Environmental Impacts Notes Slides PDF

Exam information **Exam Details:** - The exam will consist of **25 multiple-choice questions**. - **No penalties** will be applied for incorrect answers. **What to Study:** 1. **Causes and effects** of the different impact categories discussed in class. 2. Key **definitions and conce...

Exam information **Exam Details:** - The exam will consist of **25 multiple-choice questions**. - **No penalties** will be applied for incorrect answers. **What to Study:** 1. **Causes and effects** of the different impact categories discussed in class. 2. Key **definitions and concepts** presented during the course. 3. **Planetary boundaries:** Understand the links between planetary boundaries and the impact categories we've studied. 4. **[Microplastics](https://ecampus.bsm.upf.edu/mod/resource/view.php?id=315611), biodiversity, and biotechnology:** At least one question will focus on each of these sessions. 5. **Slides from Cristina O'Callaghan and Alba Reguant**: also questions related to those sessions will be included. **Regarding Numbers:** - Focus on understanding the magnitude of **big numbers** rather than memorizing exact data from graphs or figures. **Not Required:** - You don't need to study the **case studies** shown in class. - Memorization of all specific numbers or details from the graphs is not necessary. Session 1 ========= - Water in natural conditions, tent to maintain itself clean, even being submitted to external pressions to detriment it\'s quality (fall of organic matter: trees, death animals, leaves...) - The quality of water is maintained due to the existence of mechanisms to re-establish the altered equilibrium. - As the organic remains fall and settle to the bottom, they are attacked by certain microorganisms that grow at their expense and decompose them with the help of oxygen dissolved in the water. - In this way, organic matter becomes inert; and the spent oxygen is replenished by diluting fresh gas from the atmosphere. - -\> self-purification process - This process works as long as the concentration of organic matter to decompose is not excessive and sufficient oxygen is available. - When there is a very high quantity and the microorganisms proliferate until the oxygen is depleted, the self-purification capacity is exceeded and other microorganisms that do not use the oxygen begin to act and cause the rotting of the fallen remains of the river, giving fetid odors (rotten eggs) due to sulfur oxide emissions. -\> **This environmental impact is called EUTROPHICATION.** - At this point, the water loses its natural conditions that make it suitable for drinking; and due to the lack of oxygen, there is a decrease in living beings (plants and animals) in it. **Eutrophication** Plants require several things to grow, like water, sunlight, and CO2, but they also need a variety of nutrients, such as **nitrogen (N2) and phosphorus (P4)**. Usually, plants will get all the required nutrients from the soil through their roots. But when the soil is bad, or there's been a lot of erosion or leaching, farmers, or even just people trying to make their green, will put down **fertilizer.** Fertilizer: What makes fertilizer so fertile is that it's been enriched with these nutrients that the plants need -- again, mostly fixed nitrogen and phosphorus. But plants aren't the best at soaking up every last nutrient in the soil, and it's also hard to gauge just how much fertilizer a field needs, as soil quality can vary drastically over short distances. To be safe, farmers will usually apply excess fertilizer to a given plot of land. But instead of staying in the soil for years, most of the excess nutrients will be carried away by the rain or other forms of irrigation. These nutrients mix with the water and find their way into bodies of water like ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and even the oceans sometimes. With all these nutrients added, the algae, phytoplankton, and even plants in the water to do the same thing that crops in the field do: they grow (algae, phytoplankton, plants). Well actually, they explode in numbers. This is called an 'algal bloom', and entire lakes can become covered in layers of plant growth like this. This looks good, plants are good for the environment right? NO NOT Always First off, this floating layer of algae forms basically an impenetrable roof on the water, not allowing sunlight through to the bottom of the lake. Without the presence of sunlight, all plants below the surface cannot partake in photosynthesis. Like metabolize, make glucose. But not even this is the bad part of it. Many plants can store enough energy in their bodies to wait out these conditions. The real problem comes when all the nutrients are used up and the water can no longer support so much life. When this happens, the excess algae, phytoplankton, and plants die off and sink to the bottom of the body of water. Here, bacteria and other decomposers feast on the dead bodies in a chemical process of decay which consumes oxygen. Now, in a usual ecosystem the amount of dead matter is relatively constant, so oxygen levels stay relatively constant as well. But when a bloom occurs, far more organic matter is ready to decompose, and so nearly all the oxygen in the water is used in the process of decomposition. And none is left for the animals living in the water. Without this, animals that use the dissolved oxygen to breathe (like fish), can actually suffocate. This causes even more death, leading to more decomposition and more oxygen usage. Basically, at this point, a positive feedback loop has been created. It can take a body of water a very long time to recover, though each one is different, and recovery depends on a lot of things, like how many nutrients leaked into the water, how big the body of water is, what organisms are present there, and so on. When this happens in lakes, native species can be surprised and allow invaders to come in while the environment is still disturbed. If this happens in the ocean, the lack of oxygen can cause corals to bleach and possibly even die. All around, this can greatly damage many ecosystems and lead to a decrease in biodiversity globally. Nutrient-rich runoff can also be caused by things like clear-cutting (which releases the nutrients that were kept in the soil by the plants) or also by things like animal farms (where nutrient-rich waste materials can leak into local bodies of water). And that's eutrophication, simply put. **Learnings:** - It is important to integrate aspects of health and environment from the beginning of economic and industrial developments. - The problem of **TOXICITY.** **Ecology VS Environment** - The situations discussed are examples of the great complexity of the relationships and exchanges that are established between living beings, and between them and their inert environment. - **Ecology** takes care of the study of those relationships. - However, as it has become popular, the term has been losing precision and conceptual rigor. - **Today,** the word **ecology is usually associated with environmental deterioration, pollution, and alterations of the human environment,** it is **even used as a synonym for the environment.** "We have to protect the ecology of the forest". **Ecology**: Tries to study the natural dynamics of the environment, not only its alterations. It analyzes the environmental components but focuses above all on how they work together. It studies how living species interact with each other and with their environment. **Environment:** In a first analysis it would be defined as the set of all external conditions and influences that affect organisms, including humans. It is studied through different scientific disciplines (physics, chemistry, zoology) difference: ecology does not treat them individually, but in an integrated way. Levels of organization of nature: - The complexity of nature does not imply a chaotic interaction. - Biological materials are integrated in nature in such a way that levels of organization can be identified. - This hierarchical system facilitates the ordered study of life from the most elementary level (atoms, molecules) to the biosphere. **Biomagnification and bioaccumulation** How can pollutants have long-term effects on organisms? - Even when pollutants are not dangerous enough to kill animals outright, their presence can have lasting effects on food webs through **bioaccumulation and biomagnification**. - Toxins may increase in concentration as they are passed up the food chain, a process called **biomagnification**. - Pollutants such as **polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)** enter the ocean as industrial waste and are absorbed by microscopic **phytoplankton** at the bottom of the food chain. - Even though phytoplankton absorb only a tiny amount, small creatures called **zooplankton** eat large quantities of the phytoplankton, taking in all the PCBs from what the phytoplankton eat. - **Small fish** then feed on the zooplankton, continuing to **magnify** the amount of PCBs up the food chain. - In the waters of the Pacific Northwest, **apex predators** like the killer whale (Orcinus orca) end up with the highest concentrations of toxins due to biomagnification. - **Bioaccumulation** occurs when pollutants build up in a single organism's body over time. Mercury, for example, is a pollutant that has entered waterways and lakes through industrial processes. Fish and shellfish absorb the mercury directly from their environment, and although they may only absorb small amounts at a time, the mercury can remain in the fish's body for months or even longer. This leads to the mercury building up, or **accumulating**, in the fish's body, posing a danger to any organism that eats. A poster of a fish life cycle Description automatically generated**PCBs** - Polychlorinated Biphenyl's (organic man-made chemicals) (Caulk, paint, glues, plastics, fluorescent lighting ballasts, transformers and capacitors). - PCBs are excellent heat conductors but do not burn quickly -\> efficient insulators. - Manufactured in the US from 1929 to 1979 