Democracy Lecture 4 PDF

DEMOCRACY LECTURE 4  WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? Democracy is also an “essentially contested” concept Origin of Democracy The term democracy originated in ancient Greek society It comes from the words demos meaning the people and kratos meaning power or rule (people’s rule/power) De...

DEMOCRACY LECTURE 4  WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? Democracy is also an “essentially contested” concept Origin of Democracy The term democracy originated in ancient Greek society It comes from the words demos meaning the people and kratos meaning power or rule (people’s rule/power) Democracy is therefore associated with rule by the people / government of/by the people Definitions A means of filling public offices through a competitive struggle for the popular vote A system of government that serves the interest of the people regardless of their participation in political life  A system of rule that secures the rights and interests of minorities by placing checks upon the power of the majority A society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than hierarchy and privilege A system of welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing social inequalities A system of decision-making based on the principle of majority rule A system of regular and competitive elections based on a universal franchise/suffrage Bernard Crick (2000) argues that democracy is perhaps the most promiscuous word in public affairs.” A term that can mean anything to anyone is in danger of meaning nothing at all Abraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address (1863) extolled the virtues  Democracy links government to the people. Hence, three questions to this effect are asked and explored; who are the people? How should they rule? And how far should popular rule extend? 1. Who are the people? In ancient Greek society “the people” referred to those who participated in political affairs: male citizens, 20 years and older. Women, children, non citizens and slaves could not partake/vote in political affairs Today universal adult suffrage allows all legal adults into political participation However, people in different contexts are prevented from voting by opportunistic and punitive legislations; examples; the clinically insane, the incarcerated, exclusion of blacks in the US until the 1960s, women in Saudi Arabia up until 2015 etc. In reality there are levels of political participation: by choice or by control - manipulation and/or limitation (laws). 2. How should the people rule? (Directly or indirectly) (a) Directly (direct democracy): In this form, the people rule through continuous participation in the form of mass meetings, referendums (a direct vote in which an entire electorate is invited to vote on a particular proposal which may result in the adoption of a new law/s) plebiscites, (a direct vote on of all the members of an electorate on an important public question such as a change in the constitution) As society developed and population increased, the practice of direct democracy; mass meetings, referendums, plebiscites etc. became increasingly challenging It is still practiced today to a limited extent, and incorporated within representative democracy, for example in the small townships meetings of New Mexico in the USA. Merits/Advantages of Direct Democracy  It allows the public to express their views and interests without resorting to politicians  It allows for greater control by citizens over decisions related to their public lives  It can potentially create a better informed and more politically sophisticated citizenry  It allows for greater sense of legitimacy to the extent that people are more likely to accept rules they made themselves Demerits/Disadvantages of Direct Democracy Some people would decline to participate in this type of democracy, which means the people who do vote might not make the right decisions for everyone There are also concerns about voters not understanding the social and political issues they are voting on  (b) Through representatives (Representative/Indirect democracy) In this form, people rule through the act of voting where they elect individuals to rule or make representation/decisions on their behalf (regular local and/or national elections in Guyana and elsewhere) Merits of Representative / Indirect Democracy:  It relives ordinary citizens of the burden of decision-making, thus making possible a division of labor in politics  It allows government to be placed in the hands of those with better education, expert knowledge and greater experience  It allows for the maintenance of stability by distancing ordinary citizens from politics, thereby encouraging them to accept compromise  It is comparatively more practicable than direct democracy Demerits/disadvantages of indirect/representative democracy It is a costly form of government (elections are expensive) This form of government encourages deception The majority still rules at the expense of the minority In some ways, it discourages participation It requires frequent and open communication to be effective 3. How far should popular rule extend? This relates to what issues should be left up to the individual to decide on, as opposed to the people to collectively decide on… (religion, marriage, sexuality etc. should be the domain of the individual) The purpose of democracy from this