ESS Mock DP2 (1) PDF

ESS NOTES = UNIT 1 1.1 - ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT SILENT SPRING BY RACHEL CARSON GAIA HYPOTHESIS BY JAMES LOVELOCK A book outlining the harmful effects of the pesticide DDT...

ESS NOTES = UNIT 1 1.1 - ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT SILENT SPRING BY RACHEL CARSON GAIA HYPOTHESIS BY JAMES LOVELOCK A book outlining the harmful effects of the pesticide DDT The first book to suggest that Earth is like a ‘living organism’ (a passing along food chains to top predators self-regulatory system) Led to concern about the dangers of pesticide use Showed how humanity upsets the balance of Earth’s and increased awareness of environmental pollution self-regulating processes, with deadly consequences ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE SYSTEMS (EVS’s) ➔ The way that an individual, or any group of people, perceives the environment and the resources it provides them with ○ Shaped by cultural, religious, social, political, economic and environmental factors ECOCENTRISM Philosophical approach that prioritises the value of nature and the environment over human needs and interests All living organisms and ecosystems have inherent worth and should be protected for their own sake rather than exploiting them for human benefit ○ Associated with environmental movements and conservation efforts that aim to protect biodiversity, ecosystems and natural resources ANTHROPOCENTRISM A worldview that places human beings at the centre of the universe Humans have the right to use natural resources and ecosystems for their own benefit ○ Only values preserving biodiversity when it can provide economic and ecological advantages to humans (using unsustainable practices) TECHNOCENTRISM Places technology and human ingenuity at the centre of all processes, often overlooking the impact on the environment and other living beings The use of technology to overcome environmental problems and maintain human well-being, which may lead to neglect of the need for conservation and sustainability ○ Often criticised for ignoring the complex and interconnected nature of environmental issues THEY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FURTHER CATEGORIES: DEEP ECOLOGISTS Nature is still worth something, even if it doesn’t have any obvious economic value Preserving biodiversity, sustainability and reducing human impact as a moral obligation SOFT ECOLOGISTS View individual responsibility and self-sufficiency in living sustainably as key for societies Small-scale and local solutions (self-sufficiency and personal freedom) to environmental problems ENVIRONMENTAL View the environment as a resource to be managed and conserved for human benefit MANAGERS Believe in balancing economic development with environmental protection (regulations, policies) CORNUCOPIANS View the environment as a resource to be exploited for human benefit Human ingenuity and technological advancements to overcome problems (economic growth and development to address for environmental issues) 1.2 - SYSTEMS AND MODELS SYSTEMS A way of visualising a complex set of interactions, which may be ecological, societal or economic in nature If the interactions change, the properties of the ecosystem will change too 2 MAIN WAYS OF STUDYING SYSTEMS - A reductionist approach - specific interactions in great detail A holistic approach - studying the system as a whole STORAGES AND FLOWS A system is comprised of storages and flows ○ The flows provide inputs and outputs of energy and matter 2 TYPES OF FLOWS ○ Transfers (movement) and Transformations (a change in state, chemicals, energy) TYPES OF SYSTEM There are three main types of systems. These are: 1.3 - ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIA 1 LAW OF Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another  THERMODYNAMICS The energy entering a system = energy leaving it (shown in food chains) 2 LAW OF Explains the decrease in available energy within ecosystems (entropy) THERMODYNAMICS ➔ Energy available to do work (entropy) decreases since the transfer of energy is any system is never 100% efficient ○ Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system EQUILIBRIA A state of balance occurring between the separate components of a system Open systems mainly exist in a stable equilibrium ○ Allows a system to return to its original state following a disturbance STATE EQUILIBRIA STEADY-STATE (main) STATIC EQUILIBRIUM When the system shows no major changes over a longer time There are no inputs or outputs (of energy or matter) to the period (systems in nature are in steady-state equilibrium) system and therefore the system shows no change over time No natural systems are in static equilibrium POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK Most systems involve feedback loops which allow systems to self-regulate 2 TYPES: ○ NEGATIVE - When the output of a process within a system reverses that same process, in a way that brings the system back to the start (zebra population increases) They stabilise systems ○ POSITIVE - Any mechanism in a system that leads to additional change away from the equilibrium They destabilise systems TIPPING POINTS The critical threshold within a system (difficult to predict) If it's reached, any further small change in the system will have significant knock-on effects (cause the system to move away from the equilibrium) RESILIENCE The system’s ability to maintain stability and avoid tipping points (all systems have some) Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience  1.4 - SUSTAINABILITY It is important to manage natural resources in a sustainable manner to avoid depletion, degradation, or destruction of these resources (the 3 R’s) SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Balances economic, social + environmental factors to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs in the long term ○ Renewable energy sources / Sustainable agriculture / Sustainable urban planning NATURAL