when they were outlawed after being repeatedly linked to health risks to humans and the environment. - Some applications of PCBs were: - Electrical, heat transfer, and hydraulic equipment - Plasticizers in paints, plastics, and rubber products - Pigments, dyes, and carbonless copy paper - Other industrial applications - Physical properties: (soluble = substance) - PCBs are fat-soluble, but they can not dissolve in water. - Water-soluble compounds are expelled from the body, while fat-soluble not. - Health issues: - **Highly carcinogenic:** Can cause cancer in animals, and probably in humans. - **Endocrine disruptors**: Notably blocking of thyroid system functioning. - **Neurotoxicity** - A study performed by Montstanto found a concentration of PCBs over 19,000 ppm (when the federal standards at that time were no more than 5 ppm). - By 1972, Monsanto had voluntarily ceased the sales of PCBs for all uses except in enclosed electrical applications. - Finally, on April 19, 1979, the Environmental Protection Agency announced a five-year plan to almost completely discontinue all uses of PCBs. - Internationally PCBs were banned by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001. - PCBs still persist in built environments. - Still cause problems due to their presence in soil and sediments. Problem in the entire gulf of main (EU and Canada) - Contamination since the 1970s and 1980s - Including PCBs, DDT and TBT [Problematic substances for bioaccumulation and biomagnification:] - **Heavy metals**: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury. - **Halogenated Hydrocarbons**: Pesticides (DDT, chlordane, dieldrin...), PBCs, PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) [Effects on human health:] - **Heavy metals**: neurological damage, cancer, kidney damage, respiratory issues, cardiovascular problems, immune system suppression, reproductive and developmental effects, gastrointestinal distress. - **Halogenated Hydrocarbons**: endocrine disruption, cancer, neurological impacts, immune system effects, liver damage, respiratory problems, skin and eye irritation, reproductive effects. [Effects on ecosystems:] - Heavy Metals: biodiversity loss, soil degradation, aquatic ecosystem impacts, bioaccumulation and biomagnification, altered species composition, disruption of nutrient cycling, toxicity to flora and fauna, reduced productivity. - Halogenated Hydrocarbons: biodiversity loss, bioaccumulation, disruption of food webs, toxic effects on aquatic life, soil contamination, altered species composition, reduced ecosystem functionality, resistance development. **Reach Regulation and Register- EUROPE (Registration, evaluation, authorization, and restriction of chemicals):** - Reach Register is a key tool ensuring that chemicals are managed safely in the EU market. - Companies must register them with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), providing data on their properties, uses, and potential risks to human health and the environment. - The goal of REACH is to ensure the safe use of chemicals throughout their lifecycle. Other similar regulations: 1. United States: TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act) is managed by the environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2. Canada: CEPA (Canadian Environmental Protection Act) 3. Australia: AICIS (Australian Industrial Chemicals Introduction Scheme) 4. Japan: CSCL (Chemical Substances Control Law) 5. South Korea: K-REACH (Act on Registration, Evaluation, etc. of Chemical Substances) 6. Internationally: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) -\> not a regulatory framework, but a standardized classification method to guarantee communication among the different regulations. Limitations in the EU: - Recently published in Environmental Pollution Journal. - Objective: to check the levels of mercury against the recommended intake from the EU. - Only 13 from the 58 analyzed species where below the maximum recommended values. Environmental impacts: eutrophication, human toxicity, ecotoxicity. Relation with planetary boundaries? Eutrophication: - **Biogeochemical flows** (nitrogen and phosphorus cycles), and excessive nutrient runoff (nitrogen and phosphorus) from agriculture lead to nutrient pollution in water bodies, causing harmful algal blooms and oxygen depletion. - **Freshwater Use:** Eutrophication also affects freshwater systems by overloading rivers, lakes, and coastal areas with nutrients, leading to the degradation of water quality and ecosystems. Human toxicity: - **Novel entities** (chemicals, plastics, etc.), exposure to harmful chemicals, such as heavy metals or pollutants, falls under the novel entities boundary, which includes the accumulation of substances that negatively affect human health. - **Atmospheric Aerosol Loading:** some toxic substances, like air pollutants, contribute to atmospheric aerosol loading, impacting air quality and contributing to respiratory and other health issues in humans. Ecotoxicity: - **Biosphere integrity**, pollution from chemicals or toxins disrupts ecosystems and biodiversity, impacting the overall integrity of life systems. - **Climate change**, toxins, and pollutants can also contribute to ecosystem collapse and are often linked to climate change, as warming temperatures and changing conditions worsen ecosystem vulnerabilities. **Eutrophication and human toxicity are related to bioaccumulation/biomagnification:** Eutrophication: Excess nutrients lead to algal blooms. These algae die, decompose, and release toxins into the water. Small organisms absorb these toxins, and as predators consume them, the toxins bioaccumulate in their bodies and biomagnified up the food chain. Human Toxicity: Harmful chemicals (like heavy metals or pesticides) are absorbed by organisms and bioaccumulated over time. As these toxins move through the food chain, they are biomagnified, meaning higher concentrations are found in top predators, including humans, leading to toxic effects. Session 2 ========= **Ecosystems:** - **Ecosystem** is understood as the natural unit formed by a set of living beings of different species and their physical environment, as well as their mutual interrelationships. - Russian matryoshka doll structure: an ecosystem is always part of a larger one and, in turn, contains other smaller ones. - Example: A pond, a forest, a decaying trunk. - Although it is easy to fragment the living world into ecosystems, there are no precise boundaries between them. - There are areas of overlap or transition: ecotone (that can be considered a different ecosystem). - Life in the Earth is based on carbon (C); complex molecules. - Origin is atmospheric CO2. - According to this process we can distinguish: - Autotrophs - Phototrophs - Chemotrophs - Heterotrophs **Components of ecosystems:** **Biotic components (or biocenosis) = living organisms.** - Producers - Consumers - Herbivores - Carnivores - Omnivores - Decomposers - **Abiotic components (biotopes or ecological factors) = non-living things.** - Light, air, soil, nutrients - Abiotic components are both a support and a limitation for ecosystems. Example: - Low humidity prevents the growth of many species but favors others, such as cacti in deserts; - Forests grow in areas with sufficiently humid soils and adequate temperatures. **Functioning of ecosystems: energy and matter** - When living organisms are in a suitable environment, with temperature, lighting, humidity, space, etc. Within their margins of need, they will require only two things: - The materials or chemicals living matter. - The energy needed to transform these substances into useful products for the body. - Aspects such as the number of living beings and the spread of their development and reproduction depend on the rate of circulation of matter in the environment and the characteristics of the energy flow. **Functioning of ecosystems: energy** - Solar energy is converted into chemical energy (glucose and other compounds of high energy) through photosynthesis. = the process by which green plants and some other organisms transform sunlight energy into chemical energy. - Chemical energy is employed to produce work in the cells of the body through respiration. - The degraded waste energy (radiated to space as heat). Remarkable things: - Open system (receiving energy from the sun). - Irreversibility of the process due to the degradation of the energy through the trophic chain. - The luminous energy captured is equal to the output of thermal energy plus that accumulated in the form of reserves. - *Determinant role of producers as energy collectors -\> limiting factor for the functioning of ecosystems too!!* - The ecosystem can not consume more energy than what is fixed by its producers unless it goes to reserves, which due to their origin are limited. Functioning of ecosystems: Matter - Living organisms require between 30 to 40 chemical elements for their normal development. - The most important ones are: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Phosphorus (P). - Also called: nutrients, bio elements, and biogenetics. - Unlike what happens with energy, in the biosphere there are no significant inputs of matter from outside. - **The amount of materials present on Earth remains constant** over time. - **Their continued availability depends** on some cycles that allow the repeated use of chemical elements. - **This continued circulation of materials,** sustained by a unidirectional flow of energy, **keeps ecosystems functioning.