perspective, is to establish, through some process of popular participation, a framework of laws within which individuals can conduct their own affairs and pursue their private interests. Hence, the public/private divide is paramount Core elements of Democracy: Free, fair and frequent elections as a means for choosing and replacing the government (every 3, 4 or 5 years?) Separation of powers : The three arms/branches of government (executive, legislative, judiciary) must not be subjected to undue influence from the political executive or private individuals in order to guard against tyranny (cruel and oppressive government or rule) It carries the notion that power should not be concentrated in one branch, but should be distributed in such a way that each branch can independently carry out its own respective functions Protection of the human rights of all citizens (freedoms of speech, assembly, association, the press) which must be enshrined in law/the constitution Society based on the rule of law; where the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens and is defended by an independent judiciary. This allows for the safeguarding of the rights / freedom of individuals and to this extent can ensure legal equality for all Transparency / openness and accountability by agents and agencies acting on behalf of the state The active participation of the people as citizens in politics and civic life. Similarly there should be political representation of the people for example legislative representation of the varied interest of the people.  MODELS OF DEMOCRACY 1. Classical democracy This model was based on the polis, or city-state of Ancient Greece, particularly the largest and most powerful; Athens. It was a form of direct and continuous “popular” participation In this system, the citizens participated (in large numbers) in the regular meetings of the assembly by making decision and helping to shoulder the responsibilities of public office Participation was however restricted to Athenian-born males (only) who were over 20 years of age. Slaves, women and foreigners had no political rights Plato attacked this model of political equality on the grounds that the mass of the people neither possessed the wisdom or the experience to rule widely on their own behalf. His solution (advanced in “The Republic”) was for government to be place in the hands of a class of “Philosopher Kings;” - guardians whose rule would amount to an enlightened dictatorship. 2. Limited or “protective” democracy It is a system of constitutional democracy that operates within a set of formal or informal rules that check the exercise of government power (practiced in most democracies/societies today) This model sees democracy as a device through which citizens could protect themselves from the encroachments of government, hence, “protective” democracy This view appealed to early liberal thinkers whose concern was above all, to create the widest realm of individual liberty and scope to live their lives as they choose For liberals, if the right to vote is a means of defending individual liberty, liberty must also be guaranteed by a strictly enforced “separation of powers” via the creation of a separate executive, legislature and judiciary, and by the maintenance of basic rights and freedoms such as freedom of expression, movement, and freedom from arbitrary arrest 3. Developmental democracy This model is concerned with the human individual and the community First developed by Rousseau, this model extols the virtue of a “participatory society” – a society in which each and every citizen is able to achieve self-development by participating directly in the decisions that shape his or her life Rousseau believes that people are free only when they participate directly and continuously in shaping the life of their community This goal can be achieved only through the promotion of openness, accountability, and decentralization within all the key institutions of the society, the family, the workplace, and the local community just as much within political institutions such as parties, interest groups and legislative bodies At the heart of this model is the notion of “grass-roots” democracy; the belief that political power should be exercised at the lowest possible level 4. People’s or Socialist democracy The term people’s democracy has its origins in the orthodox Communist regimes that sprung up in the USSR after WW11, and has its roots in Marxists democratic models They (Marxists) see the liberal parliamentary democracy as a form of “bourgeois” or “capitalist” democracy For the Marxists, “People’s” or “Socialist” democracy is ideal because of its egalitarian (equality) implications The goal of People’s/Socialist democracy is that of social equality brought about through the common ownership of wealth, in contrast to political democracy which establishes only a façade of equality Marx believed that the overthrow of capitalism would be a trigger that would  RIVAL THEORIES OF DEMOCRACY 1. Pluralist theory/view This theory is traced to the writings of John Locke, Charles Montesquieu, and James Madison They stressed upon the multiplicity of interests and the existence of diversity within the society and insisted that unless each such group possessed a political voice, stability and order would be impossible (Madison) Madison proposed a system of divided government based on the separation