CAPITAL AND NATURAL INCOME NATURAL CAPITAL Anything that comes from nature that can be used to benefit humans Fresh water, soil, fossil fuels and oxygen in the air Resources from nature that are managed by humans because they provide goods or services NATURAL INCOME The sustainable income produced by natural capital Non-renewable resources can only be used once so even if they are considered as natural capital, they cannot produce sustainable natural income ECOSYSTEM SERVICES - 4 TYPES: SUPPORTING REGULATING Essential ecological processes for supporting life A diverse set of services that shape and stabilise ecosystems Photosynthesis / Soil formation / Cycling of nutrients Flood regulation / Climate regulation / Erosion control / Disease and pest control CULTURAL PROVISIONING These services derive from humans interacting with nature in a The goods and services humans obtain from ecosystems culturally beneficial way Food / Fibres / Fuel Recreation and tourism / Education / Health benefits THE MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT WHAT WAS A major assessment of the human impact on the global environment IT - Called for by the United Nations in 2000, launched in 2001, and was published in 2005 AIMS EVALUATE: The current condition of the planet’s ecosystems and the services they provide The importance of these ecosystems to human wellbeing How we can restore, conserve and enhance the sustainable use of these ecosystems FINDINGS Last 50 years, we have changed ecosystems faster than ever, and it has led to irreversible losses of global biodiversity Substantial overall gains in wellbeing and economic development at the cost of degrading ecosystems ○ This has increased the poverty experienced by some human societies If not addressed, ecosystem degradation will reduce benefits that future generations will have from ecosystems ○ It is possible to restore ecosystems but this requires substantial changes in policies and practices  ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTS (EIA’s): WHAT IS IT A systematic process to evaluate potential environmental impacts of a proposed project and develop strategies to avoid impacts by informing decision-making to stakeholder to ensure that proposals are environmentally sustainable PROCESS 1. SCOPING - identifying the key issues to be addressed 2. BASELINE STUDIES - Collecting data on the existing environment 3. IMPACT ASSESSMENT - Evaluating the potential impacts of the project 4. MITIGATION MEASURES - Developing strategies to avoid potential impacts 5. PUBLIC CONSULTATIONS - Engaging with stakeholders and the public to gather feedback and input 6. REVIEW AND APPROVAL - Reviewing and approving the EIA by relevant authorities STRENGTHS Identify, mitigate or avoid impacts by evaluating them / Assess the indirect impacts of a proposed project / Promote public consultation and engagement LIMITATIONS Not always effective in mitigating all impacts / Only assess the potential impacts not the underlying social, economic, or political systems that may contribute to these impacts / Expensive / Time-consuming REDUCING ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS Ecological Footprints (EFs) measure the impact of human activities on the environment ○ Calculate area of land/water needed to sustain a population (hectares per person) Take into account food consumption, transportation, and energy use ○ Used to compare the sustainability of different lifestyles, businesses, and even whole countries 1.5 - HUMANS AND POLLUTION THE NATURE OF POLLUTION POLLUTION - the introduction of harmful substances or agents into the environment that cannot be rendered harmless at a rate that is greater than the rate of their release ○ Natural or human in origin ○ Intentional or unintentional SOURCES: Natural, Domestic waste, Agriculture, Transport, Industry, Energy production SOLUTIONS: Altering human activity, Controlling releases, Clean up and restoration of damaged systems TYPES OF POLLUTION POINT OR NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION - comes from a single identifiable source or a dispersed source PERSISTENT OR BIODEGRADABLE POLLUTION - does not degrade or break down quickly or breaks down by natural processes ACUTE OR CHRONIC EFFECTS OF POLLUTION - in a high concentration for a short period of time or over a long period of time in lower concentrations PRIMARY OR SECONDARY POLLUTION - directly emitted into the environment or form when primary pollutants undergo physical or chemical reactions in the atmosphere EFFECTS OF USING DDT (CONTROVERSIAL) ➔ Widely used (1940s-1970s) until it was banned due to its environmental & health impacts - Controls insect-borne human diseases but has horrible environmental impacts ➔ Through biomagnification, DDT concentration in the tissues of organisms increases at higher trophic levels in a food chain UNIT 2 2.1 - SPECIES AND POPULATIONS ➔ SPECIES - A group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed to produce fertile offspring ➔ HABITAT - The environment in which a species normally lives (biotic and abiotic factors) ➔ NICHE - set of abiotic and biotic factors to which an organism or population responds ○ REALISED - the specific factors for that species ○ FUNDAMENTAL - fundamental factors that keep niches alive ➔ BIOTIC FACTORS - The interactions between the organisms within a community ➔ COMPETITION - Intraspecific competition (competition between members of the same species that lower the carrying capacity) or interspecific competition (competition between members of different species lower carrying capacity in one or both species) ➔ PREDATION- When one animal eats another (Herbivory and Parasitism) ➔ LIMITING FACTORS - factors that restrict the growth of a population ➔ MUTUALISM - A relationship between species is one in which both species benefit Bees and many species of flowering plants ➔ DISEASE - Pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa) are organisms that cause diseases Lower the carrying