Distributed and Concurrent System PDF

**Q1. DISCUSS WHAT MAKES A DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING SYSTEM UNIQUE** A distributed computing system is characterized by its architectural design, where computation and data storage are distributed across multiple nodes or machines that communicate and coordinate to achieve a common goal. Several featur...

**Q1. DISCUSS WHAT MAKES A DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING SYSTEM UNIQUE** A distributed computing system is characterized by its architectural design, where computation and data storage are distributed across multiple nodes or machines that communicate and coordinate to achieve a common goal. Several features distinguish distributed computing systems from traditional centralized systems: 1. **Geographical Distribution:** One of the primary characteristics of distributed computing is the geographical distribution of its components. Nodes in a distributed system can be located in different physical locations, possibly spanning across cities, countries, or even continents. 2. **Concurrency and Parallelism:** Distributed systems often involve the concurrent execution of tasks across multiple nodes. This concurrency allows for parallel processing, where different components of a computation can be performed simultaneously. 3. **Autonomy and Heterogeneity:** Nodes in a distributed system are often autonomous entities that operate independently. They can have different hardware specifications, operating systems, and software configurations. 4. **Fault Tolerance and Reliability:** Distributed systems must be designed to handle failures gracefully. The failure of a single node or a network link should not result in the entire system\'s failure. 5. **Scalability:** Scalability is a crucial aspect of distributed computing, allowing the system to handle a growing number of nodes, users, or tasks. 6. **Communication and Message Passing:** Communication is a central aspect of distributed systems. Nodes need to exchange information, coordinate tasks, and maintain consistency across the system 7. **Consistency and Coordination:** Ensuring consistency of data and maintaining coordination among distributed nodes is a significant challenge. Distributed systems must implement mechanisms to handle concurrent updates, maintain data consistency across nodes, and resolve conflicts that may arise due to the decentralized nature of the architecture. 8. **Security Challenges**: Security in a distributed environment is complex due to the diverse and interconnected nature of nodes. Distributed systems must address issues such as data integrity, authentication, and protection against various forms of attacks. In summary, the uniqueness of distributed computing systems arises from their geographical distribution, concurrency, autonomy of nodes, fault tolerance, scalability, communication challenges, and the need for effective coordination. Successfully designing and managing distributed systems require a deep understanding of these characteristics and the implementation of specialized algorithms and protocols to address the associated challenges. **Q1B. WRITE A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON THE DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING MODELS YOU HAVE** **RESEARCH ON** Distributed computing models encompass various architectures and paradigms that dictate how computation and data processing are distributed across multiple nodes in a network. Here\'s a comparative analysis of two prominent distributed computing models: the Client-Server Model and the Peer-to-Peer Model. **Client-Server Model:** The Client-Server model is a widely used distributed computing architecture that establishes a clear distinction between two types of entities: clients and servers. This model is characterized by clients making requests for services, and servers responding to these requests by providing the requested services or resources. Here are key features and characteristics of the Client-Server model **Architecture:** - Centralized architecture with a clear distinction between client (requester) and server (provider) roles. - Clients initiate requests for services, and servers respond to these requests. **Communication:** - Communication is typically one-way, with clients making requests and servers responding. - Servers are dedicated to providing specific services, such as file storage, database access, or processing power. **Scalability:** - Scalability can be achieved by adding more powerful servers or upgrading existing ones. - Generally, limited scalability compared to some other models, as the system\'s capacity relies on the capabilities of the central server. **Peer-to-Peer Model:** The Peer-to-Peer (P2P) model is a distributed computing architecture that lacks a clear client-server distinction **(meaning it does not distinguish between a client/server)**. In this model, all nodes, or \"peers,\" in the network have equal status, functioning both as consumers and providers of resources. Here are key features and characteristics of the Peer-to-Peer model: **Architecture:** - Decentralized architecture with no clear client-server distinction. - All nodes in the network are peers and have equal status, contributing both as consumers and providers of resources. **Communication:** - Communication is bidirectional, as peers can both request and provide resources. - Nodes collaborate directly with each other, sharing resources such as processing power, storage, or files. **Scalability:** - Highly scalable due to the distributed nature of resources. - As more nodes join the network, the overall capacity and capabilities of the system increase. **Advantages of Client-Server Model**: - Clear roles simplify system management and security measures. - Centralized control can enhance security