of powers, bicameralism and federalism, all of which offers a variety of access points to competing groups and interests The resulting system of rule by multiple minorities is referred to as “Madisonian democracy.” Madison argued that unchecked democratic rule might simply lead to majoritarianism, to the crushing of individual rights, and to the expropriation of property in the name of the people, hence Pluralism/Madisonian Democracy is the 2. Elitist theory/view This view was developed as a critique of egalitarian ideas/models of democracy Vilfredo Pareto, Mosca, and Michaels (classical elitists) believe that political power is always exercised by a privileged minority; an elite Mosca argues that in all societies two classes of people appear; the rulers and the ruled. For him, resources or attributes that are necessary for rule are unequally distributed and that a cohesive minority will always be able to manipulate and control the masses even in a parliamentary democracy Modern elites argue that political systems fall short of the democratic ideal. C. Wright Mills (1956) in his Work The Power Elite argued that the USA was dominated by a nexus of leading groups. The “power elite” comprising the big businesses (particularly defense-related industries), the US military, and political cliques surrounding the president possess the power to shape key history-making decisions The electorate can decide on which elite rules, but cannot change the fact that power is always exercised by an elite The elite however is not a cohesive body. Competitive/democratic elitism highlights the significance of elite rivalry; example several political parties competing for public office etc. Some elitist theorists have argued that a measure of democratic accountability is consistent with elitist 3. Corporatist theory/view This dates back to the attempt in Fascist Italy during the post WW2 world to construct a “corporate state” by integrating both managers and workers in the processes of government It is a system for organized interests to be granted privileged and institutionalized access to policy formation. It recognized the need for institutional arrangements that were designed to secure the cooperation and support of major economic interests Government is thus conducted through organizations that allow state officials, employers’ groups and unions to deal directly with one another Economic interests are integrated into government as government sought to manage economic life and deliver a broad range of public services (Sweden, Norway, Austria, etc. in the post 1945 period) Corporatism is however markedly diminished today as economic policy has been shifted away from state intervention towards the free market. It has been criticized as a threat to democracy in that only certain privileged groups (insider groups) have access to government and have a political voice, while “outside” groups are denied one. 4. New Right theory/view This theory emerged as a critique to the Corporatist model in what it regards as “democratic overload”- the paralysis of a political system that is subject to unrestrained group and electoral pressures Theorists of this school advocate for the free market, believing that economies work best when left alone by government For them, corporatism allows well-placed interest groups to dominate and dictate to government, which enables them to demand increased pay, public investment, subsidies, state protection etc. This eventually leads to state intervention and economic stagnation 5. Marxists theory/views For Marxists, democratic politics is rooted in class analysis Political power cannot be understood narrowly in terms of electoral rights, or in terms of the ability of groups to articulate their interests by lobbying government. Political power is reflected in the distribution of economic power and, in particular, the unequal ownership of productive wealth There is tension between democracy and capitalism; that is, between the political equality that democracy proclaims and the social inequality that a capitalist economy inevitably generates Power cannot be widely and evenly dispersed in a society as long as class power is unevenly distributed They view liberal democracies as “capitalist” or “bourgeois” democracies that are manipulated and controlled by the entrenched power of the ruling class. Fundamental problems of democracy Undemocratic political party practices in the selection of representatives – implications for the integrity of representative democracy In spite of the notion of majority rule the contention is that power is by and large concentrated in the hands of small minorities/ elites ranging from party leaders to bureaucrats to wealthy business/ corporate interests. Contentions with Democracy in plural societies: Issues of transparency, corruption, lack of accountability, inefficiency and responsiveness in governance Issues of government and bureaucratic capacity: Public sector institutional reform/modernization to strengthen government capacity Ethnic and party cleavages: implications for inclusion and power sharing  Weak civil society activism, in spite of increased role as of recent times Need for good governance practices: increased promotion the rule of law Need for improvements to the electoral process  PRIMARY SOURCE  Heywood, Andrew. Politics. 5th ed. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. (Chapter 4)