capacity of the species that the pathogens infect POPULATION GROWTH -Describe generalised responses of populations to a particular set of conditions Both curves show how populations grow and reach a carrying capacity The S-curve occurs in a limited environment, while the J-curve occurs in an unlimited environment The S-curve represents logistic growth, while the J-curve represents exponential growth The S-curve eventually levels off at the carrying capacity, while the J-curve continues to increase until a limiting factor is encountered The S-curve is more common in nature, while the J-curve is less common and is often observed in laboratory conditions 2.2 - COMMUNITIES & ECOSYSTEMS ➔ INDIVIDUAL - A single member of a species ➔ POPULATION - Individuals of the same species, habitat & time ➔ COMMUNITY - Different populations living & interacting in the same area ➔ ENVIRONMENT - The interaction between abiotic and biotic parts of the environment ➔ PHOTOSYNTHESIS - CO2 + H2O -> C6H12O6 + 02 (RESPIRATION OTHER WAY) TROPHIC LEVELS 1) PRODUCERS: Plants and algae – produce their own biomass using energy from sunlight 2) PRIMARY CONSUMERS - Herbivores – feed on producers 3) SECONDARY CONSUMERS - Predators – feed on primary consumers  a) DECOMPOSERS carry out a very important function in ecosystems - they break down dead plant and animal material and help to release organic nutrients back into the environment (gaining the chemical energy stored in the dead matter) PYRAMIDS OF NUMBERS - How many there are (not always pyramid shaped) PYRAMIDS OF BIOMASS- The amount of biomass present at each trophic level ○ The animals are dried before weighing (humans 70% water) PYRAMIDS OF PRODUCTIVITY - They show the flow of energy through trophic levels, indicating the rate at which that energy is being generated BIOACCUMULATION - The build-up of persistent or non-biodegradable pollutants within an organism or trophic level because they cannot be broken down BIOMAGNIFICATION - The increase in the concentration of persistent or non-biodegradable pollutants along a food chain 2.3 - FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATTER PATHWAYS OF ENERGY ENTERING THE ATMOSPHERE - Sun GROSS PRIMARY The rate at which plants are able to store chemical energy via photosynthesis PRODUCTIVITY Units of energy per unit area per unit time or in units of mass per unit area per unit time NET PRIMARY The rate at which energy is stored in plant biomass PRODUCTIVITY Net primary productivity (NPP) is the GPP minus plant respiratory losses (R) GROSS SECONDARY The total energy/biomass assimilated by consumers PRODUCTIVITY GSP = food eaten - faecal loss NET SECONDARY Calculated by subtracting respiratory losses (R) from GSP PRODUCTIVITY THE CARBON CYCLE Carbon is constantly being recycled around the biosphere so that the number of carbon atoms in the biosphere is essentially constant  THE NITROGEN CYCLE Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere, though it is relatively inert. It does have a role in biology thanks to its ability to be converted (fixed) into biomass 2.4 - BIOMES, ZONATION AND SUCCESSION BIOMES - Large-scale ecological communities Five major classes: AQUATIC - an ecosystem found in and around a body of water ○ Marine - rocky shore, coral reefs ○ Freshwater - swamp forest, lakes and ponds FOREST / GRASSLAND / DESERT / TUNDRA As the global climate changes, the distribution of biomes is shifting. RANGE SHIFTS - when species move to new areas to find suitable conditions as their current habitats become less hospitable BIOME TYPE CHANGES - when a biome transitions to a different type, such as a forest becoming a savanna or a tundra becoming a forest ZONATION How an ecosystem changes across an environmental gradient (it changes because of niches - fundamental or realised): ○ Altitude / Latitude / Temperature / Moisture / Light As these factors change, the species present in an ecosystem also change, ○ This process occurs due to the interactions between the physical environment and the biological components of an ecosystem SUCCESSION - How an ecosystem changes over time Bare ground or water - hydrosere (primary succession) / rapid natural disaster (secondary succession) PRIMARY --------------> SECONDARY FROM STAGE 2 CHANGES OCCURRING DURING SUCCESSION - Energy flow (increase) - GP and NP (increase) - Diversity (increase) - Mineral cycling - the movement of nutrients through an ecosystem (more complex) REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES: Density-dependent Factors - competition, predation, parasitism, and disease Density-independent - floods, fires, pollution, deforestation HUMAN IMPACT ON SUCCESSION - Burning, deforestation, agriculture ➔ They can have direct (controlled fire) or indirect effects (reducing minerals in the soil of nearby areas) 2.5 - INVESTIGATING THE ECOSYSTEM STUDYING ECOSYSTEMS IDENTIFYING ECOSYSTEMS: Involves naming and locating an ecosystem for clarity and comparison (e.g., Amazon Rainforest and Serengeti).  ORGANISM IDENTIFICATION: ○ Herbariums: Used to compare preserved specimens against live samples for identification. ○ DNA Profiling: Extracts DNA to compare with known sequences in databases. ○ Dichotomous Keys: A flowchart-like tool with binary choices that lead to the identification of species. (Gredos) MEASURING COMPONENTS ABIOTIC BIOTIC Light Intensity: Measured with a light metre. Quadrats: Used for estimating species abundance by Temperature: Thermometers, affected by time and placing a square frame on the ground to count single-point limitations. non-motile species like plants. Wind Speed: Anemometers, variable with gusty Mark-Release-Recapture (GREDOS): conditions. Dissolved Oxygen: Oxygen metres, affected by temperature and salinity. pH and Soil Moisture: pH metres and moisture probes, needing calibration. SPECIES RICHNESS & DIVERSITY Species Richness vs. Diversity: Richness is simply the count of species, while diversity considers abundance using Simpson's Diversity Index (includes species count & evenness) ○ ESTIMATING BIOMASS & ENERGY OF TROPHIC LEVELS Dry Mass: Samples are dried to estimate biomass, usually by dehydrating plants. Controlled Combustion: A calorimeter measures the energy released from biomass combustion, useful for calculating ecosystem energy flow. MEASURING CHANGES IN ECOSYSTEMS Sampling Types: Random Sampling or Systematic Sampling (transects: line or belt) Data Representation with Kite Diagrams: -----> ○ Visualise distribution and abundance along a central line.  