** - The transition from inert matter to living matter is the work of the **producers**, acting as a bridge between the biological and the geological. - The size of the ecosystems is conditioned by the amount of nutrients transported by the producers. - Conversely, decomposers restore all organic residues to the inert world by mineralizing them by decomposition. - The circulation of biogenetic elements is carried out through the corresponding **nutritional** cycles or **biogeochemical cycles**. Basic elements of nutritional and biogeochemical cycles: - The movement of the element from the environment to the organisms, and their return to the environment. - The participation of living organisms (especially microorganisms). - A geological deposit (atmosphere or lithosphere). - A chemical change. **The water cycle** So condensation (ocean to land, water vapor transport) -\> precipitation (regen = ocean precipitation of land precipitation) -\> Collection (water dat via de grond of rivieren weer terug gaat naar de zee) -\> Evaporation in a circle (water gaat de lucht in door verdamping). **The carbon cycle** - Carbon is the 4 more abundant element in the Universe. - Most of the Earth's carbon is stored in rocks around 65,5 billion metric tons. - The rest is in the ocean, atmosphere, plants, soil and fossil fuels. - Carbon is the building block of life. From the video: It's in our bodies, and in our food. Its in animals plants and it's also found in non-living material like rocks and the atmosphere. Carbon is important for many reasons, including providing lots of the power that we use it's found in coal, its found in fossil fuels it's found really in all of our main sources of energy. We can find carbon and many different types of source pools, there is a lot of carbon in the oceans that's one of the main carbon pools on our planet. You can find carbon in the atmosphere as different gases such as carbon dioxide, and you find lots of carbon in the terrestrial areas so in plants, in trees or in soils. The carbon cycle is the cycle of where carbon goes and also how carbon moves from one pool into a different one. The carbon cycle is a system, this earth process, that transfers carbon from the plan material to the atmosphere back to the plant material from the oceans to the atmosphere back to the oceans and from far below ground. From fossilized carbon pools to the atmosphere. So fast moving carbon for example is what gets stored in plants you have photosynthesis that happens which is essentially really a mechanism by which plants are able to absorb carbon from the atmosphere and they essentially use the carbon to make sugar which is the basis of all carbohydrates and that carbon that's fixed there in these plants is fast carbon. Slower carbon will refer to over time sort of the integration of perhaps atmospheric carbon into the ocean and down into the depths of the ocean one manner in which it's transferred from the atmosphere to the oceans might be through the photosynthesis that's done by plankton in the ocean. And then the consumption of that plankton by higher level species and then the eventual decay of some of that organic material those species will to some extent decay and be transferred to the bottom of the ocean where the carbon that used to be part of those species gets locked away in ocean sediments. Humans have a huge impact on the carbon cycle because essentially we are changing how it is we are taking a lot of these pools of slow carbon. And burning it and putting it into the atmosphere so we are really changing where the carbon is and that has some big implications. So we are not really changing how much carbon is there, the amount of carbon is always the same. But what we\'re changing is where it is and what form it\'s in so if you take the slow carbon you burn it and put it in the atmosphere it gets expanded and the atmosphere is a much smaller pool than the ocean is or that the terrestrial reservoirs are. Humans have a really important role in the carbon cycle. But how does NASA measure carbon as it moves. We have different ways; for example we work on measuring the carbon that's stored in trees, to do that we use different types of instruments, field, word and sunlight data. Data from some new satellites. One way we do those measurements is with satellite imagery or satellite estimates we use lighter instruments that are in space that are pointed down at the earth that should light our pulses toward the earth and measure the time that it takes for those pulses to return to the satellite sensor. From those information, we can learn about the height of forests, and other structural characteristics of the forest canopies. In addition to using the satellite data we also have to do field work, we go in the field and measure what species it is and we get the biometry of a tree which is measuring the living things, we take a tape and measure the circumference and the height and then we compare that to what were getting from the satellite. We would like to get a better understanding of where carbon exists on the landscape. Carbon is essential to all life as we know it. Slow carbon cycle - Involves long-term storage of carbon. - **Marine organisms** (shellfish, phytoplankton) build their shells by combining calcium with carbon. - When they die, they accumulate in the ocean floor. - Over millions of years, these organisms become compressed and become carbon-rich sedimentary rocks. - This carbon is usually stored in rocks for **around 150 million years**. - **Carbon** that is stored in the rock **is released into the atmosphere** through **volcanic eruptions**. - Sedimentary rocks release carbon through watering (rain). - Water flowing over sedimentary rocks dissolves carbon and transports it to the oceans. Fast carbon cycles - The transfer of carbon between the oceans, atmosphere, soils, and living organisms is ten to one thousand times faster than the slow carbon cycle. - Carbon from the atmosphere is renewed every **20 years**. - CO2 is absorbed by producers by photosynthesis after which it is transformed into carbohydrates and stored in their tissues. - **Respiration** by living organisms **releases CO2** into the atmosphere. - CO2 is exchanged between the atmosphere and oceans with **CO2 dissolved in surface water and a return of CO2 to the atmosphere by evaporation.** - **Carbon is returned to the surface of the Earth as acid rain** to start the cycle again. **Carbon cycle:** This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans. - Yellow numbers are natural fluxes - Red are human contributions - White indicated stored carbon - Units: gigatons carbon per year **Nitrogen cycle:** - Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere as N2 gas (about 78% of the volume of the atmosphere). - Nitrogen is a key component of the bodies of living organisms -\> nitrogen atoms are found in all proteins and DNA. - In nitrogen fixation, bacteria convert N2, into ammonia, a form of nitrogen usable by plants. - When animals eat the plants, they acquire usable nitrogen compounds. - Marine nitrogen cycle is quite similar to the terrestrial - Nitrogen is a common limiting nutrient in nature, and agriculture. - Humans can not fix nitrogen biologically, but we can do it industrially! - About 450 million metric tones of fixed nitrogen are made per year using a chemical method called the Haber-Bosh process, N2 is reacted with H2 at high temperatures. Which ones are the main sources of human nitrogen release to the environment? - The use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers. - The combustion of fossil fuels. - Both increases the levels of N-containing compounds in the atmosphere. - **Acidification (acid rain) Global Warming (N2O).** 1 Nitrogen-containing fertilizers: widely used in agriculture, these fertilizers release nitrogen into soils and water systems, leading to nutrient pollution and contributing to issues like eutrophication. 2 Combustion of fossil fuels: burning fossil fuels in transportation and industry emits nitrogen oxides (Nox) into the atmosphere, which can cause acid rain and contribute to global warming through the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O). **Phosphorus cycle** (the devil\'s element) - White phosphorus is **highly reactive** and hence not found in nature. - It is **flammable** when exposed to air, can spontaneously combust, and **is a deadly poison in low doses.** - Used for military applications, such as the nerve gas VX. - Adult humans contain approximately 0,7 kg of phosphorus, mainly in bones and teeth as calcium phosphate salts. - Phosphorus is present in RNA, DNA, and ATP (the primary carrier for chemical energy in cells). - Phospholipids are found in cellular membranes and in the lipoproteins of blood plasma. - The **phosphorus cycle is slow** compared with C and N. - In nature it is **found mostly in the form of phosphate ions** PO 3-4. - P has no real gas phase, it can be found in the atmosphere as volcanic ash, aerosols and mineral dust. - When P arrives to the ocean, the cycling process is very slow, over 20,000 to 100,000 years. - The P, as N is contained in most fertilizers used in agriculture. - Phosphorus is an **essential nutrient** both as a part of several key plant structure compounds and as a catalysis in the conversion of numerous key biochemical reactions in plants. - Currently **80% of the phosphorous is lost during** it's mineral exploitation, transport and application in fields. - Phosphorous **has no substitute**. - Their runoff may cause **eutrophication**. Per century (starting from 17^th^): philosopher's stone -\> medicinal phosphorus -\> flammable phosphorus -\> limiting nutrient in crop growth -\> element of way -\> eutrophication -\> global phosphorus scarcity? - In mid S. XIX concentrated mineral sources of phosphorus were discovered in guano (bird and bat droppings). - In the coast of Peru and on islands in the South Pacific. - It was used for agriculture. - Also in the US, around 1970, large pile of bison skulls were ground into fertilizers. **The nutrient cycle is broken** - The green revolution and sanitation revolution had effects on the global phosphorous cycle. - Modern Civilization changed from a phosphorus-recycling society to a throw-away society. - Today phosphorus is mined in only a few geographical locations. - Graph: historical sources of phosphorus fertilizers used in agriculture globally (1800-2010). The dramatic increase in phosphate rock production in the middle of the 20^th^ century is indicated. - **Phosphorus is found in deposits.