Developmental Psychology Past Paper PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSYCH 104) Course Facilitator: Flery Joy Malicsi – Lumiuan The course explores developmental psychology as the scientific study of the evolution of human thought processes, behavior, and emotions across all stag...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSYCH 104) Course Facilitator: Flery Joy Malicsi – Lumiuan The course explores developmental psychology as the scientific study of the evolution of human thought processes, behavior, and emotions across all stages of psychological development. Such development occurs at the prenatal stage, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Prelim topics cover the introduction which will discuss briefly the fundamental aspects of developmental psychology. Principles of sensory, physical, and motor development are likewise elucidated. Learning tasks are included which will comprise your class standing with 60% grade weight. OVERVIEW OF PRELIM TOPICS LESSON I INTRODUCTION A. Definition of Developmental Psychology B. Father of Developmental Psychology C. History of Developmental Psychology D. Goals of Developmental Psychology LESSON II OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT A. Definition of Basic Concepts 1. Growth 2. Development 3. Heredity 4. Maturation B. Two Approaches to Human Development C. Human Development Characteristics from a Life-Span Perspective LESSON III HUMAN PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT A. Course of Prenatal Development B. Stages of Physical and Motor Development C. Factors Affecting Physical and Motor Development LESSON I: INTRODUCTION Learning outcomes: Students are expected to: 1) explain developmental psychology and its importance; 2) identify the key figures in the progress of Developmental Psychology; and 3) cite instances when knowledge of human development can be utilized. Key Concepts: DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Change is inevitable. As humans, we constantly grow throughout our lifespans, from conception to death. Psychologists strive to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. While many of these changes are normal and expected, they can still pose challenges that people sometimes need extra assistance to manage. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 1 | 17  Developmental Psychology is a scientific approach that aims to explain growth, change, and consistency throughout the lifespan. Developmental psychology looks at how thinking, feeling and behavior change throughout a person’s life. A significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus on development during childhood, as this is the period during an individual’s lifespan when the most change occurs. HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Human development is the concern of many disciplines, including biology, sociology, anthropology, education, and medicine. In addition, the topic cuts across nations and cultures, adding to the diversity of subject matter and approaches. Developmental psychology is concerned with constancy and change in psychological functioning over the life span. As a discipline, it arose shortly after the emergence of scientific psychology in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Its antecedents were different from those that led to the founding of experimental psychology. In its early years, developmental psychology was primarily concerned with child and adolescent development. Later, adult development and aging began to assume more importance. Developmental psychology began as a correlational science, focusing on observation, not on experimentation, and thus differed from traditional research psychology. Prescientific Antecedents Views of development have always reflected the culture in which they emerged. In one of the earliest views of the child, preformationism, a homunculus or miniature adult was believed to be contained in the semen or egg at conception. The homunculus was only quantitatively different from the adult. Preformationist views were largely abandoned on the biological level with the development of modern science. Philosophical Bases of Developmental Psychology From a philosophical perspective, John Locke (1632--1704) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) are the usual starting points for Western discussions of development. Locke is considered the Father of Modern Learning Theory. For him, the child was a tabula rasa or blank slate on which experience writes. The role of Locke and later learning theorists was to emphasize the role of the environment in development. Rousseau is often identified as the Father of Classical Developmental Psychology. In his book Emile (1762), he championed a view that emphasized the natural unfolding of the child based on an innate blueprint. He was one of the first to argue that development took place in stages. Baby Biographies Early attempts to understand development can be found in “baby biographies,” descriptive accounts of children, usually written by a parent, and often biased. The German philosopher, Dietrich Tiedemann (1748- 1803) is credited with creating the first baby biography (1787), but there was little follow-up to his work. Almost 100 years later, another German, biologist Wilhelm Preyer (1841-1897), kept a detailed account of the mental development of his son during his first four years. He published the results as Die Seele des Kindes (The Mind of the Child) (1882), a work frequently cited as beginning the modern child psychology movement. In America, the best known baby biography was a collection of observations of her niece, by Milicent Shinn (1858-1940), which she began in 1890. A popular version was later published as The Biography of a Baby (1900). The Impact of Darwin The theory of evolution contained in The Origin of Species (1859) by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was the starting point for many Western developmental psychologists, both European and American. In addition, Darwin’s emphasis on individual differences and adaptation became important components of developmental psychology. The German physiologist, Wilhelm Preyer, was inspired by Darwin and, in turn, was the inspiration for other European developmentalists including Karl Buhler (1879- College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 2 | 17 1963), Charlotte Buhler (1893-1974), and William Stern (1871-1938). Darwin’s approach also led to the ethological school of development, which includes the work of Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) and Niko Tinbergen (1907-1988). The research and writing of John Bowlby (1907-1990) and Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999) on loss and attachment are later expressions of this school. More recently, a Darwinian-based approach, “evolutionary psychology,” has emerged. Among the American pioneers deeply affected by Darwin were G. Stanley Hall, one of America’s first