UNIT 3 3.1 - AN INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY BIODIVERSITY - a study of all the variation that exists within and between all forms of life (very important for the resilience of ecosystems) The number and range of different ecosystems and habitats The number of species and their relative abundance The genetic variation within each species HABITAT DIVERSITY - the range of different habitats within a particular ecosystem or biome SPECIES DIVERSITY - the number of different species in an ecosystem and the evenness of abundance across the different species present GENETIC DIVERSITY - the diversity of genes found within different individuals of a species This makes it possible for genetic diversity to occur between populations of the same species or even within a single population (alergias, celiaquia) DIVERSITY INDICES - Mathematical tools used to quantify the diversity of species within a community (measure of the variety of species present, as well as their relative abundances) LOW DIVERSITY = pollution, eutrophication and recent colonisation of a site SIMPSON'S INDEX = Measure of the dominance of a few species within a community calculated based on the probability that two individuals selected at random from the community belong to the same species - CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY - The quantification of biodiversity helps identify areas of high biodiversity and guide appropriate conservation measures to protect them Identifying areas of high biodiversity - prioritised for conservation efforts since they are likely to have unique and important ecological roles Exploration and research - conducted to better understand the biodiversity of the area (surveys of flora and fauna, habitat assessments, and studies on ecological interactions) Conservation planning - targeted towards specific threats such as habitat fragmentation, invasive species, and over-harvesting Monitoring - monitoring changes in species composition, habitat quality, and ecosystem services over time Evaluation - strategies can be adjusted and improved to better protect biodiversity 3.2 - ORIGINS OF BIODIVERSITY BIODIVERSITY ARISES FROM EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES - Arises randomly and can be beneficial, damaging or have no impact on, the survival of the individual natural selection  Individuals that have the best adaptations are more likely to survive/reproduce but survival is not guaranteed - (Charles Darwin, known as ‘survival of the fittest’) THE ROLE OF ISOLATION IN FORMING NEW SPECIES SPECIATION = the development of new species from pre-existing species over time - two populations of the same species must be genetically isolated from each other in some way due to geographical isolation ○ When this happens, they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring; speciation has occurred (no gene plough) PLATE ACTIVITY The surface of the Earth is divided into crystals, tectonic plates that have moved throughout geological time (plate margin - meeting between 2 plates) ○ The Earth's crust is broken into 15 large tectonic plates and a number of smaller ones CONSTRUCTIVE (DIVERGENT) PLATE MARGIN Plates are moving apart (The Mid Atlantic Ridge) ○ Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can occur at this type of plate boundaries DESTRUCTIVE (CONVERGENT) PLATE MARGIN Plates are moving together The denser, heavier oceanic plate subducts under the kkkkkk lighter, less dense continental plate Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can occur at this kkkkkk type of plate boundary COLLISION PLATE MARGIN At a collision boundary two plates of similar density move towards each other (earthquakes) ○ Neither is dense enough to subduct so the land is pushed upwards this forms mountains EVOLUTIONARY CONSEQUENCES OF TECTONIC PLATE MOVEMENT Land bridges & physical barriers, Change in climate and food supply, Genetic isolation: MASS EXTINCTIONS Caused by Tectonic plate movements, Super-volcanic eruptions, Climatic changes (including drought and ice ages), Meteorite impacts Name Time Period Causes Results for Biodiversity Ordovician-Silurian 443-485M GLACIATIONS caused a global cooling 85% of marine species years ago Sea-level fall were lost contraction of shallow h2o habitats The extinction of extinction of marine life brachiopods led to the reduction in oxygen levels evolution of the bivalves widespread oceanic anoxia. afterwards Late Devonian 364-375M CLIMATE CHANGE bc of the spread of land plants 70% of marine species years ago reduced the amount of CO2 were lost global cooling decline in sea levels widespread marine extinction. Permian-Triassic 251M years MASSIVE VOLCANIC activity in Siberia 96% of marine species ago released huge amounts of greenhouse gases were lost causing global warming 70% of terrestrial oceanic anoxia vertebrate species lost ocean acidification. End of the Paleozoic Era Beginning of the Mesozoic Era. Triassic-Jurassic 199-214M CLIMATE CHANGE caused by massive volcanic activity 50% of marine species years ago global warming were lost decline in sea levels Many terrestrial species widespread marine extinction were also lost resulting loss of habitat Paved the way for the changes in temperature and precipitation, diversification of the extinction of many terrestrial species. dinosaurs after Cretaceous-Paleoge 65M years ago ASTEROID to the Yucatan Peninsula + massive 75% of all species were ne VOLCANIC activity in India lost global