measures. - Well-suited for applications where specific resources need to be managed centrally. **Disadvantages of Client-Server Model:** - Potential bottlenecks as the server may become a point of congestion. - Reliability depends on the server\'s availability; if it fails, services may be disrupted. **Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Model:** - Enhanced scalability and resource utilization. - Decentralized nature offers increased fault tolerance; the failure of one node does not necessarily affect the entire system. - Well-suited for applications that benefit from distributed file sharing and collaborative processing. **Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Model:** - Challenges in maintaining security and trust in a decentralized environment. - Lack of centralized control can make it harder to manage and monitor the system. **Q1C. STATE ONLY, ANY FOUR REQUIREMENTS NEEDED WITH REGARDS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF** **DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM** 1. **Network Connectivity:** Adequate and reliable network connectivity is a primary requirement for the establishment of a distributed system. 2. **Communication Protocols**: Standardized communication protocols are essential for seamless interaction and data exchange among distributed nodes. 3. **Consensus Mechanisms:** Consensus mechanisms ensure agreement and consistency across distributed nodes in the system. 4. **Fault-Tolerant Design:** A fault-tolerant design is crucial to handle node failures and maintain system availability in a distributed environment. **2a. write with the aid of diagram discuss on distributed Operating System** **Distributed Operating System** A distributed operating system is an important type of operating system. An operating system is basically, a program that acts as an interface between the system hardware and the user. Moreover, it handles all the interactions between the [software and the hardware](https://www.toppr.com/guides/computer-aptitude-and-knowledge/basics-of-computers/hardware-and-software/). A distributed operating system is one in which several computer systems connected through a single communication channel. Moreover, these systems have their individual processors and[ memory](https://www.toppr.com/guides/computer-aptitude-and-knowledge/basics-of-computers/computer-memory/). Furthermore, these processors communicate through high-speed buses or telephone lines. These individual systems that connect through a single channel are considered as a single unit. We can also call them loosely coupled systems. The individual components or systems of the network are **Q2b. Characteristics that set it apart from a NOS** Features/Characteristics of Distributed Operating System 1. **Resource Sharing** The main important feature of this system is that it allows users to share resources. Moreover, they can share resources in a secure and controlled manner. Resources can be of any type. For example, some common resources which are shared can be printers, files, data, storage, web pages, etc. 2. **Openness** This means that the services which the system provides are openly displayed through interfaces. Moreover, these interfaces provide only the syntax of the services. For example, the type of functions, their return types, parameters, etc. These interfaces use Interface Definition Languages (IDL). 3. **Concurrency** It means that several tasks take place at different nodes of the system simultaneously. Moreover, these tasks can also interact with each other. It results in increasing the efficiency of the system. 4. **Scalability** It refers to the fact that the efficiency of the system should not change when more nodes are added to the system. Moreover, the performance for the system with 100 nodes should be equal to the system with 1000 nodes. 5. **Fault Tolerance** It means that the user can still work with the system in the case, hardware, or software fails. 6. **Transparency** It is the most important feature of the system. The main goal of a distributed OS is to hide the fact that the resources are being shared. **2c. Highlight some advantages & disadvantages of DOS** **Advantages of Distributed OS** 1. The load on the system decreases. 2. If one system stops it will not affect the other. 3. The system shares a workload that makes calculations easy. 4. The size of the system can be set according to requirements. **Disadvantages of Distributed OS** 1. The cost for set up is more. 2. Failure of the main system will affect the whole system. 3. Programming is complex **2d. Discuss any four-risk associated with distributed system.** Distributed systems introduce several challenges and risks due to their decentralized and interconnected nature. Here are four significant risks associated with distributed systems: 1. **Network Failures:** Network failures are a significant risk in distributed systems, where multiple nodes communicate over a network to achieve a common goal. These failures can manifest in various forms, including packet loss, latency, disconnections, or even the complete failure of network components. 2. **Data Inconsistency:** Data inconsistency is a significant challenge in distributed systems, where multiple nodes work collaboratively but independently, and ensuring a consistent view of data across the system poses inherent difficulties. Various factors contribute to data inconsistency in distributed systems, Concurrent Updates, Delayed Propagation, Partial Failures, Lack of Centralized Control, Heterogeneity of Nodes 3. **Security Concerns:** Security concerns in distributed systems arise from their decentralized nature, where multiple interconnected nodes collaborate to achieve a common goal. The distributed architecture introduces unique challenges and vulnerabilities that must be addressed to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data and services. 