Criminology Final Notes PDF

Biological trait theory Development: first became popular in the mid-19th century -​ Criminals shouldn't be held responsible - it is a biological cause -​ Degenerate family - a family dynamic considered harmful -​ Richard Dugdale's books proved hereditary -​ William Sheldon - soma...

Biological trait theory Development: first became popular in the mid-19th century -​ Criminals shouldn't be held responsible - it is a biological cause -​ Degenerate family - a family dynamic considered harmful -​ Richard Dugdale's books proved hereditary -​ William Sheldon - somatotype school holding that criminals manifest distinct physiques susceptible to crime -​ Mesomorphs - defined muscles -​ Endomorphs - heavy builds and lethargic behaviour -​ Ectomorphs - tall, less social etc. Sociobiology -​ Looks at sociological factors of crime -​ Edmund o Wilson book - sociobiology and the biological basis for Crime again emerged -​ Holds that people are controlled by survival needs -​ Bio, environment and learning are interdependent -​ Criminals are less evolved and evidence in physical features Modern biological theories -​ Physical environmental and social work together to produce human behaviour -​ Equippentiality - individuals seen as equal at birth and influenced by their environment -​ Instincts are inherited Nutritionally deficiency -​ Minimum levels of vitamins and minerals are needed for proper brain functioning -​ Lack of vitamins leads to behavioural, physical and mental issues -​ High carbs lead to attention span deficiency Hyperglycemia - blood falling below necessary for brain functioning causing irritability, anxiety and depression -​ Abnormals levels of androgen in males leads to aggression -​ Testosterone is the most abundant androgen Environmental contaminants -​ Dangerous amounts of chemicals lead to emotional and behaviour disorders -​ Minimata disease - affected the grassy narrows first nation in northwestern ADHD - inattention and hyper -​ Boys more hyper, girls less attention span Tumours injury and disease -​ Tumours lead to personality shifts, back to normal when the tumor is removed Brain chemistry and crime -​ Low levels of chemicals and neurotransmitters can lead to aggression  -​ Exposure to high levels fo androgen before nrith can lead to crime, as they are less responsive, and crave more adventure -​ Low levels of enzyme MAO linked to impulsivity Genetics and crime -​ Jukes and Kallikaks - look at how genetics can influence anti-social behaviour -​ Aggressive traits are inherited Twins - even when raised apart may show similar levels of crime, however its also down to social factors Adoption studies - adopted kids more likely to engage in crime if bio parents have criminals records Selection theory - R/K humans fall on different spectrums based on reproduction strategies -​ R selection individuals - frequently reproduce for little care about offspring - linked to violent crimes -​ K selection individuals - reproduce slowly and invest more in raising offspring Physiological trait theories -​ The study found no difference in physical characteristics between criminals and non-criminals -​ Defective intelligence - could be inherited, reproduction in families with these traits should be controlled -​ Tarde argues learning through imitation, especially among young and poor Psychodynamic perspective -​ Sigmund freud, consciousness states Freud believed personality made up of: ID: driven by biological urges, need for food Ego: balacing ids desires and need to follow social rules - develops as children learn cant always get what they want Superego: forms as we internalize moral standards and values of our parents, and society Human development - Freud believed humans are born with eros (basic drive) instinct to preserve and create life, through seeking pleasure 1.​ Oral stage (birth to 1 yr) - pleasure from sucking and biting 2.​ Anal stage (1 to 3) - focus shifts to controlling bodily waste 3.​ Phallic stage (4-5) : awareness of genitals 4.​ Latenyc stage (6-puberty) - sexual feelinsg repressed allowing fotr soical skills and friend fomrtaions 5.​ Genital stage (Puberty onwards) - start of adult sexuality Neurosis: Individuals who feel mental distress and fear they're losing control over their personalities Psychosis: those who have completely lost control -​ Schizophrenia: delusions and hallucinations -​ Paranoid schizophrenia - delusions of persecution where individuals think people are plotting against them Neurotic patterns: offenders unconsciously seek punishment for past wrongs Psychotic patterns: extreme criminality prevents offenders from understanding victims' feelings or controlling their needs for instant gratification Behavioural theories -​ Human actions developed through learning experiences -​ Alberta Bandura says violence is learned not innate -​ Bheaviour modelling - learning aggression from family, environmenta experiences and mass media Social learning theorists say that these factors produce violence and aggression 1.​ An event that heightens arousal such as being provoked through physical assault to abuse 2.​ Aggressive skills from observing 3.​ Expected outcomes, the belief that aggression will be rewarded in money, reduced tension or anger 4.