cooling (widespread wildfires) acid rain global tsunami triggered earthquakes changes in temperature and precipitation resulting loss of habitat 3.3 - THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY ESTIMATING NUMBERS OF SPECIES CHALLENGES OF ESTIMATING SPECIES NUMBERS Current global species estimation: 5 to 10 million species. Variation due to classification issues (new species found) As of December 2022: +2.16 M. Under-sampling of groups due to difficulty studying Factors affecting species estimation: Limited access and funding to remote and inaccessible ○ Classification issues habitats ○ Limited funding for research Differences in taxonomic opinions  ○ Restricted access to remote habitats CURRENT SPECIES LOSS Current rates of species loss are greater now due to human influence (population growth on Earth since the 18th Century) such as: ○ Habitat destruction / Introducing invasive species / Pollution / Overharvesting / Hunting / Industrialisation TROPICAL BIOMES Found in a band between 15° north & south of the equator within the equatorial climate zone Amazon, Central america, Central africa, Indio-Malaysia HIGH BIODIVERSITY The wet and warm climate means there is year-round growth Wide variety of plants provides a range of habitats and food Rapid nutrient cycling increases plant growth Lack of human activity in the past - plants and animals have remained undisturbed THREATS Agriculture, particularly large scale slash and burn / Mining / Hydroelectric power / Logging Road building and settlements / Wildfires (+ frequency linked to climate change) THREATS TO AREAS OF BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE CORAL REEFS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA EASTERN HIMALAYAS Overfishing, pollution, and climate change, warming Unique plant and animal species not found elsewhere. and acidification of oceans, economic interests like Deforestation for agriculture, timber, fuelwood and tourism and fishing pose significant threats to these poaching and hunting (rhinos, snow leopards) reefs ○ habitat loss and fragmentation as well as an ○ Depleting fish populations, less water quality, increase in climate change.. stresses corals, Coral bleaching and death. Economic development and poverty reduction are Establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) is one important but often come at the expense of approach to mitigate conflicts and protect coral reef environmental protection. ○ Depends on effective management and ○ Sustainability efforts face resistance from enforcement, which can be challenging. powerful interest groups DETERMINING CONSERVATION STATUS The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the global authority on the conservation status of species around the world of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it (own classification system) Factors used to determine the conservation status of a population include: ○ Population size / Degree of specialisation / Distribution / Reproductive potential / Geographic range / Degree of habitat fragmentation / Quality of habitat / High Trophic level / Probability of extinction / Degree of endemicity (i.e. if the species is only found in a single specific area) EXTINCT, CRITICALLY ENDANGERED & IMPROVING SPECIES  EXTINCT TASMANIAN TIGER: A carnivorous marsupial (Australian island of Tasmania) killed by hunting, habitat loss, and disease transmission by introduced species - last died in captivity in 1936 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED BLACK RHINOCEROS: A large mammal (Africa) critically endangered due to poaching for their horns, habitat loss, and civil unrest in their countries - declined by over 90% since the 1960s (5,500 individuals remaining in the wild) IMPROVING SPECIES BALD EAGLE: A bird of prey (North America) once on the brink of extinction due to habitat destruction, hunting, and pesticide use, which caused eggshell thinning and reproductive failure - less than 500 pairs in the 1960s to over 10,000 pairs today 3.4 - CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY PRESERVING BIODIVERSITY REASON EXPLANATION ETHICAL Humans have a responsibility to reduce their impact on the planet and other species ECOLOGICAL Biodiversity increases the stability of ecosystems ENVIRONMENTAL Organisms provide essential environmental services (water cycle, nutrient cycle, absorption of CO2) ECONOMIC A range of organisms contribute to medicine, ecotourism, science and technology AESTHETIC Humans take pleasure from the visual effects of biodiversity AGRICULTURAL Genetically diverse wild species can rescue crops from catastrophes CONSERVATION ORGANISATIONS & INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS IGOs NGOs WHAT ARE THEY Inter-Governmental Organisation Non-governmental Organisations EXAMPLES USE OF MEDIA Larger traditional media presence (News, TV, More successful in using media to promote their Radio) causes - Disseminate information and raise - Social and digital media to disseminate awareness about environmental issues. info and raise awareness about issues. SPEED OF Slower to respond due to bureaucratic Respond quickly to issues due to their flexible RESPONSES processes and decision-making. structures and ability to mobilise resources quickly. - Capacity to launch large-scale - Limited responses in scale and scope. responses once decisions are made. DIPLOMATIC Constrained by diplomatic considerations Not constrained by diplomatic considerations and CONSTRAINTS (dealing politically sensitive issues globally) may be more able to have controversial opinions  FINANCIAL Greater financial resources due to Rely on donations and fundraising for their RESOURCES contributions from countries and other sources financial resources, which can be more limited. POLITICAL Greater political influence due to the Less political influence than IGOs, but they can INFLUENCES involvement of countries and their ability to often mobilise public opinion and pressure make decisions and set policies globally decisionmakers to take action. ENFORCEABILITY Develop and enforce international laws and No authority to enforce laws or agreements but agreements, but enforcement can be limited by can advocate for their implementation and the willingness of member countries to comply. monitor compliance. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS - Create international collaboration for conservation THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD) - Signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. GOALS: The conservation of biological diversity by use of a variety of different conservation methods The sustainable use of biological resources The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources THE CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FLORA AND FAUNA (CITES) - Signed by over 150 countries Control the trade of endangered species and their associated products (categorises species) ○ APPENDIX I: species that face the greatest risk of extinction (Red panda) All trade in the species and their associated products is banned ○ APPENDIX II: species that are not currently endangered, but will be unless trade is closely controlled (Venus fly trap) Trade is only granted if an export permit has been issued by the countries ○ APPENDIX III: species included at the request of the country trying to prevent its overexploitation (Two-toed sloth in Costa Rica) Permits are required for regulated trade. Permits are easy to get in appendix 3 Concerns about the efficacy of CITES listings: ○ When the trade of species becomes illegal, its price increases ○ Increased economic value of the species = major incentive for people to break the law THE NAGOYA PROTOCOL - Nagoya, 2010, entered into force in 2014 Ensure the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources, with the goal of promoting the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity ○ Addresses: access to genetic resources, benefit-sharing, and compliance with national laws and international agreements CONSERVATION APPROACHES - Aim to protect biodiversity and ecosystems for the benefit of present and future generations HABITAT CONSERVATION The protection and management of ecosystems and habitats and the recognition that the survival of many species is dependent on the preservation of their habitat (great barrier reef) SPECIES-BASED The protection and management of individual species and the recognition of the importance CONSERVATION of individual species to the functioning of ecosystems, or sometimes is used to protect iconic flagship species (Giant Pandas) MIXED APPROACH TO A combination of habitat and species-based conservation strategies (African elephant) CONSERVATION tailored to the specific needs of the ecosystem or species being protected. It is the most effective in achieving conservation goals DESIGNING PROTECTED AREAS - A defined space that is managed and protected for the conservation of its natural resources, biodiversity, and cultural heritage Established by national governments, international organisations, or private entities Various levels of protection and management, from nature reserves where human activities are strictly prohibited, to multiple-use areas where certain human activities are permitted Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas include: ○ SIZE - Large enough to maintain viable populations of target species ○ SHAPE - Irregular shapes that follow natural features like rivers and ridges can provide better connectivity and increase the potential for ecological processes. ○ CORRIDORS - They can facilitate the movement of organisms and allow for gene flow between populations ○ BUFFER ZONE - having a buffer zone is preferable ○ PROXIMITY TO POTENTIAL HUMAN INFLUENCE - Close to human settlements or infrastructure may be subject to habitat destruction, pollution, and hunting SPECIES-BASED CONSERVATION STRATEGIES CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES (CITES) CAPTIVE BREEDING AND REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMMES AND ZOOS - captive breeding is the process of breeding animals in controlled environments SELECTION OF FLAGSHIP SPECIES TO HELP PROTECT OTHERS IN AN AREA - Used as symbols for conservation efforts and can help to raise awareness and support efforts SELECTION OF KEYSTONE SPECIES TO PROTECT THE INTEGRITY OF A FOOD WEB - Removal causes changes in the ecosystem, including the loss of other species COMPARING CONSERVATION APPROACHES CONSERVATION STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS APPROACH PROTECTED Direct protection to habitats and species Limited land availability and enforcement AREAS Promotes ecotourism and research Displacing indigenous populations? Aid in restoration and rehabilitation efforts Subject to illegal poaching and logging Offer ecosystem to surrounding areas Expensive CITES Regulates international trade of endangered Difficult to monitor trade in remote areas Framework for international cooperation Expensive (recourses) Protects biodiversity by preventing Some countries may not enforce overexploitation Doesn’t address habitat loss ZOOS Last resort for critically endangered species Limited genetic diversity - small Raise awareness and educate the public population size (limited capacity) Allow for research Experience stress & unsuitable for captive Safe and controlled environment for breeding breeding Expensive CAPTIVE Increase the population size and genetic Not address underlying threats to species BREEDING AND diversity of endangered species Expensive REINTRODUCTIO Restoration of ecosystems and food webs Success may depend on habitat availability N PROGRAMS Study species' behaviour and quality UNIT 4 4.1 - INTRODUCTION TO WATER SYSTEMS THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE A closed system where water is recycled around ○ Total global water -> freshwater -> surface water = 0.03% Storages, transfers or transformations HUMANS AFFECT surface run-off and infiltration