psychologists, and James Mark Baldwin, also a pioneer psychologist. Hall’s main approach to development, recapitulation theory, was derived from Darwin through a German biologist, Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). Baldwin’s approach has been linked to the theories of both Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. The Child Study Movement and G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) Among the many contextual forces which contributed to the rise of developmental psychology in the United States, the child study movement was the most important. This movement, which emerged during the latter part of the nineteenth century, focused on the welfare of children and, among other things, helped to bring about the passage of laws governing child labor and compulsory education. Its leadership was assumed by G. Stanley Hall. Hall linked the new psychology and the movement. He promised to make an understanding of the child “scientific”, an approach that held appeal for many groups, particularly educators. He published a series of questionnaire studies which, though flawed, attempted to establish norms for children in a variety of areas. In 1891, Hall published the first journal of developmental psychology, Pedagogical Seminary, later renamed the Journal of Genetic Psychology (the word genetic in these early years was a synonym for development). He wrote Adolescence (1904), a two-volume book, which revived an archaic word and offered a theory of development broader than the title suggested. He also wrote Senescence (1922) which was concerned with the second half of life. For all these efforts and more, he is frequently identified as the “Father of American Developmental Psychology.” Four Pioneer Developmentalists James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934) proposed a stage theory of development which initially focused on cognitive development. Later, he extended it to include social development as well. He was largely a theoretician, not an experimentalist, and there is evidence that his work influenced both Vygotsky and Piaget. John Dewey (1859-1952), an American, is probably best known for his contributions to philosophy and education, but he also wrote on developmental issues. In contrast to many of his American contemporaries, his theory had a contextual emphasis which has sometimes been compared to that of Vygotsky. He focused on education, in part, because he believed it would establish the agenda for development. He established a “laboratory school” at the University of Chicago to observe and experiment with children in a more natural setting. Some of the questions he posed are still being asked today. Which aspects of development are universal? Which are expressions of the local culture? Alfred Binet (1857-1911), a Frenchman and the father of modern intelligence testing conducted research on cognitive functioning, including memory. In addition to being a prolific writer, he was an advocate for educational reform. The experimental laboratory school he founded was probably the first in Europe. Binet’s work in intellectual development introduced many concepts which are still in use today. Maria Montessori (1870-1952), an Italian educator, also wrote extensively on child development. Trained as a physician, she first worked with developmentally disabled children. She investigated the writing of Jean-Marc Itard (1774-1838), whose work is often associated with the beginning of special education and his disciple Edouard Seguin (1812-1880). Many of the techniques she learned from them later became part of her Montessori method. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 3 | 17 Psychoanalytic Approaches to Developmental Psychology Psychoanalytic approaches did not enter mainstream academic psychology until the 1930s, but their influence was eventually profound. Moreover, Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939), the founder of the movement, had an impact on popular culture unequaled by any other psychologist. While his method of psychotherapy is well known, it is not always appreciated that his theory is a theory of development. His followers were numerous and produced many different approaches. Two important followers were his daughter Anna Freud (1895-1982), who became a distinguished psychologist in her own right, and Erik Erikson (1902--1994). Both are “ego psychologists,” since they were more concerned with the conscious, rational part of the personality. Erikson is best known for his book Childhood and Society (1950), and for his description of the eight stages of man. While accepting Fr eud’s notions of psychosexual development, he discussed them within a broader cultural context. Other psychoanalysts who had an impact on developmental psychology include Karen Horney (1885- -1952), particularly for her work on feminine psychology and her emphasis on life-span growth and self- actualization. Carl G. Jung (1875-1961) was a theoretical innovator in adult development and aging. Melanie Klein (1882-1960), who developed object relations theory, was a rival of Anna Freud, and emphasized the first 2 years of life, particularly the importance of the mother. Normative Developmental Psychology Until the 1940s, much of developmental psychology was descriptive and normative. Arnold Gesell (1880--1961) was important in promoting this approach. Although his mentor. G. Stanley Hall, had tried to develop normative data on children, it was the work of Gesell that proved of lasting value. Gesell collected voluminous data on infants and children, particularly on their physical and motor development. Moreover, he organized the information to make it useful and available to parents. The effect of his work was to encourage parents to relax and to trust more in nature. In the tradition of Rousseau, the natural unfolding of the child was more important than any interference on the part of parents or educators. Thus, he became a spokesman for the maturation position. Many of Gesell’s developmental norms are still in use today. The Testing Movement There had been many early attempts to develop measures of intelligence, notably by Francis Galton (1822--1911), but they proved unproductive. However, Alfred Binet, in Paris, tried a new approach and the tests were almost immediately successful. Binet published scales in 1905, 1908, and 1911, the year of his death, each scale more sophisticated than the last. An American, and former student of G. Stanley Hall, Henry H. Coddard (1866-1957) brought a version of Binet’s scale to the United States. After trying it on a number of children, both normal and disabled, he declared the measure a success and immediately began sending copies of his translated version around the country. Another former student of G. Stanley Hall, Lewis M. Terman (1877-1956), also an American, developed the most widely used version of the Binet-Simon scales, eventually referred to as the Stanford-Binet, which became the standard against which all measures of intelligence were compared. Terman also initiated the first longitudinal study of development, beginning in 1921. His sample, selected for being gifted in intelligence, continues to be followed today. Later longitudinal studies included the Harvard Growth Study (1922), the Berkeley Growth Study (1928), and the Fels Institute Study of Human Development (1929). Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) and Contextualism Although Vygotsky has been dead for more than six decades, he is sometimes referred to as the most important contemporary developmentalist. His ideas are particularly suited for the contextualist theoretical framework which became popular in recent years. Born and raised in Russia, Vygotsky was a Marxist who believed in the importance of the social and historical context to College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 4 | 17 development. At the same time, he had an appreciation of the internal features of development. This ability to consolidate these two diverse positions has led some to see his work as forming the basis for an integrative theory of development. Although he is often compared to Piaget, Vygotsky differed from him in substantial ways. For instance, he placed much more emphasis on the role of the parent and teacher in cognitive development. He emphasized the function of speech, particularly as an aid to the child’s development. His “zone of proximal development.” a construct describing the ability of children to perform beyond their current level, has been found particularly useful for teachers. Learning Theory John Watson (1878-1958), the father of behaviorism, ushered in a movement that differed in important ways from classical developmental psychology. Learning became the central issue for study. Hence, a model based on Locke rather than Rousseau became the standard. In his famous “Little Albert” experiment (1920), Watson attempted to show how a child’s emotional development could be understood in terms of learning. Later, Mary Cover Jones (1896-1987) with Watson’s guidance, conducted a study of a three-year-old boy to demonstrate how undesirable fears could be eliminated, and by so doing, began the field of behavior modification. After his departure from academic psychology, Watson continued to write about child development, and his work became popular among parents. He was instrumental in promoting a scientific basis for child care. Eventually, he was replaced as the leader of the child-care movement by less rigid and more child- oriented specialists such as Benjamin Spock. Influences were still felt from outside of learning theory. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), for instance, was more interested in motivation and conflict than learning. He conducted some well-designed field studies which had a practical impact on changing developmental psychology. Still, the focus of psychological research at this time was on learning, although some of it strayed from Watson’s thinking. One variation included the research of a group at Yale University under the intellectual leadership of Clark Hull (1884-1952). This group began a program of research that tried to combine learning theory and psychoanalytic theory. A member of the group, Robert Sears (1908-1989), applied learning principles to an understanding of the socialization of children. His work, with others, resulted in the book Patterns of Child Rearing (Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957), a frequently cited assessment of child-rearing practices and outcomes. While the group was ultimately unsuccessful in uniting learning theory and psychoanalysis, they succeeded in moving developmental psychology away from a descriptive science to an empirically testable one. By the 1950s and 1960s in America, developmental psychology was dominated by these learning theory approaches. Notable among more recent learning theorists was B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), a strict behaviorist, who stressed the role of operant learning. He and his followers performed many experiments demonstrating the role of reinforcement in everyday development, Skinner’s work led to widespread use of behavior modification techniques, particularly among autistic children and the developmentally disabled. A highly influential contemporary behaviorist, Albert Bandura (1925-2021 ) has focused more on social learning than Skinner. He has emphasized the importance of modeling, and has conducted many experiments demonstrating how socialization takes place, including the development of aggression, altruism, and sex roles. More recently he has focused on issues of health psychology. The Genetic Epistemology of Jean Piaget (1896-1980) The impact of Jean Piaget’s theory on U.S. developmental psychology can hardly be overestimated. Although he contributed a chapter to the first Handbook of Child Psychology (1931), his early work was largely ignored in the United States. By the 1950s, however , a revival of his work began. His stage theory soon became the centerpiece of American developmental psychology, attaining its most important role in the 1970s. His theory was not only essential for most psychologists, but it also became essential for educators as well. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 5 | 17  Piaget saw the child as a scientist, actively constructing increasingly more complex views of the world. At each stage of development, the child is constrained by the cognitive structures available. Piaget was criticized for his methodology and his apparent unwillingness to address the approaches of other prominent developmentalists. Although the era of his greatest prominence has passed, his theory still continues to have an impact on a broad range of developmental issues. Life-Span Psychology Initially, most developmental psychology focused on the child and adolescent. However, there were some early attempts to investigate the entire life span. In 1777, Johann Tetens (1736-1807), a German physicist and philosopher, published a book that addressed many life-span issues still of concern today. Friedrich Carus (1770-1808) had a view of development that was similar to that of Tetens. He wrote that aging was not simply about loss and decline, but was an occasion for growth and perfectibility. Adolphe Quetelet (1796--1874) was probably the first to collect data on physical and psychological variables across the life span. Francis Galton (1822-1911), inspired by Quetelet, established an “anthropometric laboratory” in London in 1884, where he collected measurements on more than 9,000 people. His data constituted an early cross-sectional view of selected physical and psychological characteristics across the life span. The work of these pioneers in life-span development was largely ignored. It was not until the 1920s and 1930s, with the publication of several textbooks on development, that life-span approaches became prominent again. There was additional