​ Consistency of behaviours with values - aggression can be justified and appropriate Cognitive theory -​ Moral development: how people perceive the world -​ Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener and William James -​ Moral development: how people make moreal decisions and reason right and wrong -​ Information processing - how people process store and retrieve info Lawrence Kohlberg - applied moral development to criminology 1.​ Obedience and punishment: following rules to avoid puishment 2.​ Self interest: focusing on personal needs and leaving others to meet their own 3.​ Good intentions: considering others feelings and perspectives 4.​ Social order: valuing societal rules and group welfare 5.​ Social contract: recognizing individual right within a societal framework 6.​ Universal principles: upholding justice, equality and respect for all human life Criminals score lower on moral reasoning Cognitive theorists explanations of antisocial behaviour in decision making: -​ Encoding information: understanding and interpreting data -​ Response search: looking for appropriate reactions -​ Decision making: the best action -​ Action: going through with it Mental illness and crime Different psychological views -​ Psychoanalysts: see mental illness as an escape from unbearable stress  -​ Cognitive psychologists: link mental illness to thought disorders and overstimulation -​ Behavioural theorists: focus on environmental influences like family experiences and social rejection Behavioural patterns: -​ Individuals with mental illness are more prone to self-harm or withdrawal rather than aggression -​ Most violent crimes committed by people with individuals in non substance-related disorders Andre Dallaire: -​ Highlights the intersections of mental illness and crime, demonstrating the consequences of untreated psychological issues Criminal personality traits Hans Eysenck: -​ Identified two key personality traits linked to antisocial behaviour -​ Extroversion - introversion -​ Extreme introverts are overstimulated and avoid new experiences -​ Extreme extroverts are understimulated and seek out sensations -​ Stability-instability -​ Neurotic individuals are anxious and emotionally unstable -​ Those who are neurotic and extroverted tend to lack self awareness, act impulsively and struggle to make judgments What causes psychopathy -​ Unstable parents, lack of love in childhood, inconsistent discipline Multidimensional personality questionnaire: Assess personality traits like contro, aggression and alienation -​ Stalkers and abuse traits like emotional volatility, childhood trauma, and abuse Nature theory: Genetic influences: if intelligence is largely inherited then low intelligence could be linked to crime Historical support -​ Early 20th-century studies showed that inmates in prisons and juvenile facilities had low IQ scores -​ Henry Goodards 1920 studies indicated that many institutionalized individuals has mental deficiencies Nurture theory -​ Intelligence was viewed as primarily sociological -​ Discredited the notion that people commit crimes because of low IQs Social policy implications -​ Biological and psychological views of Criminality have had an important influence on crime control nd prevention policy  -​ Secondary prevention is like counselling after a law violation -​ Pretrial programs sought to divert offenders into nonpunitive rehab -​ Correctional confinement to deal with problems if it's called for 7: social structure theories Sociological criminology -​ Looks at how patterns of behaviour exist within the social structure and how they can be predicted and controlled -​ Social change and dynamic aspects of human behaviour -​ Transformation in cultural norms and institutions Natural areas - zones in urban areas that become natural areas for crime Chicago school - where research on social ecology and urban crime developed in the early 20th century Economic structure and crime -​ Distribution change - more people are starting to become better off than the working class, with universal medical care and public and private Inequality -​ Lower-class, underserved areas are sites of inadequate housing and health care, disrupted family lives, underemployment, depression and despair -​ Adolescents in these neighbourhoods have higher chances of dropping out and becoming teenage parents -​ Oscar Lewis contended that slum areas produce a culture of poverty that is passed from one generation to the next, and that is marked by apathy, cynicism, helplessness and mistrust of social institutions such as schools, government agencies and the police -​ More likely to suffer violence at the hands of the police Unemployment and crime -​ Crime is linked to economic deprivation, simply because if people do not have jobs they are more likely to turn to crime as a means of support -​ During times of hardship, victims possess fewer valuables and guard the valuables they do have more closely Branches -​ Lower-class crime is often the violent, destructive product of youth gangs and marginally employed young adults ​ -​ Dont believe that crime is primarily caused by biological traits, insensitivity tos social controls, personal choice or any other indidivudla level factor -​ Because certain crime rates are higher in lowerc lass urban centres, the social forces operating in urban areas