** - 90% of P deposits are found in 6 countries. - It has been calculated that by 2035, the demand of phosphorus will exceed the supply. - Some countries have taken measures (China increased tariff costs for exportation & US signed a bilateral agreement with Morocco, for long-term rights to exploit its phosphate deposits. **Which measures do you think can be taken to prevent the loss of phosphorous?** - Reduce fertilizer runoff: implement precision agriculture techniques to apply the right amount of phosphorus only where and when it's needed, minimizing runoff into water systems. - Recycling phosphorus: capture and reuse phosphorus from wastewater, livestock manure, and agricultural residues to cycle it back into soil. - Soil management practices: improve soil health by adding organic matter, such as compost, which helps retain phosphorus and reduce erosion. - Crop rotation and cover crops: use crop rotation and cover cropping to naturally improve soil structure, reduce erosion, and enhance phosphorus availability. Or develop and plant crop varieties that have higher phosphorus-use efficiency. **The Sulfur Cycle** - Sulfur **occurs in all living matter** as a component of certain **amino acids**. - It is abundant in the soil in proteins and, **through a series of microbial transformations,** ends up as sulfates **usable by plants**. Video: All living things require sulfur in order to make protein. Let's take a look at how sulfur cycles itself around the earth. First, sulfur reserves are found in the lithosphere and are released by weathering. In addition, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide gas are released into the atmosphere by volcanic eruptions, hot springs, and the decay of biological material of swamps and bogs. Marine algae produce dimethyl sulfide that enters the atmosphere as tiny droplets. Sulfur dioxide gas also forms when dimethyl sulfide reacts with oxygen gas. The burning of fossil fuels also releases sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere and creates sulfur trioxide. The sulfur trioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid. Sulfur trioxide also reacts with the ammonia in the atmosphere to produce sulfate salts. The sulfuric acid in sulfate salts falls to the earth by precipitation like rainfall. The soil absorbs this sulfate salts, and plants then absorb the sulfur by observing by absorbing the sulfate salt from the soil. Animals get sulfur by eating the plants and the animals release sulfur when they decay. As animals decay they release sulfate salts and hydrogen sulfide. Anaerobic bacteria break down the hydrogen sulfide into sulfur gas and the aerobic bacteria convert the sulfur into sulfate salts which again the plants absorb and then like any other cycle it just keeps going around and around. **Sulfur in Nature:** - Found in rocks, oceans, and the atmosphere. - Essential for proteins and enzymes in living organisms. **Atmospheric Sulfur:** - Mainly in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2) from volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels, and ocean emissions. - Reacts with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4), contributing to acid rain. **Terrestrial Cycle:** - Sulfur is released from rocks through weathering. - Plants absorb sulfate (SO4-2) from the soil. - Moves through the food chain as organisms consume plants. **Decomposition and Microbial Activity:** - Decomposing organisms release sulfur back into the soil as hydrogen sulfide (H2S). - Certain bacteria (sulfur bacteria) convert H2S into sulfate (SO4-2) or elemental sulfur. **Marine Cycle:** - Oceans contain the largest sulfur reservoir. - Sulfur compounds, like dimethyl sulfide (DMS), are released by marine organisms and contribute to cloud formation. - Sulfates in the ocean settle to the seabed and form long-term sedimentary rock deposits. **Long-Term Geological Processes:** - Sulfur in sediments eventually becomes rock, cycling back to the surface through volcanic activity and tectonic movements. **Human Impact:** - Fossil fuel combustion releases large amounts of SO2 into the atmosphere. - Increased atmospheric sulfur contributes to acid rain, which affects soil and water ecosystems. - Acidification. **Terrestrial acidification vs marine acidification** **Terrestrial acidification:** Caused by: - The increase of acid compounds in the environment. - Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (Nox) emissions released into the air. - Ammonia (NH3) from agriculture. **Effects:** - Soil nutrient depletion (leaching essential nutrients like calcium, magnesium, or potassium) - Toxic metal mobilization (more soluble and toxic for plants) - Plant and forest damage - Biodiversity loss - Water contamination **Marine Acidification** **Caused by:** - The increase of atmospheric CO2 into the atmosphere. - The ocean absorbs approximately 25-30% of the atmospheric CO2, which reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid. - Deforestation and land-use changes (decreasing the Earth's ability to absorb CO2 leading more into the atmosphere and, consequently entering the ocean). - Agricultural runoff and Eutrophication (increasing respiration and decomposition of organic matter, releasing CO2). - Emissions of sulfur oxides (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (Nox) -\> but in a smaller factor than by CO2 absorption. **Effects:** - Impacts on marine life. - Reducing the availability of carbonate ions, making it harder to maintain structures such as corals, mollusks, and some plankton species. - Reduce the growth of coral reefs affecting marine species that depend on those ecosystems. - Disruption of food chains (by the effects on plankton). - Decrease biodiversity. - Impact on fisheries and aquaculture. **Terrestrial Acidification and Marine acidification relate to the following planetary boundaries:** 1. **Biogeochemical flows:** Excess nitrogen and sulfur compounds from industrial emissions contribute to acid rain, which acidifies soil and water systems. This impacts nutrient cycles, harming ecosystems. 2. **Ocean acidification:** Marine acidification is primarily driven by increased atmospheric CO2 absorption in oceans, altering the PH balance and harming marine biodiversity, especially organisms reliant on calcium carbonate, like corals and shellfish. 3. **Biosphere integrity:** Both terrestrial and marine acidification affect biodiversity. Acidification disrupts ecosystems, threatening species that are sensitive to pH changes, thus impacting the resilience of ecosystems and overall biodiversity. 4. **Climate change (indirectly):** Fossil fuel burning, which contributes to acidification, is also a key driver of climate. Elevated CO2 levels contribute to both ocean acidification and global warming, linking these processes. **Remarkable things:** - The closed cyclical character of the material flow: the total matter of the ecosystem remains constant even though there is matter in the inert phase and in the biological phase. -\> In an ecosystem, the total amount of matter remains constant. Matter cycles between two phases: the inert phase (non-living components like minerals and water) and the biological phase (living organisms). The ecosystem continually recycles matter, keeping the total amount stable. - The availability of organic matter at each trophic level depends on that of the previous level -\> the levels are interdependent. -\> Each level of the food chain relies on the previous one. For example, herbivores depend on plants, and predators depend on herbivores. This creates an interdependent structure where the availability of energy and nutrients at each level supports the next. - The introduction of synthetic artificial substances, and even more so if they are not biodegradable, determines their incorporation into the cycle irreversibly, as well as their circulation and diffusion through it. -\> When non-biodegradable synthetic substances enter an ecosystem, they are absorbed into the natural cycle and can remain there indefinitely. These substances persist in the environment, often spreading and disrupting natural cycles. - In short, the biological community and the abiotic environment come together to form a single ecosystem that continually exchanges matter and energy with the surrounding environment. -\> In summary, the biological community (living organisms) and the abiotic environment (non-living elements) combine to create an interconnected ecosystem. This system constantly exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings, forming a continuous cycle of life. Session 3 ========= Functioning of ecosystems - Although matter and energy are analyzed separately, both are transported simultaneously in the form of organic nutrients, and food. - For this reason, the dynamics of the ecosystem are usually expressed in terms of **food chains**. - A food chain can be defined as a sequence of individuals that mutually serve themselves as food. - Food chains are useful as a descriptive tool, but in the real world they are rarely isolated entities. - Herbivores feed on several different plants and are preyed upon by different consumers. For this reason, the chains intertwine and form **food webs**.  