interest in later developmental periods when several longitudinal studies began to come of age. Robert Havighurst (1900-1991) and Bernice Neugarten (1916-2001), at the University of Chicago, were active researchers on development in the middle and later years. Later, the University of West Virginia became an important site for research in life-span development. Centers of Research in Developmental Psychology The Iowa Child Welfare Research Station was founded after World War I through the efforts of an Iowa housewife, Cora Bussey Hillis. She argued that if useful research could be conducted to understand animals, equally effective research should be directed to an understanding of the child. The Iowa Station was the first of many child development research centers to be established in the United States. Beginning in the 1920s, several institutes were established through the efforts of Lawrence K. Frank, initially with money provided by the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Fund. Developmental Psychology Organizations and Journals There are literally hundreds of organizations that are concerned with issues of human development. Many developmental psychologists belong to the American Psychological Association (APA), which includes divisions devoted to Developmental Psychology; Adult Development and Aging; and Child, Youth, and Family Services. The APA publishes several relevant journals, including Developmental Psychology and Psychology and Aging. The American Psychological Society is also the organizational home for many American developmental psychologists. Increasingly, however, developmentalists are found in specialty organizations. One prominent developmental organization is the Society for Research in Child Development, begun in 1933, with its own journal. The Future of Developmental Psychology Theorists no longer seem to be working on a “grand theory” of development; they are content with offering miniature theories. Greater attention has been paid to all ages of development so that the phrase “life-span development” more accurately reflects the science. As developmental psychologists have become more aware of the importance of context in development, they have become more vocal advocates for improving that context, particularly arguing for changes in government policy. There is increased awareness that values matter in development and that science cannot provide those values. Although developmental psychology has traditionally emphasized research, a new subspecialty called applied developmental psychology, has emerged. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 6 | 17  FATHER OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Granville Stanley Hall, called the “father” of developmental psychology, is credited with conducting the first systematic studies of children. His major contributions to the field are that he taught the first courses in child development, several of his students becoming leading researchers in the field, and he established scientific journals for the publication of child development research. GOALS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The principles of normative development help professionals to spot potential problems and provide early intervention for better outcomes. Developmental psychologists can work with people of all ages to address roadblocks and support growth, although some choose to specialize in a specific age group such as childhood, adulthood, or old age. Developmental psychologists study the changes that occur as development proceeds. They examine both the changes themselves, and what causes them. Thus, developmental psychology has two main goals: 1) The first is to describe the behavior at each point in the person’s development – such as determining the age that babies begin to walk, the social skills of four-year-olds and so forth. 2) The second is to identify the causal factors involved in producing changes in behavior – such as the importance of genetic or biological factors, the role of various experiences, and the influence of peers, parents and others. LESSON II OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Learning outcomes: Students are expected to: 1) familiarize with the key concepts; and 2) distinguish between the traditional and life-span approaches to development. Key Concepts: DEFINITION OF BASIC CONCEPTS Growth is the progressive increase and continuous advancement of the child from conception to maturity. It refers to the increment of bodily tissues, organs, and structures. It designates changes that occur in time and is evidenced by the increase in size, capacity, and proportions. It includes structural change and functional change. Development is the progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly, predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience. It is a complex process of integrating many structures like height and functions like mathematical ability. Its goal is to enable the individual to adapt to his environment and to achieve self-actualization. Maturation is the process of attaining a level of development at which a specified mental function or type of behavior ordinarily appears. It is the unfolding or ripening process of traits present in the individual because of heredity. This change is a function of aging or time. It excludes the effects of practice and experience. Heredity and maturation do not mean the same thing. Heredity is the direction and pattern given by the genes to growth and development. Maturation is the completion of growth and development within the organism, the unfolding of an individual’s inherent traits and potential. Organs and systems within the body mature over a certain period before they are ready to function. Most organs are capable to function at birth, but some of the organs and systems are more developed than others. The heart is already pumping blood; the digestive system can handle milk while the nervous system is functioning at its lowest level. Many years must pass before the higher levels of the brain are completely developed and can fully function. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 7 | 17  In the process of maturation, we see the interaction of heredity and environment over the course of time. For example, a girl’s ovaries are not mature enough to produce fully ripened eggs until she reaches puberty which comes ordinarily between the years of eleven and fifteen. However, several environmental changes and conditions can affect the onset of puberty. Malnutrition, chronic illness, and serious emotional stability can all slow down this maturation process. For instance, a girl in a war-torn country without sufficient food may not reach puberty until she is twenty years of age. TWO APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT If you believe that humans will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in late old age, your approach is traditional. If you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during childhood, your approach is termed as the life-span approach. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT CHARACTERISTICS FROM A LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE 1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. 2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible throughout the lifespan. No one is too old to learn. 3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio- emotional dimensions. 4. Development is relatively orderly. The muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. This is the proximodistal pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top – the head – with physical growth in size, weight, and future differentiation gradually working its way from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk, and so on). This is the cephalocaudal pattern. 5. Development takes place gradually. While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental characteristics. 6. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and cultural contexts. 7. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. Growth, maintenance, and regulation are three goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into backstage while maintenance and regulation take center stage. LESSON III: HUMAN PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Learning outcomes: Students are expected to: 1. trace the human physical and motor development; 2. identify factors that enhance or impede physical and motor development; and 3. draw implications of the physical and motor developmental concepts to child care, education, and parenting. Introductory Activity: Read the article “Life Before Birth” then answer the following questions. 1) What are the feelings and reactions about what you read? 2) Do you agree that which is developing in the womb is a mere “blob of tissue” or “uterine contents” as abortionists claim? Share your explanation. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 8 | 17  Life Before Birth The development of human life in the womb was once a mystery, bust science and medicine have changed that. Abortion advocates still try to dehumanize the developing baby in the womb by speaking of the child as a “blob of tissue” or “uterine contents”. But ultrasound images, prenatal surgery and other advances in obstetrics are shattering the blob-of-tissue myth. Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these profound observations after his amazing encounter with tiny unborn baby boy: “Eleven years ago while I was giving an anesthetic for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy (at two -month gestation), I was handed what I believe was the smallest living human ever seen. The embryo-sac was intact and transparent. Within the sac was a tiny human male swimming extremely vigorously in the amniotic fluid, while attached to the wall by the umbilical cord.” This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and toes. It was transparent, as regards the skin, and the delicate arteries and veins were prominent to the ends of the fingers. “The baby was extremely alive and swam about the sac approximately one time per second, with a natural swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human did not look at all like the photos and drawings and models of embryos which I have seen, nor did it look like a few embryos I have been able to observe since then, obviously because this one was alive!” “When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately lost its life and took on the appearance of what is accepted as the appearance of an embryo at this stage (blunt extremities, etc.)”. “It is my opinion that if lawmakers and people realize that this very vigorous life is present, it is possible that abortion would be found more objectionable than euthanasia.” The point at which Dr. Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby – eight weeks after conception – it is during the period that a majority of abortionist describe as most desirable for performing an abortion. Source: http://www.mccl.org/Document.Doc?id=159 Key Concepts: A. PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Development begins with conception. Conception occurs when fertilization creates a zygote, a one- celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg. All the other cells in your body developed from this single cell. Each of your cells contains enduring messages from your parents carried on the chromosomes that lie within its nucleus. Each chromosome houses genes, the functional units in heredity transmission. Genes carry the details of your hereditary blue prints, which are revealed gradually throughout life. The prenatal period extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy. A great deal of important development occurs before birth. In fact, development during prenatal period is remarkably rapid. If you were an average-sized newborn and your physical growth had continued during the first year of your life at a prenatal pace, by your first birthday you would have weighed 200 pounds (90.90 kgs)! Fortunately, you did not grow at that rate – and no human does – because in the final weeks before the frenzied pace of prenatal development tapers off dramatically. 1. The Course of Prenatal Development The prenatal periods is divided into three phases: (1) the germinal stage (first two weeks), (2) the embryonic stage (two weeks to two months), and (3) the fetal stage (two months to birth). a. Germinal Stage The germinal stage is the first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception. This brief stage begins when a zygote is created through fertilization. Within 36 hours, rapid cell begins, and the zygote becomes a microscopic mass of multiplying cells. This mass of cells slowly migrates along the mother’s fallopian tube to the uterine cavity. On about the seventh day, the cell mass begins to implant itself in the wall. This process takes about a week and is far from automatic. As many as one in five pregnancies end with the woman never being aware that College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 9 | 17 conception has occurred. During the implantation process, the placenta begins to form. The placenta is a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother’s bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother. This critical exchange takes place across thin membranes that block the passage of blood cells, keeping the fetal and maternal bloodstream separate. b. Embryonic Stage The embryonic stage is the second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month. During this stage, most of the vital organs and bodily systems begin to form in the developing organism, which is now called an embryo. Structures such as the heart, spine, and brain emerge gradually as cell division becomes more specialized. Although the embryo is typically only about an inch long at the end of this stage, its already beginning to look