4. **Complexity in Coordination:** Coordination in distributed systems involves managing interactions and ensuring consistency among multiple nodes that work collaboratively towards a common goal. The inherent complexity in coordinating distributed systems arises from several factors, and addressing these challenges is crucial for maintaining system integrity and performance. **Q3. How distributed system works** **Q3ii discuss the following:** a. **Remote Procedure calls (RPC)** Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a protocol that enables a program or process to execute code or procedures on another address space or machine as if they were local. This communication paradigm abstracts the complexities of distributed computing and allows developers to build distributed applications by invoking procedures or functions on remote systems seamlessly. Here are key concepts related to Remote Procedure Calls: a. Client-Server Model: b. Stub or Proxy: c. Marshalling and Unmarshalling: d. Communication Protocols: e. Interface Definition Language (IDL): f. Synchronous and Asynchronous RPC: g. Binding and Discovery: h. Error Handling: i. Security: j. Examples of RPC Frameworks: b. **Remote Method invocation (RMI)** Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is a Java-based mechanism that enables objects in one Java Virtual Machine (JVM) to invoke methods on objects in another JVM, making it a form of remote procedure call (RPC) specific to the Java programming language. RMI allows distributed Java applications to communicate and invoke methods on remote objects, providing a seamless way for developers to build distributed systems. Here are key concepts related to Remote Method Invocation: a. Client-Server Model: b. Java Interface and Implementation: c. Stub and Skeleton: d. Registry: e. RMI Compiler (rmic): f. Serialization: g. Dynamic Class Loading: h. Security: i. Activation Framework: j. Garbage Collection: k. Asynchronous RMI: c. **Parallel virtual machine(pvm)** Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM) is a software system that facilitates the development and execution of parallel applications on a network of computers. PVM provides a programming environment that allows users to harness the computational power of multiple machines, creating a virtual parallel machine. **Q4. State And Discuss Five Areas Of Which Distributed System Is Applicable** Distributed systems find applications in various domains, enabling the efficient processing of tasks that involve the coordination of multiple entities across a network. Here are five areas where distributed systems are widely applicable: **Cloud Computing:** Cloud computing is a paradigm in computing that involves the delivery of various computing services, including servers, storage, databases, networking, analytics, software, and intelligence, over the internet (\"the cloud\") to offer faster innovation, flexible resources, and cost savings. **Big Data Processing:** Big data processing refers to the collection, storage, processing, and analysis of large and complex datasets that exceed the capabilities of traditional data processing systems. This field has emerged in response to the exponential growth of data generated by various sources, such as social media, sensors, transactions, and scientific research. Big data processing technologies aim to extract valuable insights, patterns, and knowledge from these massive datasets. Here are key aspects of big data processing:. **Distributed Databases:** Distributed databases refer to a database system in which data is distributed across multiple nodes or locations, and the processing is done in a distributed manner. This architecture allows organizations to manage large volumes of data, achieve scalability, improve fault tolerance, and provide efficient access to data in a distributed computing environment. Here are key aspects of distributed databases: **Internet of Things (IoT):** The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the network of interconnected physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other objects embedded with sensors, software, and network connectivity, enabling them to collect and exchange data. IoT is a transformative technology that facilitates the seamless integration of the physical and digital worlds, creating a vast ecosystem of interconnected devices. **Online Services and E-Commerce:** Online services and e-commerce refer to the electronic transactions and services conducted over the internet, enabling businesses and individuals to buy, sell, and exchange goods and services electronically. This digital marketplace has transformed the way commerce is conducted, providing convenience, accessibility, and a global reach. Here are key aspects of online services and e-commerce. Q3b. discuss the following: a. Deadlock avoidance Deadlock avoidance is a technique used in computer science and operating systems to prevent the occurrence of deadlocks. A deadlock is a situation in a multiprogramming environment where two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting for the other to release a resource, resulting in a circular waiting condition. b. Prevention In distributed systems, preventing deadlocks involves designing the system and its algorithms in a way that inherently avoids the possibility of deadlock occurrence. Here are some prevention techniques commonly used in distributed systems c. Detection and recovery Detection and recovery are crucial aspects of managing deadlocks in distributed systems. While deadlock prevention aims to eliminate the possibility of deadlocks, detection and recovery mechanisms are designed to identify and resolve deadlocks that may still occur. Here are key strategies for deadlock detection and recovery in distributed systems: