Economics Textbook PDF

11 OUTPUT AND COSTS After studying this chapter, you will be able to:  Distinguish between short run and long run  Explain and illustrate a firm’s short-run product curves  Explain and derive a firm’s short-run cost curves  Explain and derive a firm’s long-run average cost curve...

11 OUTPUT AND COSTS After studying this chapter, you will be able to:  Distinguish between short run and long run  Explain and illustrate a firm’s short-run product curves  Explain and derive a firm’s short-run cost curves  Explain and derive a firm’s long-run average cost curve Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Decision Time Frames The firm makes many decisions to achieve its main objective: profit maximization. Some decisions are critical to the survival of the firm. Some decisions are irreversible (or very costly to reverse). Other decisions are easily reversed and are less critical to the survival of the firm, but still influence profit. All decisions can be placed in two time frames:  The short run  The long run Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Decision Time Frames The Short Run The short run is a time frame in which the quantity of one or more resources used in production is fixed. For most firms, the capital, called the firm’s plant, is fixed in the short run. Other resources used by the firm (such as labor, raw materials, and energy) can be changed in the short run. Short-run decisions are easily reversed. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Decision Time Frames The Long Run The long run is a time frame in which the quantities of all resources—including the plant size—can be varied. Long-run decisions are not easily reversed. A sunk cost is a cost incurred by the firm and cannot be changed. If a firm’s plant has no resale value, the amount paid for it is a sunk cost. Sunk costs are irrelevant to a firm’s current decisions. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint To increase output in the short run, a firm must increase the amount of labor employed. Three concepts describe the relationship between output and the quantity of labor employed: 1. Total product 2. Marginal product 3. Average product Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Product Schedules Total product is the total output produced in a given period. The marginal product of labor is the change in total product that results from a one-unit increase in the quantity of labor employed, with all other inputs remaining the same. The average product of labor is equal to total product divided by the quantity of labor employed. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Table 11.1 shows a firm’s product schedules. As the quantity of labor employed increases:  Total product increases.  Marginal product increases initially … but eventually decreases.  Average product decreases. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Product Curves Product curves show how the firm’s total product, marginal product, and average product change as the firm varies the quantity of labor employed. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Total Product Curve Figure 11.1 shows a total product curve. The total product curve shows how total product changes with the quantity of labor employed. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint The total product curve is similar to the PPF. It separates attainable output levels from unattainable output levels in the short run. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Marginal Product Curve Figure 11.2 shows the marginal product of labor curve and how the marginal product curve relates to the total product curve. The first worker hired produces 4 units of output. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint The second worker hired produces 6 units of output and total product becomes 10 units. The third worker hired produces 3 units of output and total product becomes 13 units. … And so on. The curve is the total product curve. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint The height of each bar measures the marginal product of labor. For example, when labor increases from 2 to 3, total product increases from 10 to 13, … so the marginal product of the third worker is 3 units of output. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint To make a graph of the marginal product of labor, we can stack the bars in the previous graph side by side. The marginal product of labor curve passes through the mid-points of these bars. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Almost all production processes are like the one shown here and have  Increasing marginal returns initially  Diminishing marginal returns eventually Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Increasing Marginal Returns Initially, the marginal product of a worker exceeds the marginal product of the previous worker. The firm experiences increasing marginal returns. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Diminishing Marginal Returns Eventually, the marginal product of a worker is less than the marginal product of the previous worker. The firm experiences diminishing marginal returns. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Increasing marginal returns arise from increased specialization and division of labor. Diminishing marginal returns arises because each additional worker has less access to capital and less space in which to work. Diminishing marginal returns are so pervasive that they are elevated to the status of a “law.” The law of diminishing returns states that: As a firm uses more of a variable input with a given quantity of fixed inputs, the marginal product of the variable input eventually diminishes. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint Average Product Curve Figure 11.3 shows the average product curve and its relationship with the marginal product curve. When marginal product exceeds average product, average product increases. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Technology Constraint When marginal product is below average product, average product decreases. When marginal product equals average product, average product is at its maximum. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost To produce more output in the short run, the firm must employ more labor, which means that it must increase its costs. Three cost concepts and three types of cost curves are  Total cost  Marginal cost  Average cost Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Total Cost A firm’s total cost (TC) is the cost of all resources used. Total fixed cost (TFC) is the cost of the firm’s fixed inputs. Fixed costs do not change with output. Total variable cost (TVC) is the cost of the firm’s variable inputs. Variable costs do change with output. Total cost equals total fixed cost plus total variable cost. That is: TC = TFC + TVC Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Figure 11.4 shows a firm’s total cost curves. Total fixed cost is the same at each output level. Total variable cost increases as output increases. Total cost, which is the sum of TFC and TVC also increases as output increases. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost The AVC curve gets its shape from the TP curve. Notice that the TP curve becomes steeper at low output levels and then less steep at high output levels. In contrast, the TVC curve becomes less steep at low output levels and steeper at high output levels. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost To see the relationship between the TVC curve and the TP curve, lets look again at the TP curve. But let us add a second x-axis to measure total variable cost. 1 worker costs $25; 2 workers cost $50; and so on, so the two x-axes line up. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost We can replace the quantity of labor on the x-axis with total variable cost. When we do that, we must change the name of the curve. It is now the TVC curve. But it is graphed with cost on the x-axis and output on the y-axis. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Redraw the graph with cost on the y-axis and output on the x-axis, and you’ve got the TVC curve drawn the usual way. Put the TFC curve back in the figure. Add TFC to TVC, and you’ve got the TC curve. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Marginal Cost Marginal cost (MC) is the increase in total cost that results from a one-unit increase in total product. Over the output range with increasing marginal returns, marginal cost falls as output increases. Over the output range with diminishing marginal returns, marginal cost rises as output increases. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Average Cost Average cost measures can be derived from each of the total cost measures: Average fixed cost (AFC) is total fixed cost per unit of output. Average variable cost (AVC) is total variable cost per unit of output. Average total cost (ATC) is total cost per unit of output. ATC = AFC + AVC. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Figure 11.5 shows the MC, AFC, AVC, and ATC curves. The AFC curve shows that average fixed cost falls as output increases. The AVC curve is U-shaped. As output increases, average variable cost falls to a minimum and then increases. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost The ATC curve is also U-shaped. The MC curve is very special. For outputs over which AVC is falling, MC is below AVC. For outputs over which AVC is rising, MC is above AVC. For the output at minimum AVC, MC equals AVC. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Similarly, for the outputs over which ATC is falling, MC is below ATC. For the outputs over which ATC is rising, MC is above ATC. For the output at minimum ATC, MC equals ATC. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost The AVC curve is U-shaped because: Initially, MP exceeds AP, which brings rising AP and falling AVC. Eventually, MP falls below AP, which brings falling AP and rising AVC. The ATC curve is U-shaped for the same reasons. In addition, ATC falls at low output levels because AFC is falling quickly. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Why the Average Total Cost Curve Is U-Shaped The ATC curve is the vertical sum of the AFC curve and the AVC curve. The U-shape of the ATC curve arises from the influence of two opposing forces: 1. Spreading total fixed cost over a larger output—AFC curve slopes downward as output increases. 2. Eventually diminishing returns—the AVC curve slopes upward and AVC increases more quickly than AFC is decreasing. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Cost Curves and Product Curves The shapes of a firm’s cost curves are determined by the technology it uses. We’ll look first at the link between total cost and total product and then … at the links between the average and marginal product and cost curves. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Total Product and Total Variable Cost Figure 11.6 shows when output is plotted against labor, the curve is the TP curve. When output is plotted against variable cost, the curve is the TVC curve … but it is flipped over. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Average and Marginal Product and Cost The firm’s cost curves are linked to its product curves.  MC is at its minimum at the same output at which MP is at its maximum.  When MP is rising, MC is falling.  AVC is at its minimum at the same output at which AP is at its maximum.  When AP is rising, AVC is falling. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Figure 11.7 shows these relationships. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Shifts in the Cost Curves The position of a firm’s cost curves depends on two factors:  Technology  Prices of factors of production Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Technology Technological change influences both the product curves and the cost curves. An increase in productivity shifts the product curves upward and the cost curves downward. If a technological advance results in the firm using more capital and less labor, fixed costs increase and variable costs decrease. In this case, average total cost increases at low output levels and decreases at high output levels. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Short-Run Cost Prices of Factors of Production An increase in the price of a factor of production increases costs and shifts the cost curves. An increase in a fixed cost shifts the total cost (TC ) and average total cost (ATC ) curves upward but does not shift the marginal cost (MC ) curve. An increase in a variable cost shifts the total cost (TC ), average total cost (ATC ), and marginal cost (MC ) curves upward. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost In the long run, all inputs are variable and all costs are variable. The Production Function The behavior of long-run cost depends upon the firm’s production function. The firm’s production function is the relationship between the maximum output attainable and the quantities of both capital and labor. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Table 11.3 shows a firm’s production function. As the size of the plant increases, the output that a given quantity of labor can produce increases. But for each plant, as the quantity of labor increases, diminishing returns occur. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Diminishing Marginal Product of Capital The marginal product of capital is the increase in output resulting from a one-unit increase in the amount of capital employed, holding constant the amount of labor employed. A firm’s production function exhibits:  Diminishing marginal returns to labor (for a given plant)  Diminishing marginal returns to capital (for a quantity of labor). For each plant, diminishing marginal product of labor creates a set of short run, U-shaped cost curves for MC, AVC, and ATC. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Short-Run Cost and Long-Run Cost The average cost of producing a given output varies and depends on the firm’s plant. The larger the plant, the greater is the output at which ATC is at a minimum. The firm has 4 different plants: 1, 2, 3, or 4 knitting machines. Each plant has a short-run ATC curve. The firm can compare the ATC for each output at different plants. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost ATC1 is the ATC curve for a plant with 1 knitting machine. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost ATC2 is the ATC curve for a plant with 2 knitting machines. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost ATC3 is the ATC curve for a plant with 3 knitting machines. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost ATC4 is the ATC curve for a plant with 4 knitting machines. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost The long-run average cost curve is made up from the lowest ATC for each output. We need to decide which plant has the lowest cost for producing each output. Suppose that the firm wants to produce 13 sweaters a day. What is the least-cost way of producing 13 sweaters a day? Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Using Plant 1, 13 sweaters a day cost $7.69 each on ATC1. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Using Plant 2, 13 sweaters a day cost $6.80 each on ATC2. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Using Plant 3, 13 sweaters a day cost $7.69 each on ATC3. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Using Plant 4, 13 sweaters a day cost $9.50 each on ATC4. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost The least-cost way of producing 13 sweaters a day is to use 2 knitting machines. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost The Long-Run Average Cost Curve The long-run average cost curve is the relationship between the lowest attainable average total cost and output when both the plant and labor are varied. The LRAC curve is a planning curve that tells the firm the plant that minimizes the cost of producing a given output. Once the firm has chosen its plant, the firm incurs the costs that correspond to the ATC curve for that plant. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Figure 11.9 illustrates the LRAC curve. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Economies and Diseconomies of Scale Economies of scale are features of a firm’s technology that lead to falling long-run average cost as output increases. Diseconomies of scale are features of a firm’s technology that lead to rising long-run average cost as output increases. Constant returns to scale are features of a firm’s technology that lead to constant long-run average cost as output increases. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Figure 11.9 illustrates economies and diseconomies of scale. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Minimum Efficient Scale A firm experiences economies of scale up to some output level. Beyond that output level, it moves into constant returns to scale or diseconomies of scale. Minimum efficient scale is the smallest quantity of output at which the long-run average cost reaches its lowest level. If the LRAC curve is U-shaped, the minimum point identifies the minimum efficient scale output level. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.  Long-Run Cost Figure 11.9 illustrates the minimum efficient scale. Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.