Adolescence: Physical & Cognitive Development PDF

AS2307 ADOLESCENCE: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Physical Development (Papalia & Martorell, 2021) Adolescence is the developmental shift that incorporates physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes and manifests differently in diverse social, cultural, and economic contexts....

AS2307 ADOLESCENCE: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Physical Development (Papalia & Martorell, 2021) Adolescence is the developmental shift that incorporates physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes and manifests differently in diverse social, cultural, and economic contexts. As such, puberty is a crucial physical change and constitutes the development of sexual maturity or fertility—the ability to reproduce. This work defines adolescence as the period between 11 and 19 or 20. Adolescence As a Social Construction Adolescence is not a clearly defined physical or biological category but a social construction. Children often entered the adult world in traditional and preindustrial civilizations when they reached physical maturity or began a vocational apprenticeship. Adolescence was initially recognized as a distinct stage of life in the Western world in the twentieth century. In most parts of the world, adolescence lasts longer and is less clear-cut than in the past. There are myriad reasons for this social change. For instance, puberty usually occurs sooner. Furthermore, as the world gets more technologically and informationally driven, the quantity of training necessary to be qualified for higher-paying employment has grown. As a result, adolescence has been pushed forward as young adults delay marriage and childbirth and settle into permanent jobs later and less solidly than in the past. Adolescence: A Time of Opportunities and Risks Any period of transition and change in one's life provides opportunities for advancement and risk. Adolescence is no exception. It provides possibilities for cognitive and social competence, autonomy, self- esteem, and interpersonal development. One of which is puberty, as it brings very significant bodily changes. These changes are part of a lengthy, complicated maturation process that begins even before birth, and their psychological consequences may last until adulthood. Any single factor does not cause the advent of puberty. Instead, puberty results from a cascade of hormonal responses. First, the hypothalamus releases elevated levels of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). The increased GnRH then triggers a rise in luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones exert their actions differentially on boys and girls. In girls, increased levels of FSH lead to the onset of menstruation. In boys, LH initiates the release of two (2) additional hormones: Testosterone and Androstenedione (Buck Louis et al., 2008). Two (2) Basic Stages of Puberty 1. Adrenarche. It happens between the ages of 6 and 8. During this stage, the adrenal glands release increasing amounts of androgens, most notably dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) (Susman & Rogol, 2004). Levels rise gradually but consistently, and by the age of ten, a child's DHEA levels are ten times higher than they were between the ages of one and four. DHEA impacts the development of pubic, axillary (underarm), and facial hair. It also contributes to quicker body growth, oilier skin, and the development of body odor. 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 1 of 10  AS2307 2. Gonadarche. It is marked by sex organ maturation, which causes a second surge in DHEA production (McClintock & Herdt, 1996). A girl's ovaries increase estrogen intake, encouraging the growth of female genitals, breasts, and pubic and underarm hair. The testes enhance the production of androgens, particularly testosterone, in boys. This rise causes male genitals, muscular mass, and body hair to develop. Changes that herald puberty begin at age 8 in girls and age 9 in boys (Susman & Rogol, 2004), but a wide range of ages exist for various changes. The pubertal process typically takes about 3 to 4 years for both sexes. Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics Primary Sex Characteristics include the organs that are necessary for reproduction. During puberty, these organs enlarge and mature. For females, the sex organs include the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, clitoris, and vagina. On the other hand, For males, it includes the testes, penis, scrotum, seminal vesicles, and prostate gland. Secondary Sex Characteristics are physiological signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve the sex organs (the breasts of females and the broad shoulders of males). It also includes the changes in the voice and skin texture, muscular development, and the growth of pubic, facial, axillary, and body hair. These changes unfold in a sequence that is much more consistent than their timing. The first external signs of puberty typically are breast tissue and pubic hair in girls and enlargement of the testes in boys (Susman & Rogol, 2004). A girl's nipples and protrude enlarge, and the breasts assume a conical and rounded shape. Areolae. The pigmented areas surrounding the nipples. Some adolescent boys experience temporary breast enlargement, much to their distress; this development is normal and generally does not last longer than 18 months. Pubic Hair. At first, straight and silky, it eventually becomes