Deforestation, agriculture, urbanisation OCEAN CIRCULATION - systems driven by differences in temperature and salinity of the water that causes circulation due to the differences in density, moving heat around the world Cold water to the equator and warm to the poles ○ Triggered by surface winds and convection currents know as thermohaline circulation 4.2 - ACCESS TO FRESH WATER ISSUES FACTORS AFFECTING ACCESS TO FRESH WATER: ➔ Geographic Location: Near rivers/lakes or with high rainfall have better access to fresh water ➔ Climate: High precipitation regions generally have abundant water, whereas dry areas suffer ➔ Topography: Mountainous areas benefit from glaciers, while flat areas struggle ➔ Population Density: Higher density increases water demand, often leading to scarcity. ➔ Infrastructure: Well-developed systems (dams, canals) improve access ➔ Economic Development: Wealthier nations can invest more in water systems ➔ Political Stability: Effective governance supports better water management CHALLENGES FACING FRESH WATER ACCESS: ➔ Climate Change: Alters rainfall patterns, increases droughts, and threatens water availability. ➔ Population Growth and Industrialization: Higher demand for agriculture/industry stresses water resources. ➔ Contamination: Pollution from industrial and agricultural runoff contaminates water sources. ➔ Unsustainable Abstraction: Overuse of water sources leads to depletion and ecological harm. SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF FRESHWATER: 1. Enhancing Supplies: Reservoirs, Redistribution, Desalination, Artificial Recharge, Rainwater Harvesting 2. Conservation and Efficiency: Promoting efficient water use and recycling to reduce demand. 3. Sustainable Agriculture: Using precision irrigation/crop rotation to minimise consumption 4. Ecosystem Protection: Preserving wetlands and forests to support water quality 4.3 - WATER AND AQUATIC FOOD CONSUMPTION DEMAND FOR AQUATIC FOOD RESOURCES: 1. Population Growth: Increasing global population raises demand for seafood. 2. Dietary Shifts: Economic growth and urbanisation lead to higher protein consumption 3. Nutritional Value: Seafood provides essential nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids.  4. Aquaculture Expansion: Growth in aquaculture meets rising seafood demand (reduces pressure on wild fish stocks) AQUACULTURE: The farming of aquatic organisms in controlled environments. Finfish, shellfish, shrimp, seaweed, and algae farming. Supports food security, economic growth, and reduces reliance on wild fish populations. Habitat loss, pollution, diseases, escaped species, ethical concerns FISHING PRACTICES UNSUSTAINABLE SUSTAINABLE Overfishing: Leads to declining fish stocks and Quotas and mesh size regulations. disrupts marine ecosystems. Banning harmful fishing methods (gillnets) and Illegal Fishing: Despite regulations, illegal fishing promoting sustainable alternatives (trolling) persists due to high profits Supporting aquaculture as a controlled means of seafood production to alleviate pressure on wild stocks. 4.4 - WATER POLLUTION SOURCES AND TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION: Organic Material: Causes eutrophication Inorganic Nutrients (Nitrates and Phosphates): Causes eutrophication Toxic Metals: Such as mercury and lead from industrial sources, harmful to health. Synthetic Compounds: Includes pesticides and pharmaceuticals, impacting aquatic life. Suspended Solids: Sediment from erosion and construction, affecting water clarity. Thermal Pollution: Hot water from industrial processes can reduce oxygen levels. Oil and Radioactive Pollution: Spills and leaks harm ecosystems and human health. Pathogens: From sewage, causing waterborne diseases. Light and Noise: Disrupt marine organisms’ behaviours and habitats (whales) Invasive Species: Non-native species disrupt ecosystems and outcompete native species. MEASURING WATER QUALITY: pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, metal concentrations, and nutrient levels. Biochemical Oxygen Demand measures O2 required for decomposition to indicate pollution ○ Indicator species: Bloodworms = pollution / stonefly nymphs = clean water. EUTROPHICATION. Caused by excessive nutrients leading to algal blooms, reduced sunlight, and oxygen depletion, creating dead zones. POLLUTION MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES: 1. Reducing pollutant sources: Encouraging eco-friendly products and awareness 2. Controlling Emissions: Implementing wastewater treatment and industrial regulations 3. Remediation and Restoration: Restoring ecosystems through filtration and re-vegetation  UNIT 5 5.1 - INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SYSTEMS SOIL - A mixture of mineral particles and organic material in the pedosphere, supporting terrestrial plant growth made up of minerals, organic material, gases, and liquid. Horizons: Levels formed by mineral movement (not all have A,B,C) SOIL TEXTURES SANDY: Gritty, easily falls apart. CLAY: Sticky, easily moulded. LOAM: Ideal for agriculture. SOIL PROPERTIES POROSITY: Space between particles. PERMEABILITY: Ease of gas and liquid passage. ACIDIFICATION: Acid rain impacts soil and forestry. Fertile Soil is non-renewable - main nutrients: Nitrates, Phosphates, Potassium N: Leaf and stem growth / P: Root system development / K: Flower and fruit production. SOIL TEXTURE TRIANGLES - A graphical tool used to classify soil types based on their relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay (based on their particle size distribution) High % of SAND = LARGE particles = good drainage but lower water and nutrient holding capacity High % of SILT = MEDIUM properties - balance between drainage and water-holding capacity High % of CLAY = SMALLER particles - higher water and nutrient retention but slower drainage 5.2 - TERRESTRIAL FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS & FOOD CHOICES INEQUALITIES & FOOD WASTE Population is increasing by over 80 million people each