must be influencing or controlling behaviour -​ Social disorganization theory - focuses on conditions within the urban environment that affect crime rates. Neighbourhoods marked by poverty, lack of cohesiveness, transiency and anomie -​ Strain theory - people cannot achieve goals legitimately if denied access to education and social support Social disorganization theory -​ Links crime rates to neighbourhood ecological areas -​ Elevated in highly transient mixed neighbourhoods and changing neighbourhoods. -​ Social disorganization theory views crime-ridden neighbourhoods as ones from which residents are trying to leave at the earliest Concentric zone theory -​ Popularized by Chicago sociologists who linked life in traditional slum areas to crime, based on research begun during the 1920s -​ Shaw and Mckay noted that these distinct ecological areas comprised a series of concentric circles or zones, with significant differences in crime rate The legacy of Shaw and McKay -​ Crime is a result of destructive ecological conditions -​ Not all criminals are biologically inferior, intellectually impaired or psychologically damaged. The social ecology school -​ Criminologists revived concern about the effects of social disorganization, and social ecologists developed an approach that stressed the relationship of community deterioration and economic decline to criminality while placing less emphasis on value conflict Community deterioration -​ Crime rates associated with community-level indicators of social disorganization, including disorder, poverty, alienation, disassociation and fear of crime -​ Gangs flourish in deteriorated neighbourhoods, adding to the crime rate -​ Social disorganization theory was a strong predictor of crime rates, as socially disorganized neighbourhoods in Scandinavia and GB have the highest crime rate and victimization Siege mentality In community disorganization, fear causes the belief that the outside world is an enemy Reulstig in mistrust of critical social institutions Population turnover In inner cities, residents' wealth and density are always changing Some neighbourhoods may become multiracial, while some are racially homogeneous etc. Community change: Social ecologists study the life cycles of urban areas, which typically follow these stages: 1.​ Development: Residential buildings are constructed. 2.​ Decline: Socio-economic status drops and population density increases. 3.​ Demographic Change: Shifts in racial or ethnic makeup occur, followed by population thinning.  4.​ Renewal: Obsolete housing is replaced or upgraded, a process known as gentrification. As neighbourhoods deteriorate, crime and delinquency rates often rise. Areas most affected tend to have: ​ High numbers of single-parent families. ​ A shift from owner-occupied homes to rental properties. ​ Economic declines with fewer semi-skilled and unskilled jobs. Collective efficacy refers to the mutual trust and willingness of community members to intervene in supervising children and maintaining public order. Cohesive communities with high levels of social control demonstrate low levels of disorder, while those with low collective efficacy experience higher violence and disorder. Forms of Collective Efficacy: 1.​ Informal Social Control: ○​ Involves neighbors and families reinforcing positive behaviors (e.g., watching over each other’s homes). This type of control can reduce crimes like burglary. 2.​ Institutional Social Control: ○​ Effective social institutions require trust and cohesion. In disorganized neighborhoods, institutions struggle to engage youth, making them vulnerable to gang recruitment. Supportive entities include schools, churches, and recreation centers, which can stabilize communities and lower crime rates. 3.​ Public Social Control: ○​ Stable neighborhoods can secure external resources, like police presence, through political power. Greater police visibility helps reduce crime, whereas disorganized areas face inadequate policing and resources, leading to ineffective social control efforts. Social altruism contrasts with weak social controls by fostering strong social supports within communities. Residents instill moral and social obligations towards each other, promoting sensitivity to others' rights and respect for differences. Key Points: 1.​ Support Networks: ○​ Residents in organized communities can rely on one another for support, which helps reduce crime rates. Conversely, disorganized areas often lack connections to more affluent neighborhoods, contributing to higher violence rates. 2.​ Relationship with Crime: ○​ Areas emphasizing care for others tend to be less crime-prone. Research shows a negative correlation between social altruism (e.g., charitable  contributions) and crime rates, with well-funded charities providing safety nets for at-risk families. 3.​ Impact of Social Support: ○​ Higher levels of social support are associated with lower rates of violent crime, such as homicide. Studies, like those by Vincent Sacco, explore how social capital in relationships (e.g., with parents and teachers) influences feelings of vulnerability to crime. 4.​ Community Programs: ○​ Programs like the Mennonite Central Committee's "Circles of Support" help reintegrate sex offenders into communities. These circles not only support ex-offenders but also enhance community safety, as volunteers see the benefit of reducing recidivism. 