Primary consumer -\> secondary consumer -\> tertiary consumer -\> apex consumer -\> decomposers -\> primary producer. - Biomass: amount of living matter; of living beings that exist in a particular ecosystem or at one level of it. - Production: Amount of new biomass (or energy) that is produced in a given period of time (by growth or by birth). Production is equivalent to the amount of biomass that can be transformed from one trophic level to another without harming the preceding level. - Productivity: rate of production per unit of biomass (ex. Grams of biomass per square meter per year; or growth of herbivores or carnivores). - Efficiency: real use of the flows (especially energy) by the organisms grouped at their respective levels. **Ecological niche:** - Very important concept in ecology. - It is the function performed by a certain group of living beings in an ecosystem. - If two or more species share the same ecological niche, they compete for the available resources -\> **competence** -\> the most efficient species will tend to eliminate others and will monopolize the niche. - However, competence is not the only factor involved in ecosystems, **cooperation exists**! - Cooperation results in a better adaptation to the environment and therefore an increase in the chances of survival of all those involved. How can the introduction of invasive species affect this? The introduction of invasive species can disrupt the ecological niche by competing with native species for resources, altering food chains, and potentially leading to the decline or extinction of native species. This imbalance can impact nutrient cycles and overall ecosystem stability, as invasive species may lack natural predators, allowing them to spread quickly and dominate. Population and ecosystems - Population: a group of individuals of the same species present in a given ecosystem. - Community: populations of different species occupying the same area. The evaluation of a population is conditioned by the tension between two forces in opposite directions. 1. Spontaneous ability to reproduce. 2. Resistance to the environment; the limitations it opposes to population growth: lack of nutrients, predators, etc. - The availability of matter and energy in an ecosystem tends to be optimized through adaptation processes. - Ecosystems have an organization. - Among the multiple dynamic **models** of known systems, the most used in ecology is usually the **cybernetic** one. - This system supposes that all elements interact with each other in such a way that the change of one of them affects all the others, and the changes experienced by these can affect the triggering element again -\> There is an effect on the cause; a feedback loop. **Lotka-Volterra model**: example of the growth of an animal population in the presence of sufficient food and with the appearance of a predator. - The number of predators grows in parallel with the number of prey, but the mortality of prey increases proportionally to the number of predators. - As prey decreases, there is less food for predators, which reduces their number. - This decrease in hunting pressure determines that the prey population recovers, increasing the predator population again, and resuming the circuit. Ecosystems development - **Climax**, in ecology, is the final stage of biotic succession attainable by a plant community in an area under the environmental conditions present at a particular time. - For example, cleared forests in the eastern US progress from fields to old fields with colonizing trees and shrubs to forests of these early colonists and finally to climax communities of longer-lived tree species. - **Ecosystems change over** time both at the request of external factors (climatic, biological, etc.) and in response to the activity of their own components. - The concept of **ecological succession** is used to refer to the set of changes ("maturation") experienced by a community of organisms, part of an ecosystem, since empty space begins to colonize until a stably organized structure is formed. - It is a **gradual change in the relative abundance** of the different member species, a **self-organization** process that implies directional and one-way changes:\ - From youth to maturity.\ - From simplicity to complexity. - External circumstances may alter the succession (for example the destruction of parts of the ecosystem) -\> an **ecological regression** then occurs. - The succession, however, does not backward because **when the disturbance ceases, the situation returns to evolve in the direction of the succession.** - Thus, **ecosystems evolve towards more complex forms of organization.** Studying an ecosystem at a given time can establish some evolutionary states more likely than others, as long as some relevant external element does not drastically break the balance. - The **development of ecosystems is conditioned by their capacity for self-regulation**. - Cybernetic systems, and consequently ecosystems, **are more stable the more relationships there are between their elements** -\> the more complex and organized an ecosystem is, the less dependence on the external environment it has and the greater its capacity for self-regulation to protect itself against external threats. Community climax: - Maximum maturity - Balance with the physical environment and maximum diversity of species. - Community best adapted to available resources.\ Remarkable things: - The climax is not the end of an adaptive process. - It is a situation of dynamic balance between species and their environment. - It can be altered by spontaneous variation of biotope and/or activity of the biocenosis, or external factors. - The production of organic matter is offset by consumption -\> there is no biomass increase. - There is a multiplication of niches, a high specialization in communities, a lengthening of food chains, a tendency to keep the number of individuals constant, and an increase in vital functions. **Ecosystem**: is a biological community in which a series of animal and plant communities develop, which adapting to a physical framework, evolve towards equilibrium conditions (climax). Microplastics ============= Video: Today plastics are everywhere. All of this plastic originated from one small object that isn't even made of plastic. For centuries, billiard balls were made of ivory from elephant tusks. But when excessive hunting cause elephant populations to decline in the 19^th^ century. Billiard balls makers began to look for alternative offering house rewards. In 1863 an American john Wesley Hyatt took up the challenge in the next five years he invented a new material called celluloid, made from celluloise. A compound found in wood and straw, he soon discovered this couldn't solve the problem it wasn't heavy enough and didn't bounced rights. But it could be painted to mimic more expensive materials like coral, tortoiseshell, amber and mother of pearl. He created what become known as the first plastic. Plastic can describe any material made of polymers, which are just large molecules consisting of the same repeating subunit this includes all human made plastic as well as many of the materials found in living things. But in general, when you refer to plastics, they're referring to synthetic materials, the unifying feature of these is that they start out soft and can be molded into a particular shape. Celluloid was highly flammable which made production risky. So inventors began to hunt for alternatives. In 1907 -- made Bakelite, and in 1920 polystyrene, spongy plastic, after that vinyl. After that acrylic. 1930, nylon. 1933 polyethylene, most versatile plastic, still used today. To make everything. New manufacturing technologies accompanied this explosion of materials. The invention of a technique called injection molding made it possible to insert melted plastic into models of any shape. Where they would rapidly harden, this created possibilities in new varieties and shapes and a way to rapidly produce plastic at scale. Scientists hope it would make items that once had been unaffordable, accessible to more people. Instead, plastics were pushed into service in World War two. During the war, plastic production in the US quadrupled. After the war attention turned to consumers. Replaced materials like wood and fabric. Versatile plastics opened up possibilities for packaging, mainly designed to keep food and other products fresh for longer. Suddenly, there were plastic garbage bags, takeaway cartons, and plastic containers. Within just a few decades this multifaceted material ushered in what became known as the plastic century, while it brought convenience and cost-effectiveness, it also created staggering environmental problems. Many plastics are made of nonrenewable resources, and plastic packaging was designed to be single-use, but some plastics take centuries to decompose creating a huge build up of waste, this century will have to concentrate our innovations on addressing those problems by reducing plastic use, developing biodegradable plastic and finding new ways to recycle existing plastic. **What are microplastics?** - Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic between 1µm and 5 mm in length. - Microplastics can convert into manoplastics \ **decrease in respiration rates.** - **Toxic effects on yeast and fungi.** - The **impact** of microplastics on soil microbial properties is **still not well understood**. - Still exists a lack of information on the interactions between microplastics and soil organisms: - Many scientists have suggested that microplastics may pose a serious threat to soil organisms by reducing their growth and reproduction, thereby reducing biodiversity in soils. - In contrast, others have reported negligible effects of microplastics on soil organisms. - Organisms that degrade plastics: - For example, Rhodococcus rubber C208, isolated from mulch film-buried soils, readily colonized PE surfaces and degraded photo-oxidized PE. - Brevibacillus borstelensis has been reported to degrade PE. - Comamonas acidovorans TB-35 was shown to use PES polyurethane as a source of carbon by producing a polyurethane-degrading enzyme. - Microplastics **may interact with other contaminants**. - Microplastics **can absorb and concentrate organic contaminants on their surfaces** while dispersed in soil and aqueous media, serving as a sink. - These bound **contaminants can then be transported** within and across ecosystems, acting as a "Trojan horse". - Many of these chemicals are extremely persistent in the environment and harmful to organisms and food webs. - Well-known toxic organic chemicals found in plastic products include PAHs, pesticides, and PCBs, all of which can be released into soil and aquatic ecosystems. Effects on plants - The **potential impact** of microplastics on terrestrial plants is not well understood, and related **research findings are currently insufficient**. - In general, the impacts are related to changes in soil properties (moisture, density, structure, and nutrient content). - Plant responses are dependent on species, soil, and microplastic properties. - Effects: block water absorption, growth retardation, genotoxic impairment, ratio: C: N changes. - **Primary impacts**: related to the physical size and type of microplastic. - **Secondary impacts**: toxicity (more related to the additives of microplastics). - Absorption by plant cells is the main mechanism of toxicity (by seeds, seedlings, and roots) Effects on invertebrates and vertebrates - Soil organisms, such as earthworms, mites, and collembola, are essential for the maintenance of soil quality and proper ecosystem functioning. - However, **microplastics can pose a major threat** to these organisms. - **Bigger microplastics** may cause **interior abrasions and obstructions**. - **Smaller microplastics may pass through the cell membrane resulting in harmful effects.** - Microplastics **ecotoxicity depends on the plastic type and chemical composition.** Some effects:\ Decrease in carbon biomass ingestion, Inhibited development, Death. (more research is needed) Effects on humans: - **Microplastics can be found in all environmental compartments** (marine and freshwater bodies, soil, food, drinking water, and air). - By some estimates, people consume more than 50,000 plastic particles per year -- and many more if inhalation is considered. - There is **a great concern related to its danger** by ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation. - Human health risks of nano- and microplastics are still uncertain. **More research is needed**. Initiatives to face the problem: - Global commitment (lead by Ellen Macarthur Foundation with UNEP) - Zero draft legal text of the UN treaty - European strategy for plastics in a circular economy Biodiversity ============ What is biodiversity? When studying an area's biodiversity, scientists look at different criteria to evaluate the current status: - The number of different species (composition) - The actual account of individuals of each species (abundance) - How spread out the individuals are (distribution) - How many of these species have been identified as threatened or endangered (extinction risk) Some facts: - Forests are home to 80% of the world's biodiversity on land. One km can have more than 1000 species. - The most biologically diverse and complex forests on Earth are tropical rainforests, such as the Amazon. (20% has disappeared in the past 50 years). - The ocean covers more than two-thirds or our living planet's surface and is home to a spectacular array of ecosystems and wildlife. - 90% of life in the ocean is found in the shallow seas close to the coasts. **Main Biomes** Biomes are large ecological areas with similar climates, flora, and fauna. Here are the main ones: 1. **Tropical Rainforests** -- Hot and wet; rich biodiversity (e.g., Amazon). 2. **Savannas/Grasslands** -- Open landscapes with grasses; home to grazers and predators. 3. **Deserts** -- Hot or cold; minimal precipitation (e.g., Sahara). 4. **Temperate Forests** -- Moderate climates; deciduous or evergreen trees. 5. **Tundra** -- Cold, dry; short vegetation like mosses and lichens. 6. **Taiga (Boreal Forests)** -- Cold; coniferous forests. 7. **Freshwater Biomes** -- Rivers, lakes, and wetlands. 8. **Marine Biomes** -- Oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries. **Interdependence in Biomes** Yes, **all living components of biomes** (plants, animals, microorganisms) depend on each other to maintain a healthy environment and survive: - Plants provide oxygen and food. - Herbivores feed on plants, and predators control herbivore populations. - Microorganisms recycle nutrients by breaking down organic matter. When one component is disrupted, the balance of the ecosystem can collapse, affecting all species. **Major Pressures and Threats to Biodiversity** 1. **Habitat Destruction** -- Urbanization, deforestation, and agriculture reduce natural habitats. 2. **Climate Change** -- Rising temperatures and extreme weather disrupt ecosystems. 3. **Pollution** -- Chemicals and plastics harm organisms and ecosystems. 4. **Overexploitation** -- Overfishing, hunting, and resource extraction reduce populations. 5. **Invasive Species** -- Non-native species outcompete or harm local species. 6. **Disease Spread** -- Human activities can introduce pathogens into vulnerable ecosystems. **Conclusion** The survival of biomes and biodiversity relies on reducing these pressures and fostering conservation efforts like protected areas, sustainable resource use, and climate action. Let me know if you\'d like detailed examples for any biome or threat! **Trends Across Biomes** 1. **Biodiversity Loss:** Most biomes are experiencing declining species populations due to human activities and climate change. 2. **Habitat Degradation:** Urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation are common trends, especially in tropical rainforests, savannas, and grasslands. 3. **Climate Shifts:** Many biomes (e.g., tundra and coral reefs) are being reshaped by global warming. 4. **Interconnectivity:** Changes in one biome (e.g., melting Arctic ice) often ripple into others, affecting global ecosystems. **What Makes a Biome Healthy?** - **Balanced Ecosystems:** Biodiversity with species fulfilling key roles (producers, consumers, decomposers). - **Functional Cycles:** Stable nutrient, water, and energy flows. - **Resilience:** Ability to recover from disturbances like storms or droughts. - **Limited Human Impact:** Sustainable use of resources and minimal pollution. **Biomes at Greater Risk** - **Tropical Rainforests:** High deforestation rates for agriculture and logging. - **Coral Reefs:** Most at risk from warming seas, acidification, and overfishing. - **Tundra:** Rapid warming is melting permafrost and threatening species.\ These biomes have high sensitivity to human and environmental pressures. ### Benefits and Impacts of Biome Decline **Biome** **Benefits** **Impact of Decline** **Effects on Species** ------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ **Tropical Rainforest** Oxygen production, carbon storage, biodiversity hotspots Loss of carbon sequestration, climate imbalance Extinction of species; ecosystem collapse. **Coral Reefs** Fisheries, storm protection, tourism Loss of marine biodiversity, food insecurity Decline of fish species, loss of reef-dependent organisms. **Grasslands** Food production, erosion control Soil degradation, reduced agricultural yield Loss of grazing species; cascading predator impacts. **Tundra** Climate regulation, unique biodiversity Release of methane (permafrost), rising sea levels Extinction of cold-adapted species like polar bears. **Deserts** Habitat for specialized species, mineral resources Reduced water availability, desertification Decline in desert-adapted species. **How the Decline of One Biome Affects Others** - **Interconnected Cycles:** - Deforestation in rainforests affects global oxygen and carbon levels, impacting climates in other biomes. - Melting Arctic ice raises sea levels, threatening coastal ecosystems like wetlands and mangroves. - Desertification can expand, reducing adjacent grasslands and biodiversity. - **Species Migration:**\ As one biome declines, species may migrate, putting pressure on others (e.g., marine species leaving coral reefs might overpopulate other marine areas). - **Climate Feedback Loops:**\ Loss of carbon-storing biomes (e.g., forests) accelerates climate change, further stressing other ecosystems globally. The health of one biome is deeply linked to others. Protecting all biomes is essential for maintaining global biodiversity, stabilizing ecosystems, and ensuring the continued benefits they provide to humans and wildlife. Session 4 ========= **Atmospheric contaminants** **Structure and composition of the atmosphere:** **21% oxygen & 78% nitrogen 1% other** - Meteorological changes occur in the troposphere. - Troposphere has about 95% of the total mass of atmospheric air. - The atmosphere is not completely dry. It has **water vapor** in varying amounts (depending on the region). - Numerous synthetic compounds must be added to the basic list (manufacture of paints, solvents, fertilizers, plastics...) - The final composition depends on the geographical conditions, the proximity of the sea or wetlands, the degree of sunshine, latitude, etc. - There is a close interdependence between the composition of the atmosphere and the planet's ecosystems: - The evolution of ecosystems induces changes in the composition of the atmosphere, and - Variations in the atmosphere produce changes in ecosystems, favoring or hindering the development of some species. **Atmospheric contamination:** In a broad sense, we can define air pollution as any qualitative or quantitative change in the composition of the air capable of producing measurable adverse effects on the health of living beings, on materials, or on any other component of the environment. The difference between the ideal conditions of the air for a given species and the real conditions that it breathes, determines its biological viability and its comfort or discomfort. - Before the appearance of the human species on Earth, it had a certain level of contamination derived from natural sources such as forest fires, volcanoes, etc., which caused damage to flora, fauna, soil, water, and the atmosphere. - Since when humans mastered fire as a source of heat and food preparation, they have progressively affected the quality of the atmospheric environment. - Industry and development are often associated with air pollution, but this manifests itself long before the industrial revolution. - From the end of the 18^th^ century (industrial revolution), the economic and social conditions of the world changed rapidly, and scientific advances applied to the nascent industry were made. - Among them - The generalization of the use of the steam engine and the intensive use of fuels (reduction of natural resources and increasing pollution of the environment). Contaminants classification: - The current atmosphere is the result of the activity of living beings throughout geological history. - It is not in a static situation but has a dynamic equilibrium. - Even clean air can contain certain contaminants, usually in small proportions, from natural processes. - Human activity releases high amounts of these substances into the atmosphere that may exceed their dilution capacity, generating deteriorating situations. - Pollution is a matter of concentrations! - The residence time in the atmosphere, or half-life, is a specific characteristic of each pollutant. It can vary a lot from one substance to another and indicates the time that they remain in the atmosphere with the possibility of reacting chemically. - Residence times in the atmosphere are highly variable: - From less than an hour to several decades. Pollutants can be classified according to different criteria: 1. According to its origin\ Natural: from volcanic eruptions, storms, biological processes, etc.