human. Arms, legs, feet, fingers, toes, eyes, and ears are already discernable. The embryonic stage is a period of great vulnerability because virtually all the basic physiological structures are being formed. If anything interferes with normal development during the embryonic stage, the effects can be devastating. Most miscarriage occurs during this period. Most major structural birth defects are also due to problems that occur during the embryonic stage. c. Fetal Stage The fetal stage is the third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth. The first two months of fetal stage bring rapid bodily growth, as muscles and bones begin to form. The developing organism, is now called fetus, becomes capable of physical movements as skeletal structures harden. Organs formed in the embryonic stage continue to grow and gradually begin to function. Sex organs start to develop during the third month. During the final three months of the prenatal period, brain cells multiply at a brisk pace. A layer of fat is deposited under the skin to provide insulation and the respiratory and digestive systems mature. All of these changes ready the fetus for life outside the cozy, supportive environment of its mother’s womb. Sometime between 22 weeks and 26 weeks the fetus reaches the age of viability, the age at which the baby can survive in the event of premature birth. The probability of survival is still slim at 22 or 23 weeks, but it climbs steadily over the next month to an 85% survival rate at 26 to 28 weeks. 2. Newborn’s Senses What are some research findings regarding newborn’s visual perceptions? Can newborns see? The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision. By 6 months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the infant’s vision approximates that of an adult (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock, 2002 and Corpuz, 2018). Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by Santrock, 2002 and Corpuz, 2018), it was found out that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern perception has an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002). Among the few things that babies learn to recognize is the mother’s face, as mother feeds and nurses them. Can newborns hear? The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby. When in the womb, the baby hears his / her mother’s heartbeats, the grumbling of his / her stomach, the mother’s voice and music. How soothing it must have been for you to listen to your mother’s lullaby. Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which means that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 10 | 17  Can newborns differentiate color? In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) “young infants who were breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad when they were 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies were only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to recognize their mother’s breast pad odor”. Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch? They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock, 2002 and Corpuz, 2018). Babies respond to touch. Can newborns distinguish different tastes? In a study conducted with babies, only two-hour-old babies made different facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock, 2002 and Corpuz, 2018). When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near term fetus, increased swallowing was observed. This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth. Do infants relate information through different senses? In short, are infants capable of intermodal perception? Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing. In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as early as 3 ½ months old, infants looked more at their mother and their father when they also heard their voice. This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming through various modes gets sharpened considerably through experience. 3. Physical and Motor Development STAGES PHYSICAL STAGE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Newborn - Maturation of nervous system, skeletal Sucking reflex – initiated when Infancy and muscular begins something touches the roof of the (Birth - 2 years) mouth like nipple or pacifier Muscle tone is good, but responses to stimuli are random Rooting reflex – turning the mouth in the direction of the cheek being Arms and legs are proportionately touched (usually until 1 year old) shorter than adult’s extremities Grasp / gripping reflex - grasp an The head is about 1 inch larger than object placed in the hand (starts at 6th the chest; its circumference is 13-14 week) ½ inches Moro / startle reflex –infants will Weight is between 5 ½ pounds – 9 ½ respond to sudden sounds or pounds movements by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their Height is about 28-32 inches heads back (4 months) There is rapid growth in the stomach Tonic neck reflex – newborn lies on size his back with his head turn to one side College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 11 | 17  Stepping reflex – makes walking motions when the soles of feet touch a solid surface (4 months) Curling reflex – when the inner sole of baby’s foot is stroked, the infant respond by curling his/her toes. Protective reflex – blinking occurs in the presence of bright light Perez reflex – cry / pee when spine is pressed Control of head and arm movements Control of eye muscles, lifts head when on stomach Control of hands and trunk, sits without support Control of legs and feet, stands and walks Early childhood Development of lean body with Excellent locomotion develops with (Toddler: 2-3 muscle tissue and loss of fat almost continuous motion, walking, years; skipping, jumping and running Preschool:3-6 Head approaches adult size years) Can play games with schoolmates Legs and feet grow more rapidly than the trunk Learn to maneuver the body well with agility Genital organs increase in size but are dormant 20 deciduous teeth are present Weight increases about 22-45 pounds Height is about 40-45 inches Middle childhood Brain reaches 90-95% of the adult Learned physical skills necessary for (6-12 years) size ordinary games – the activity that requires skills as throwing, kicking, Completion of nervous system catching, swimming and using simple maturation tools Slight increase in skull size Fundamental skills were developed as reading, writing and calculating Rapid growth of bones Deciduous teeth were replaced by permanent teeth Boys tend to be stronger than girls, owing to the fact that boys have more muscle cells Adolescence Body reaches almost full stature and Learned already physical and (12-18 years) various body organs and system fundamental skills College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 12 | 17  attain maturity Focuses in the field of sports Feet, hands and long bones grow rapidly Muscle growth continues – boy’s muscle mass is twice that of a girl Reproductive maturity