year 1. Growing demand for food (Increase in world food prices) 2. Middle and high income countries, contribute to inequalities in food production (+ meat) 3. Changes in oil prices impact food production, distribution, climate change, natural disasters 4. Government policies and trade agreements can either support or hinder food production 5. Climate / Culture / Socio-economic factors affect food choice TYPES OF FARMING SYSTEMS SUBSISTENCE Provision of food by farmers for their community or family - No surplus - Low inputs of energy: they are unlikely to produce more than they need COMMERCIAL Large, profit making scale - Monoculture or of one type of animal - High levels of technology EXTENSIVE & INTENSIVE Extensive: more use of land with lower density Intensive: uses intensive amount off land with higher input TERRESTRIAL VS. AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC Usually harvested at first (crops) or second trophic Mostly from higher trophic levels level Less efficient than terrestrial because of lack of balance Meat comes from primary consumers (pig, chicken) in consumption from trophic levels INCREASING SUSTAINABILITY OF TERRESTRIAL FOOD PRODUCTION CHANGING HUMAN Reduce meat consumption and increase consumption of organic, locally produced terrestrial food products: BEHAVIOURS Promoting plant-based diets & supporting organic and local food production IMPROVING FOOD CLEAR LABELLING OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS LABELS: indicating carbon footprint, water LABEL ACCURACY footprint, or eco-certifications PROMOTING TRANSPARENCY IN SUPPLY CHAINS: indicating the country of origin, fair trade certifications, or information on sustainable sourcing practices MONITORING AND SETTING REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS: On pesticide use, sustainable farming practices, CONTROLLING FOOD monitoring compliance through inspections and certifications STANDARDS AND SUPPORTING SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE PROGRAMS: government-funded programs offering PRACTICES financial assistance to farmers transitioning to sustainable farming methods MAXIMISING YIELD Absorb nutrient run-off to reduce environmental impacts: CREATING VEGETATIVE BUFFER STRIPS: grasses, native plants, or trees along rivers, lakes, REDUCE FOOD LEDC: waste mostly in production and storage (eg: no refrigeration, lack of good storage) WASTE MEDC: mostly in consumption → buying more than what's needed, strict visual supermarkets REDUCE FOOD Decreases use of transport and packaging (ex: plastic, fuel, etc. - overall decrease in energy PROCESSING use) 5.3 - SOIL DEGRADATION & CONSERVATION SOIL DEGRADATION - Chemicals entering soil which render soil useless in the long run Usually human activities DEFORESTATION Removal of vegetation cover (topsoil) exposing the soil to wind and water erosion Disrupting the nutrient cycling process as decaying matter contribute to nutrient rent plenishment OVERGRAZING Removal of vegetation (exposing the soil to erosion and compaction)  Reduces water infiltration and nutrient availability & cycling (animals remove vegetation and disrupt deposition) URBANISATION Reduces the vegetative cover (increased runoff and soil erosion) Soil becomes compacted due to construction activities Higher pollution level which can impact soil fertility and microbial communities AGRICULTURAL SOIL SALINISATION - Accumulation of salts in the soil reduces its fertility and slows plant growth PROCESSES MONOCULTURE - Depletes specific nutrients from the soil and leads to imbalances in nutrient availability and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases EXCESSIVE FERTILISER USE: Nutrient imbalances and water pollution due to leaching and disrupting the natural nutrient cycling processes in the soil SOIL EROSION - Eroded soil loses its fertility as the topsoil, which contains organic matter and nutrients, is washed or blown away COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIALISED FOOD PRODUCTION - Reduce soil fertility more than small-scale subsistence farming methods OVERCROPPING Depletes soil nutrients and makes soil dry (hence risk of erosion) Reduces soil fertility SOIL EROSION - when there is no vegetation in the soil SHEET WASH Surface soil washed away during storm periods/landslides GULLYING Channels developing on hillsides after rainfall; become deeper over time WIND EROSION Drier soils are removed from the surface from high winds SOIL CONSERVATION - Crucial role in maintaining the health and productivity of our soils SOIL CONDITIONING: Adding organic materials to improve soil + soil fertility, water holding capacity, microbial ORGANIC MATERIALS structure and nutrient content activity, overall soil health SOIL CONDITIONING: Adding lime to adjust pH and lower acidity + nutrient availability, and microbial activity, LIME healthier plant growth WIND REDUCTION: Planting rows of trees perpendicular to winds Physical barrier, - soil erosion, protecting, wind WIND BREAKS to reduce wind speed and deflect airflow damage WIND REDUCTION: Planting multiple rows of trees or shrubs in a Effective wind protection by redirecting wind, SHELTERBELTS staggered pattern to create a windbreak - soil erosion, protects crops, + biodiversity in the system surrounding area CULTIVATION: Levelled steps on sloped lands to reduce + water infiltration into the soil, - runoff, - erosion TERRACING erosion CULTIVATION: Ploughing parallel to the contour lines of the - length and speed of water flow downhill, CONTOUR PLOUGHING land instead of up and down slopes - erosion, + water infiltration into the soil CULTIVATION: STRIP Planting crops in strips across the slope, Trapping water, - runoff, - erosion, + infiltration, CULTIVATION leaving natural vegetation between strips + crop production in the cultivated strips AVOIDING MARGINAL No agricultural activities on marginal lands Protects fragile ecosystems, - soil degradation, LANDS with unsuitable soil conditions + valuable resources