\ Artificial: derived from human activity. 2. According to its nature\ Biotic: made up of organic matter (especially pollen and microorganisms)\ Abiotic: physical (heat, noise, radiation, etc.) or chemical (particles, bases, vapors) One of the most usuals is groping them into primary and secondary contaminants: A red arrow pointing to a red arrow Description automatically generated One of the most usuals is groping them into primary and secondary contaminants:  A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated  A diagram of a substance Description automatically generated with medium confidence  A white background with black text Description automatically generated  A white text on a white background Description automatically generated temperature inversion? It's when cold air is trapped at ground level by the warm air above it. The warm air acts like a lid, trapping air pollution from cars, businesses, and wood smoke from home heating. Normally, air pollution at ground level can rise and spread out. On cold, calm, and clear nights in the winter, this process is stronger and the lid is closer to the ground. Since the winter sun may not heat up the ground much, the inversion may continue during the day. A temperature inversion is common in small valleys, so wood smoke from just a few chimneys can cause unhealthy levels of air pollution. Water contaminants ======================================== - Water is a vital and essential element. - Living matter is strongly hydrated. - A large part of the chemical reactions characteristic of life take place between substances dissolved in an aqueous medium.  Water Scarcity is an ambiguous and complex concept and has several dimensions. It is relative (imbalance between supply and demand) and it is fundamentally dynamic (intensifies with water demand increase and with water quality decrease). Dimensions: - Scarcity in availability of fresh water of acceptable quality with respect to demand (linked to water storage). - Scarcity in access to water services due to a failure of governments or institutions to ensure it. - Scarcity due to lack of adequate infrastructure, irrespective to the level of water resources, due to financial constraints. A diagram of water stress Description automatically generated Water Pollution: Main water contaminants  Where do these contaminants come from? - Waste water (domestic and industrial) - Agriculture (pesticides, fertilizers and accidental spills from milk dairies) - Oil spillages (land and oceans) - Radioactive substances (nuclear plants, industrial, medical and other scientific processes). - River dumping (apart from polluting it increases the risk of flooding) - Marine dumping (direct and indirect from land sources) Effects on ocean acidification: A close-up of several images Description automatically generated Water quality: refers to the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water based on usage standards. Basically they are defined for: human consumption, industrial and domestic use, environmental water quality.  A white and black chart with black text Description automatically generated  Guest lecture ============= **[Planetary health]** is the achievement of the highest level of health, well-being, and equity achieved around the world, respecting the limits of the Earth's natural systems in which humanity can thrive, through the integration of various human systems, political, economic, and social). **Environmental determinants of human health:** current state of major natural systems and impacts on human health. **Other main risks for human health:\ **- Pollution (burden, distribution, equity & justice, cost&co-benefits)\ - Climate change (direct effects, indirect effects, adaptation, and mitigation) **Planetary boundaries:** "Levels of anthropogenic perturbations below the risk of destabilization of the Earth Systems is likely to remain a low -- a 'safe operating space' for global social development.' **Q: What is the state of the global environment, how is it changing, and what are the major factors influencing these changes?** **How Environmental Changes Affect People and Livelihoods** 1. **Health:** - **Air Pollution:** Causes respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, leading to millions of deaths annually. - **Water Contamination:** This leads to diseases like cholera and affects clean water availability. 2. **Economic Prosperity:** - Environmental degradation disrupts industries like agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. - Rising costs for disaster recovery due to extreme weather events impact economies. 3. **Social Equity:** - Vulnerable communities suffer disproportionately, lacking resources to adapt to environmental changes. - Wealthier nations contribute most to pollution but are better equipped to mitigate impacts. 4. **Food Security:** - Climate change reduces crop yields and increases the frequency of droughts and floods. - Fisheries are declining due to ocean warming and acidification. 5. **Overall Wellbeing:** - Loss of natural beauty and biodiversity affects mental health and cultural practices. - Forced migration due to environmental issues disrupts communities and families. **Q: How are people and their livelihoods affecting and affected by environmental change in terms of health, economic prosperity, social equity, food security, and overall well-being?** **Integrated Assessment Perspective** - Understanding the state of the global environment requires examining **ecosystem health, human activities, and policy effectiveness**. - Sustainable solutions should address **environmental pressures** while promoting **equity, health, and economic stability** for all. - Global cooperation (e.g., SDGs, Paris Agreement) is vital to mitigate ongoing changes and create a healthier planet for future generations.  (Definitions of Earth systems: biodiversity, land, fresh water, air, oceans.) **Water scarcity:** the per capita availability of freshwater in the global water cycle is decreasing with population growth, coupled with the associated agricultural, industrial, and energy requirements, while the continents are becoming drier in many places due to climate change impacts. **Water quality:\ **Biological contamination: approximately 1.4 million people die annually from diseases associated with pathogen-polluted drinking water and inadequate sanitation, with many millions more becoming ill"\ \ **Chemical contamination:** "New pollutants not easily removed by current wastewater treatment technologies are of emerging concern, including certain veterinary and human pharmaceuticals, pesticides, antimicrobial disinfectants, flame retardants, detergent metabolites, and microplastics. **Human safety and security:** tensions within and between nations to control scarce water resources can lead to social unrest and conflicts. **Ocean acidification:** A diagram of a gas pipeline Description automatically generated\ - The ocean surface layer absorbs about one-third of human-released CO2.\ - Ocean acidity has increased about 25% from preindustrial times a pace faster than any known in Earth's geologic past.\ - The acidity of the ocean is greater than at any point in the past two million years. **Ocean pollution:**\ - Marine litter has increased, with an estimated 8 million tons per year of plastics entering the ocean, mainly from land-based sources.\ - Micro- and nano-plastics are now documented in the food web, including in seafood consumed by humans.  **Air (pollution):** - Air pollution (particles & gases) Pollution is a pressure that affects all natural systems (freshwater, oceans, air, soil, and biodiversity) and has huge impacts on human health. - Pollution is any unwanted, often dangerous, material that is introduced into the Earth's environment as the result of human activity, that threatens human health, and that harms ecosystems. - Disability-adjusted life years (DALY) ◊ One DALY represents the loss of the equivalent of one year of full health. - Pollution kills the poor and the vulnerable: 92% of deaths occur in low and middle-income countries. Children are most affected. **Globalization of environmental risks:** - Globalization, has caused the movement of hazardous industries such as chemical manufacture, steel making, pesticide production, and shipbreaking from higher-income countries to low-income and middle-income countries. - This movement has entailed little or no environmental and occupational regulation and weak public health infrastructure. - The consequences of these occupational and environmental conditions are disease and injury in under-protected workers, diseases caused by toxic chemicals in residents of communities near polluting facilities, and industrial explosions. **Examples of environmental injustice?** 1. **Unequal Exposure to Pollution:** - **Example:** Low-income communities and marginalized groups are often located near factories, highways, or waste sites, leading to higher exposure to air and water pollution. - **Impact:** Increased rates of respiratory illnesses, cancer, and reduced quality of life. - **Case Study:** Flint, Michigan, USA, where predominantly African-American residents faced lead-contaminated water while wealthier communities had safer water supplies. 