arrives as primary and secondary sexual development occurs Menstruation and spermatogenesis begin Permanent teeth are all present Early adulthood Maximal development and Years of plateauing, a time for living (18-40 years) coordination occurs and functioning Final fusion of epiphyses of long Every individual focuses on work or bones job Skin begins losing normal moisture and wrinkles begin Hair may start fraying and baldness may begin Appearance of the third molars (wisdom teeth) Full stature was reached Middle age Sensory acuity, especially of the eyes, A time to take stock, to assess the (40-65 years) begins to decrease fulfillment, to enjoy the dignity of having done life’s work well Muscles become elastic, sag and droop Taking on social and civic responsibilities become common Bone mass begin to decrease Skin continues to dry and wrinkles Gray hair and baldness are common Loss of teeth Old age Body is less able to receive and Sense of balance decline and fine (65 years and respond to stimuli movement become difficult beyond) Posture is flexion, with the head Unable to work hard forward, back arched, and hips and knees flexed Unable to walk for long distance Decreasing of skeletal mass which causes less strength Sensory acuity continues to decline College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 13 | 17  Wrinkling and sagging of muscles Skin pigmentation and moles are common Skin becomes pale as it losses melanocytes Tooth decay and loss continue Memory lose is common B. FACTORS AFFECTING THE PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 1. Pre-natal development hazards Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which means “monster”. a) Prescription and nonprescription drugs – These include prescription as well as non- prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of prescription drug that can be harmful. Examples of harmful nonprescription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee. Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in thalidomide , a tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness which gave rise to several deformed babies. b) Psychoactive drugs – These include nicotine, caffeine, and illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, and heroin. The research found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi et al, 1999 quoted by Santrock, 2002 and Corpuz, 2018). Heavy drinking by pregnant women results in the so called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include facial deformities and defective limbs, face and heart (Santrock, 2002). Most of these children are below average in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson, 2000 and Burgess, 1996 quoted by Santrock, 2002 and Corpuz, 2018). Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. There are also higher incidences of preterm births and lower birthweights among children with smoking mothers (Wang, et al, 2000 quoted by Santrock, 2002). On average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with more incidence of toxemia, premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after birth, and breech deliveries. c) Environmental hazards – These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes ad prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and bathtubs. Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and Dixon, 1985 cited by Santrock, 2002 and Corpuz, 2018). Radiation from x-rays can also affect the developing embryo and fetus with the most dangerous time being the first several weeks after conception when women do not yet know that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002). Research found that toxic wastes such as carbon monoxide, mercury, and lead caused defects in animals exposed to high doses. For instance, early exposure to lead affects children’s mental development. Remember the action of the USA for the children’s toys with high lead content manufactured in China? Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the mother’s body temperature creating fever that endangers the fetus. The high temperature due to fever may College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 14 | 17  interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or even fetal death if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged period of time (Santrock, 2002). d) Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age (too early or too late beyond 30). Rubella (German measles in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 prenatal and neonatal (newborn) deaths and more than 20,000 affected infants who were born with malformations, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness, and heart problems (Santrock, 2002). Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages include eye lesions, which can cause blindness and skin lesions. When syphilis is present at birth, other problems involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract can develop. About one-third of babies delivered through a herpes-infected birth canal die; another one-fourth become brain-damaged. A mother can infect her child in three ways: 1) during gestation across the placenta, 2) during delivery through contact with maternal blood fluids, and 3) postpartum (after birth) through breastfeeding. Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature birth and reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that increased stress during pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life. Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and stress needs to be conducted for more conclusive findings. It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result to inadequate growth in the fetus. If a fetus does not receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An extremely deprived fetus may have 20% fewer brain cells than normal. If an infant has been malnourished both in utero and infancy, the brain may be as much as 60% smaller than that of the normal child. Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called nueral tube. A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube defect is born with a spine that is not closed. The exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental retardation. As maternal age increases, the risks for numerical chromosomal abnormalities increase. The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties. A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother under age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches 30. By age 40, the probability is slightly over 1 in 100, and by age 50 it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is higher before age 18 (Santrock, 2002). e) Paternal factors – Father’s exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood cancer. As in the case of older mothers, older fathers also may place their offspring at risk for certain defects (Santrock, 2002). 