coarse, dark, and curly. It appears in different patterns in males and females. Adolescent boys are usually happy to see hair on the face and chest, but girls are generally dismayed at the appearance of even a slight amount of hair on the face or around the nipples, though this, too, is normal. Voice Deepens. Especially in boys, partly in response to the growth of the larynx and partly in response to the production of male hormones. The skin becomes coarser and oilier, giving rise to pimples and blackheads. Acne is more common in boys and is related to increased testosterone. Adolescent Growth Spurt. A rapid increase in height, weight, and muscle and bone growth that occurs during puberty (generally begins in girls between ages 9½ and 14½ (usually at about 10) and boys between 10½ and 16 (usually at 12 or 13). It typically lasts about two years) The maturation of the reproductive organs brings the beginning of menstruation in girls and the production of sperm in boys. 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 2 of 10  AS2307 Spemarche - The first ejaculation occurs at an average age of 13. A boy may wake up to find a wet spot or a hardened, dried spot on the sheets, the result of a Nocturnal emission, an involuntary ejaculation of semen (commonly referred to as a wet dream). Most adolescent boys have these emissions, sometimes in connection with an erotic dream. Menarche - First menstruation, occurs late in the sequence of female development; its expected timing can vary from age 10 to 16½ Menstruation - A monthly shedding of tissue from the lining of the womb. The normal passage of blood and mucosal tissue from the uterine lining via the vagina Influences on Pubertal Timing Many studies have found that the onset of puberty has decreased over the 20th century (Papadimitriou, 2016). One of which is the secular trend that lasts multiple generations. The upward trend in adult height and weight began about 100 years ago. It focuses on the environmental factors influencing the rate of pubertal development. Undernutrition, whether caused by a lack of food or by sickness, has been linked to a delayed beginning of puberty and a reduction in puberty growth spurt (Soliman, De Sanctis, & Elalaily, 2014) The Adolescent Brain - Adolescents are prone to various sorts of behaviors. They are becoming more intrigued and impacted by their social ties and peers. The developing teenage brain contributes to some of these typical adolescent characteristics. Adults digest information differently than adolescents. Physical Activity - Exercise, or lack thereof, impacts both physical and mental health. The advantages of regular exercise include increased strength and endurance, better bones and muscles, weight loss control, reduced worry and tension, and improved self-esteem, academic performance, and well-being. Decreases the likelihood an adolescent will participate in risky behavior. Sleep Needs and Problems - The American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends that adolescents ages 13 to 18 regularly sleep at least 8 to 10 hours per 24-hour period. Sleep deprivation may drain motivation and induce anger, as well as impair focus and memory, and school performance may decrease as a result. It has been linked to an increased risk of obesity, diabetes, accidents, poor mental health, attention and behavioral issues, and poor academic performance (Wheaton et al., 2018). Nutrition - Adolescents require adequate nourishment to sustain their fast growth and development and healthy dietary habits that will last a lifetime. Globally, a lack of enough nutrients and calories is more likely a problem for many teenagers in underdeveloped nations who suffer from iron insufficiency Anemia. Obesity/Overweight - Overweight and obesity in children and adolescents have grown dramatically worldwide. Obesity has evident hereditary contributions. Being born to overweight or obese parents increases the likelihood of childhood and teenage obesity, and overweight and BMI appear to be genetically driven. Overweight teens have lower health than their peers and are more likely to be obese to struggle with attending school, engaging in vigorous activities, or providing personal care. 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 3 of 10  AS2307 Body Image - Puberty can influence one's views, ideas, and feelings about one's body. Boys tend to be more satisfied with their bodies than girls because women grow dissatisfied with their looks, mirroring the cultural focus on physical characteristics. Anorexia Nervosa - Also known as Self-Starvation, it is potentially life-threatening. People suffering from anorexia have a skewed body image and believe they are overweight while significantly underweight. Paradoxically, purposeful and involuntary, an affected individual willfully denies the nourishment required for survival yet cannot quit even when rewarded or reprimanded. These patterns of conduct can be traced back to medieval times to have existed in every corner of the world. Bulimia Nervosa - Characterized by large, brief eating binges (2 hours or less) followed by attempts to purge excessive calorie consumption by self-induced vomiting, rigorous dieting or fasting, vigorous exercise, laxatives, enemas, or diuretics are all options. People with bulimia are not generally overweight, yet they are preoccupied with their weight and form. They are prone to have poor self-esteem and may get overwhelmed by guilt, self-disgust, other negative emotions, and depression. ANOREXIA