2. **Climate Change Vulnerability:** - **Example:** Small island nations (e.g., Maldives, Tuvalu) face rising sea levels and increased storm intensity despite contributing minimally to global greenhouse gas emissions. - **Impact:** Loss of homes, livelihoods, and cultural heritage, with limited resources to adapt. 3. **Unequal Resource Distribution:** - **Example:** Land grabbing in Africa and Southeast Asia, where large corporations displace Indigenous people or rural farmers to use land for mining, agriculture, or biofuels. - **Impact:** Loss of livelihoods, food insecurity, and destruction of traditional ways of life. 4. **Environmental Racism:** - **Example:** In Louisiana\'s \"Cancer Alley,\" a predominantly African-American community is surrounded by petrochemical plants emitting toxic chemicals. - **Impact:** High cancer rates and chronic health issues among residents. Cost & co-benefits: pollution mitigation and prevention yields large returns on investment for human health and the economy. **Climate change:** "Climate change is not just about disruption of the local economy or loss of jobs or loss of iconic species. In reality, it is about weakening the foundations of the life support systems that we as a human species depend on." A global temperature rise above **+2°C** compared to pre-industrial levels would have **severe impacts**, including: 1. **Extreme Weather:** More frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, and droughts. 2. **Sea Level Rise:** Accelerated melting of polar ice caps, flooding coastal cities and islands. 3. **Ecosystem Collapse:** Coral reefs, Arctic ecosystems, and biodiversity hotspots are severely affected. 4. **Food and Water Shortages:** Reduced crop yields and water availability in many regions. 5. **Health Impacts:** Increased heat-related illnesses, the spread of diseases, and displacement of millions. It would push the Earth into a state of **climate instability**, threatening both human and natural systems. International, multidisciplinary collaboration, dedicated to monitoring the evolving health profile of climate change, and providing an independent assessment of the delivery of commitments made by governments worldwide under the Paris Agreement. 43 indicators across five key domains: - climate change impacts, exposures, and vulnerability - adaptation, planning, and resilience for health - mitigation actions and health co-benefits - economics and finance - public and political engagement. **Direct impacts:** - Increase of exposure of vulnerable populations to heatwaves. - 447 millions workers Workers exposed to heat stress: 35 % heat strain 30% loss of productivity 15% renal disease or acute kidney injury **Indirect effects:** - People with an increased risk of exacerbation of health problems (cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular) following such disasters. - These outcomes were due to a range of factors including disruption of transport, weakened health systems including drug supply chains, loss of power, and evacuations of populations.  - "Tackling climate change could be the greatest global health opportunity of the 21st century" 1. **Cleaner Air:** Reducing fossil fuel use lowers air pollution, decreasing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. 2. **Improved Diets:** Sustainable food systems promote healthier, plant-based diets. 3. **Active Lifestyles:** Investments in public transport and green spaces encourage physical activity. 4. **Disease Prevention:** Mitigating climate change curbs the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue. 5. **Resilient Communities:** Climate action improves access to clean water, sanitation, and disaster preparedness, protecting vulnerable populations. Session 5 ========= Waste Every year, about 11.2 billion tones of solid waste is collected worldwide. Global waste composition:\ 63% from renewable sources (food and green, paper and cardboard and Wood). = organic content. Waste collection rates: high income 96%, upper middle income 82%, lower-middle income 51%, low income 39%.   Methane in landfills: Methane and leachate emissions depend on:\ - Waste composition\ - Decomposition of different types of waste\ - Existence of not collection systems\ - Efficiency Types of waste burning:\ - Residential open burning\ - Deliberate open burning in landfill and open dumpsites\ - Spontaneous open burning in landfills and open dumpsites\ - Incineration: the destruction of something, especially waste material, by burning. Emisisons of waste incinceration:\ - GHG (CO2, CO, Methane)\ - Particulate matter\ - Hydrogen chloride (less harmful at low concentrations, generally most dangerous for people with direct contact (citizens, unprotected workers), global emission due to open burning 3.5 million tons per year, respiratory problems, upper respiratory tract irritation, coughing and shortness breath, Eye problems.\ - Formaldehyde Heavy metals:  Historical drivers in developed countries:\ - Resource value of the waste\ - Public health\ - Environmental protection Current drivers around the world:\ - in some of the last developed countries, public health is still a major drive, as not all MSW is collected, resulting in direct and indirect effects.\ - the local environmental driver is also still strong, with uncontrolled disposal widespread and hazardous wastes.\ - In terms of the resources driver, informal recycling sector is thriving in many cities as a means of livelihood for the urban poor and often archives moderately high recycling rates, albeit at a social and environmental cost.  How can we prevent them? 1 Waste disposal and facilities management: development, operation and disclosure.\ 2 Legal compliance: reporting.\ 3 Technical services: waste classification, R&D.\ 4 Waste logistics\ 5 Commodity trading\ 6 On-site services: waste minimization\ 7 Solid and liquid waste treatment\ 8 Resource recovery: recycling, metals recovery   E: waste DEFINITION: The UN defines e-waste as any discarded products with a battery or plug, and features toxic and hazardous substances such as mercury, that can pose severe risk to human and environmental health. Future: 2040 PCs, laptops monitors, smartphones and tables will reach 14% of total emissions. 2050: 120 million tons. 2060 overall consumption of materials across all sectors will set to double  Session 6 ========= We eat sustainable! Do we? Sustainable diet: A diet with low environmental impacts which contributes to food and nutrition security and to healthy life for present and future generations. A sustainable food system is protective and respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically fair and affordable; nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy, while optimizing natural and human resource. A diagram of a diagram of a diet Description automatically generated Nutritional recommendations:\ - Food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG) are easy-to-understand recommendations often represented in a visual way (plates or pyramids).\ - FBDG should include sustainable principles, but very few do so.\ - Combine\ - Choose fish, poultry beans, and nuts; limit red meat and cheese; avoid bacon, cold cuts, and other processed meats. Barilla model: representation of the extent to which different food groups contribute toward a healthy diet and their environmental impact.  A diagram of a diet Description automatically generated  A close up of a cookie Description automatically generated  A diagram of a protein content Description automatically generated  **Biotechnology** - Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock. - Biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Video: Biotech colours: red, white, blue, green. Red: Health White: industrial applications Green: agriculture Overlap between certain colours. Yellow: food Gold: every biotech with computers -- perpetrating in all other colours and is becoming more important. Gray: everything to do with waste Brown: deserts and arid landscapes how you can use organism to tweak and imrpvoe them. Violet: laws and ethics Black: bio terrorism and war, designing viruses. Developing a certain bacteria. **What is Biotechnology?** **Biotechnology** is the use of biological systems, organisms, or their components to develop products and technologies that benefit humans and the environment. It combines biology with technology to solve problems in health, agriculture, industry, and the environment. **The Colors of Biotechnology** Biotechnology is categorized by \"colors\" based on application areas: 1. **Red Biotechnology (Healthcare):** - Focuses on medical and pharmaceutical applications. - **Examples:** Development of vaccines, gene therapy, and diagnostic tools. - **Example Product:** Insulin produced through genetically modified bacteria. 2. **Green Biotechnology (Agriculture):** - Used in farming to improve crops and reduce environmental impact. - **Examples:** Genetically modified crops like pest-resistant Bt cotton, drought-tolerant maize. 3. **White Biotechnology (Industrial):** - Applied in industries for cleaner processes and sustainable production. - **Examples:** Biofuels, biodegradable plastics, and enzymes for detergents. 4. **Blue Biotechnology (Marine):** - Exploits marine and aquatic resources for biotechnology applications. - **Examples:** Antibiotics derived from marine organisms, algae-based biofuels. 5. **Yellow Biotechnology (Food):** - Focuses on food production and nutrition. - **Examples:** Fermentation (e.g., cheese, yogurt), probiotics, and fortified foods. 6. **Grey Biotechnology (Environment):** - Aims to address environmental issues like pollution and waste. - **Examples:** Bioremediation (using microorganisms to clean oil spills), recycling of plastics using enzymes. 7. **Gold Biotechnology (Bioinformatics):** - Uses computational tools to analyze biological data. - **Examples:** Genome sequencing and drug design. **Conclusion** Biotechnology is versatile, touching diverse areas like healthcare, food production, environmental conservation, and industrial efficiency. By leveraging biological systems, biotechnology offers innovative solutions to global challenges.