2. Feeding (Breast or bottle feeding) Another way to improve physical health is through good nutrition. The question arises whether children are healthier being breast or bottle-fed. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 15 | 17 Advantages of Breast Feeding Breastfeeding has some distinct advantages. It is the best food available for infants and is nutritionally superior to formula and cow’s milk. Breastfed babies have fewer cases of digestive upsets, allergies, coughs, respiratory difficulties, gastrointestinal infections, and diarrhea. Breast milk is clean and always at body temperature. Breast-fed babies gain weight more rapidly than bottle-fed babies, yet breast-fed babies are less prone to subsequent obesity. One big advantage is that breast milk contains antibodies derived from the mother’s body that immunize the infant from disease and infection. Another advantage is that nursing helps shrink the uterus back to normal size more quickly. In some respects, breast feeding is more convenient and practical. There are no bottles to sterilize, no formulas to mix, no refrigeration required, and no bottles to warm. In those ways, it saves time and money. And parents don’t have to bring along as much equipment when they go on a trip. There are also some psychological advantages. Many nursing mothers gain a great deal of satisfaction from breast-feeding: from giving good nutrition to their baby, from seeing their devotion, and from the feeling of closeness. Infants also gain emotional satisfaction and security from the closeness of breast-feeding, from feeling the mother’s warmth, and from the experience of sucking. All infants need to suck. Usually, they have to suck harder and longer during breast-feeding than during bottle-feeding to get enough milk. This sucking fulfills their psychological needs and provides nutrition. Parents need to recognize, however, that babies can achieve the same emotional security from bottle-feeding as from breast-feeding, provided that they are held and cuddled during feeding. All infants need physical contact and warmth, the sound of a pleasant voice, and the sight of a happy face. A warm, accepting parent who is bottle-feeding the baby can help the infant feel more secure and loved. The important consideration is the total parent-infant relationship, not just the method of feeding. Disadvantages of Breast Feeding There are also some disadvantages to breast feeding. One of the most frequent criticisms of breast feeding is that it is too confining, that it limits the mother’s physical freedom that it is inconvenient, especially for the mother who works outside the home. Few working mothers can take time off during the day to nurse the baby, unless the infant is being cared for nearby or in a child-care center at the place of business and the business allows time during the day for the mother to nurse. Even mothers who do not work must leave the house, at which time they either have to find a time and place to nurse their babies or have to hurry home in time of feeding. Nursing a baby also means that baby-sitters cannot be employed during feeding times. One answer, of course, is to use a breast pump and keep the milk in relief for the caregiver to feed the baby when the mother is out of the house. Another disadvantage of breast-feeding is that some drugs and chemicals are passed to the baby through the breast milk. Some drugs are not passed in large enough quantities to affect the baby. Other drugs, such as alcohol and narcotics, come through in sufficient amounts to cause addiction. The mother needs to check with her doctor to determine what medication she is allowed to take. Some mothers do not produce enough milk to satisfy the baby. There are various possible reasons for this. At the outset, it may take extra time to begin flowing. The colorless liquid called colostrum, produced by the breast the first couple of days after birth, supplies liquid and antibodies to the baby, and nervous upset may curtail the milk’s “coming in” for a longer time. The mother may need to consume more liquids to increase the supply. Breast size is not a factor because the number of mammary glands, which produces milk, usually about the same in all women. For some, breastfeeding becomes a painful experience. The nipples get dry and cracked. The baby bites the nipple and makes it sore. Other mothers complain the nursing is too fatiguing and that it takes too much out of them. Mothers certainly do need proper diet and rest. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 16 | 17 3. Childhood nutrition As children get older, a balanced diet is vitally important for their good health and vigor. Their bodies need protein, minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, fiber, and water. These nutrients are derived from the four basic groups: milk and dairy products, meat, fruits and vegetable, and breads and cereals. Children can be taught to eat from the four basic food groups every day as the best way of assuring good nutrition. During the period of rapid growth, adolescents need greater quantities of food to suffice body requirements. As a consequence, they develop voracious appetites. The stomach increases in capacity to be able to digest the increased amount of food. The caloric requirements for girls may increase on the average by 25% from ages 10 to 15. The caloric requirement for boys may increase on the average by 90% from ages 10 to 19. As a result, the adolescent boy finds it almost impossible to get enough to eat. References: Acero, V., et. al. (2008). Child and Adolescent Development. Quezon City, Philippines: Rex Book Store Inc. Anonat, R. (2014). Child and Adolescent Development. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Cobb, N. (2001). The Child: Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. Mountain Vice, CA: Mayfield Publications. Corpuz, B., et.al. (2018). Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Quezon City, Philippines: Lorimar Publishing Inc. Corpuz, B., et.al. (2010). Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Stages. Quezon City, Philippines: Lorimar Publishing Inc. Estrada, A. (2011). Developmental Characteristics of Young Children. Quezon City, Philippines: Rex Book Store Inc. History of Developmental Psychology. http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/developmental- psychology/history-of-developmental-psychology/ Kerry, K. (2021). Developmental Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/developmental-psychology-4157180 Garcia, C. (2009). Managing Children with Special Needs. Quezon City, Philippines: Rex Book Store Inc. Gastardo, M., et.al. (2003). Filipino Adolescents in Changing Times. Quezon City, Philippines: UP Center for Women’s Studies and the Philippine Center for Population and Development. Owens, K. (2002). Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Paulson, G. (2019). Developmental Psychology. New York, USA: Larsen & Keller Education. College of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Developmental Psychology P a g e 17 | 17