NERVOSA BULIMIA NERVOSA Using laxatives, enemas, or diuretics Abuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas to inappropriately prevent weight gain Binge eating Binge eating Going to the bathroom right after meals Going to the bathroom right after meals Exercising compulsively Frequent weighing Restricting the amount of food eaten Self-induced vomiting Cutting food into small pieces Overachieving behavior Dental cavities due to self-induced Dental cavities due to self-induced vomiting vomiting Confused or slow thinking, poor memory, and judgment Depression Extreme sensitivity to cold Fine hair Low blood pressure No menstruation Significant weight loss and muscle wasting 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 4 of 10  AS2307 Treatment Of Anorexia And Bulimia Nervosa - The immediate goal is to get the patient to eat and gain weight. As such, patients may be admitted to hospitals if they are severely malnourished. Moreover, family and individual therapy is recommended. Drug Use and Abuse Substance Abuse. Frequent, dangerous use of a substance, typically alcohol or other narcotics. Dependence Or Addiction. It will likely be physiological, psychological, or both to last into adulthood. Risk Factors for Drug Abuse Poor Temperament Low impulse control and sensation-seeking Genetic Predisposition Inconsistent Parenting Persistent and early behavior patterns Isolation, peer rejection, or rebellious Attitudes on substance use and early initiation Common Adolescent Drugs Alcohol Marijuana Depression - It becomes more common during adolescence. Being a woman increases your chances of developing depression. Adolescent girls, particularly young girls, are likelier to be sad than teenage boys. For the Females, risk factors for depression include: Anxiety Fear of Social Contact Stressful Life Events Chronic Illnesses Such as Diabetes or Epilepsy Parent-Child Conflict Abuse/Neglect Cognitive Development (Martorell & Papalia, 2021) Piaget's Stage of Formal Operations - The formal operational stage begins at twelve and continues until adulthood. As teenagers go through this stage, they develop the ability to think abstractly by manipulating concepts in their heads without relying on tangible manipulation. Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning - It entails the ability to generate, consider, and evaluate hypotheses, as well as the ability to think critically. A young individual is comparable to a scientist investigating an issue. It is characterized by formal operations thinking as a rigorous, scientific approach to problem resolution. 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 5 of 10  AS2307 Evaluating Piaget's Theory - Many late teenagers and adults (about one-third) are incapable of abstract thinking. These are the inability to grasp the role or context of situations. Elkind: Immature Aspects of Thought - Elkind defines a personal fable as an adolescent's idea that they are exceptional, that their experience is unique, and that they are not subject to the norms that control the rest of the world. This notion may lead teens to assume they can drive quickly and carelessly without getting into an accident. Changes in Information Processing Structural Functional Increase in processing Increase in ability to capacity acquire, handle and retain information. An increase in working Mathematical and memory enables scientific reasoning adolescents to deal with complex problems. Improved proficiency in developing a conclusion Structural Change in Long-Term Memory Declarative To facts or data stored in the memory that is Knowledge deemed static Defines things, events, or processes, as well as their properties and relationships to one another. Procedural Understanding how to do a given skill or task is Knowledge regarded as knowledge linked to techniques, processes, or equipment operation. Conceptual The knowledge or comprehension of concepts, Knowledge principles, theories, models, and classifications. We gain conceptual information via reading, 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 6 of 10  AS2307 watching, listening, experiencing, or engaging in serious, reflecting mental activity. Language Development Adolescents also improve their social perspective-taking abilities. Adapt their discourse to the viewpoint of another individual. As an example, an adolescent may utilize more straightforward language while speaking to a child or swear among friends and show reverence when talking to a child when speaking to an adult. This competence is required for practical discussion. Language use in children often indicates their degree of cognitive development. School-age children are generally adept in language usage, but puberty presents additional challenges and refinements. Kohlberg's Level of Moral Reasoning The foundation of thinking processes is shown through responses. Kohlberg (1969) applied Three levels of moral reasoning to his issues, each separated into two (2) parts. Level I: Pre-conventional Morality - The first level of Kohlberg's moral philosophy is externally controlled reasoning, and rules are followed to benefit incentives or avoid punishment self-interest. Here, people act in response to environmental influences. They comply, follow regulations to avoid punishment, earn benefits, or behave in self-interest. This level is common for youngsters aged 4 to 10. Level II: Conventional Morality (or Morality of Conventional Role Conformity) - Level two of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, in which ethical principles are applied to the internalization of authority figures. Here, people have assimilated authoritative figures' norms. They are preoccupied with being "good," pleasing others, and preserving social order. This level is usually attained after age ten; many people never go beyond it, even as adults. Level III: Postconventional Morality (or Morality of Autonomous Moral Principles) - The third level of Kohlberg's moral philosophy logic is in which individuals believe moral ideals that are inwardly held and can choose between morally contradictory options standards. Here, people detect discrepancies in moral norms and form their opinions based on correct, fair, and just values. People generally do not achieve this degree of moral reasoning until early adolescence, if not later, in early adulthood. Concerns About Kohlberg's Theory include: Role Of the Influence Of Family Validity For Girls and Women Cross-Cultural Validity Gilligan's Theory: An Ethic of Care An ethics of care focuses on the importance of responsiveness in relationships (paying attention, listening, and reacting) and the costs of losing connection with oneself or others. Its reasoning is more inductive, contextual, and psychological than deductive or mathematical. 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 7 of 10  AS2307 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 8 of 10  AS2307 Influence on School Achievement Self-Efficacy Beliefs - Students with solid academic self-efficacy who feel they can succeed and attain educational goals will likely perform well in school. Parenting Styles - In contrast, a learner with poor self-efficacy may conclude that the content is too difficult or that the test is unfair. A belief system impairs work ethic and drive. Ethnicity - Minority children share many developmental impacts with their peers. Their majority-status classmates are subjected to extra possibly harmful influences like racism and discrimination. Thus, we might expect ethnicity to be an essential factor. Peer Influences - Peer influences on motivation are also important. In general, intellectually interested children associate with other academically engaged pupils, and this, particularly for girls, predicts subsequent achievement. Furthermore, kids who do well are likelier to be loved by their classmates, while those who perform poorly are more likely to be rejected or harassed. Gender - Female and male brains differ in form and organization from male brains, and these differences grow more prominent with age. School Influences on Achievement - The quality of education has a significant impact on student success. A good middle or high school atmosphere that is orderly and safe, with appropriate material resources, a steady teaching staff, and a good feeling of community is essential. The school culture prioritizes a significant focus on academics and the conviction that all kids can learn. It also provides possibilities for extracurricular activities that keep children interested and out of trouble after school. Teachers have faith in, respect for, and concern for their students and have high expectations for them and faith in their abilities to assist pupils in succeeding. Factors That Promote Active Engagement at School - Adolescents are more satisfied with the school if they can help make the rules and feel supported by instructors and classmates. The curriculum and instruction are relevant, appropriately demanding, and appropriate for their age group. The beneficial benefits of a school are determined by its distinct peer culture, which includes how students interact with one another. As well as their perceptions of the school’s academic atmosphere. High teacher expectations are the most consistent positive predictor of students’ aims and interests, and negative feedback is the most constant negative predictor of academic success and classroom conduct. Influences on Students’ Goals - Students' self-efficacy views influence the vocational possibilities they consider and how they prepare for professions. Furthermore, the values of the parent's academic success impact teenagers' values and career objectives. The school system may operate as a deterrent to 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 9 of 10  AS2307 occupational goals. Students who can memorize and analyze fare well. Students with exceptional abilities and aptitude in creative or practical thinking—areas critical to success in several fields rarely get an opportunity to demonstrate their abilities. Acceptance of a larger variety of intelligence and more flexible instruction and career guidance may enable more students to enroll to achieve their educational objectives. References Kohlberg, L., & Kramer, R. (1969). Continuities and discontinuities in childhood and adult moral development. Human Development, 12(2), 3–120. https://doi.org/10.1159/000270857 Papadimitriou, A. (2016). The Evolution of the Age at Menarche from Prehistorical to Modern Times. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 29(6), 527-530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2015.12.002 Papalia, D.E. & Martorell, G. (2021). Experience Human Development (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. Susman, E. J., & Rogol, A. (2004). Puberty and psychological development. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 15–44). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. 07 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 10 of 10