 1.​ Resilience: ○​ People are often resilient, showing only mild, temporary reactions to stress, followed by a return to normal functioning. 2.​ Negative Life Events: ○​ Stressful events can harm psychological and physical health. Studies often use the number of life stressors to predict health outcomes. 3.​ Perceived Stress: ○​ The perception of stress, not just the event itself, determines health effects. ○​ Example: Higher stress levels increase vulnerability to illnesses like colds. 4.​ Perceived Control: ○​ Stress is exacerbated when people feel a lack of control over events. ○​ External Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are beyond one’s control.  ○​ Example: Loss of control in nursing homes correlates with worse health outcomes. SPA 2.2: Coping with and Recovering from Stress Coping Styles 1.​ Fight-or-Flight: ○​ Common response to stress involving either confrontation or avoidance. 2.​ Tend-and-Befriend: ○​ Emphasizes nurturing behaviors and forming social connections. ○​ More prevalent in women but possible in everyone. Social Support ​ Definition: Perception that others are responsive to one’s needs. ​ Forms of Support: ○​ Invisible Support: Offered without explicit acknowledgment, often more effective. ○​ Visible Support: Direct and explicit, but can sometimes make recipients feel inadequate. ​ Cultural Differences: ○​ Individualistic cultures: Support is sought and appreciated explicitly. ○​ Collectivistic cultures: Support is valued when offered subtly without disclosure. Reframing ​ Coping by finding meaning in traumatic events through writing or talking. ​ Benefits: ○​ Helps reframe problems. ○​ Associated with long-term health improvements. SPA 2.3: Applying Social Psychology to Health Prevention and Behavior Change ​ Promoting Healthier Behavior: ○​ Use of social psychological techniques to influence habits. ○​ Example: Correcting misconceptions about injunctive norms (perceptions of what behaviors are approved by others). ​ Focus on proactive strategies to reduce stressors and encourage positive health practices. SPA 3.1: The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony Why Eyewitnesses Are Often Wrong 1.​ Biases in Memory Processes: ○​ Encoding: Eyewitnesses may not accurately encode details due to the unexpected nature of events. ○​ Storage and Retrieval: Errors in storing and retrieving memories can lead to inaccuracies. ○​ Own-Race Bias: ​ People recognize faces of their own race more accurately than faces of other races. ○​ Reconstructive Memory: ​ Source monitoring errors occur when individuals confuse the source of a memory (e.g., mixing what they saw with information from another source). 2.​ False Confidence and Identification: ○​ Eyewitness confidence does not always correlate with accuracy. ○​ Post-identification Feedback: ​ Praise or feedback from law enforcement can artificially increase confidence, making jurors believe the testimony is more reliable. 3.​ Recovered Memory Debate: ○​ True vs. False Memories: ​ Recovered memories can sometimes be accurate but may also result from false memory syndrome. ○​ False memories are especially likely when therapists or others suggest events that may not have occurred. Improving Eyewitness Accuracy ​ Research has informed new guidelines for police lineups: ○​ Avoid leading questions or suggestive behavior. ○​ Encourage witnesses to decide quickly (within 10 seconds) and to state their confidence levels at the time of identification. SPA 3.2: How Juries Make Decisions Jurors’ Decision-Making Process 1.​ The Story Model: ○​ Jurors create a coherent narrative or "story" from the evidence presented.  ○​ Lawyers who organize evidence into a compelling, consistent story are more persuasive. 2.​ Confessions and Interrogations: ○​ False confessions may result from coercive interrogation techniques. ○​ Video recordings can help jurors assess the validity of confessions, though the perspective matters: ​ Camera focus solely on the suspect increases the perception that the confession was voluntary. 3.​ Group Processes in Jury Deliberations: ○​ Majority Influence: ​ The majority opinion tends to prevail, as minority jurors are often pressured to conform. ○​ Social psychological principles like conformity and group polarization can shape jury verdicts. Applications of Social Psychology ​ Recognizing biases and pressures in jury dynamics helps improve trial fairness. ​ Emphasizing balanced evidence presentation and reducing undue influence during interrogations enhances decision-making accuracy.