1.​ Context of Anomie: ○​ Anomie is most likely in societies transitioning from traditional, cohesive models to industrial ones, where people are interconnected through a division of labor. This transition can lead to social unrest and confusion about norms. 2.​ Impact of Rapid Change: ○​ Events like the COVID-19 pandemic highlight anomic conditions, as societal norms were challenged and divisions emerged over responses to the crisis. This period saw an increase in crimes such as fraud and domestic violence. 3.​ Merton’s Adaptation: ○​ Robert Merton expanded on Durkheim’s ideas, suggesting that anomie results from a mismatch between culturally defined goals (like wealth and success) and the socially approved means to achieve them (such as education and hard work). 4.​ Access to Opportunities: ○​ Not everyone has equal access to legitimate means. Those with less education or from disadvantaged backgrounds may feel locked out of opportunities, leading to frustration and potential criminal behavior as they seek alternative ways to achieve societal goals. 5.​ Consequences: ○​ As legitimate pathways to success become restricted, some individuals may turn to crime or delinquency as a means to fulfill their desires. This highlights that societal conditions create situations where individuals' aspirations become unrealizable. Social adaptations -​ Merton argued that some people have inadequate means of attaining success and that others who do have the means reject societal goals as being unsuited to them -​ Conformity occurs when individuals embrace conventional social goals and can attain them through acceptable means -​ Innovation occurs when an individual accepts the goals of soicety, but is incapable of attaining them through conventional means -​ Ritualism occurs when social goals are reduced in importance. Ritualists gain pleasure from the pratcie of traditional ceremonies that have neither a real purpose nor a goal  -​ Retreats reject both the goals and the means of society; in society but nt of it. Included, drug addicts, psychotics etc. escaping success with deviance -​ Rebellion involves substituting an alternative set of goals and means for conventional ones Key Points - Anomie and Modern Society: 1.​ Diminished Institutional Roles: ○​ Institutions like family, school, and community have become less effective in promoting values beyond financial success. Their importance is diminished by the overwhelming focus on economic achievement. 2.​ Economic Prioritization: ○​ Conflicts between personal and professional life are often resolved in favor of work. Economic goals frequently take precedence over commitments to family and community. ○​ Economic language permeates society, with phrases like "bottom line" reflecting this dominance. 3.​ Cultural Implications: ○​ High crime rates can be linked to the societal emphasis on material wealth that cannot always be attained through legitimate means, leading to crime as a strategy for success. ○​ The weakening of informal social controls—like those from families and schools—means these institutions fail to regulate behavior effectively. 4.​ Societal Impact: ○​ In prosperous economies, the allure of financial gain may lead individuals to pursue wealth through illegal avenues. As economic focus intensifies, the role of social institutions in maintaining order weakens. 5.​ Supporting Research: ○​ Areas with strong institutional controls (high church membership, low divorce rates, and high voter turnout) tend to have lower crime rates. ○​ People who aspire to the “North American dream” but do not achieve economic success may resort to crime, particularly among those with higher expectations of material wealth. 6.​ Policy Implications: ○​ The Messner–Rosenfeld framework suggests that investing in social programs can mitigate crime rates. This concept, known as decommodification, proposes that providing economic safety nets allows individuals to resist the pressures of economic deprivation. ○​ Countries with robust social support systems experience lower crime rates, even amid income inequality. Ideas like a guaranteed annual income could further reduce crime. Relative Deprivation Theory and Crime 1.​ Income Inequality: Neighborhood income inequality strongly predicts crime rates, creating feelings of strain and mistrust. 2.​ Perceived Humiliation: Economic disparity can lead to feelings of humiliation, fueling criminal behavior.  3.​ Relative Deprivation: Affluent areas next to impoverished communities generate a sense of injustice, leading to aggression and crime. 4.​ Youth Impact: Adolescents in poor neighborhoods may turn to drug trade and violence due to frustration from relative deprivation. General strain theory ​ Focus on Micro-Level: GST emphasizes individual responses to strain rather than broader social class differences in crime rates. ​ Sources of Strain: 1.​ Failure to Achieve Goals: Discrepancy between aspirations (e.g., wealth) and actual resources leads to frustration. 2.​ Expectations vs. Achievements: Comparing oneself to more successful peers can result in adverse reactions like vandalism. 3.​ Loss of Positive Stimuli: Experiencing loss (e.g., death, moving) may lead individuals to seek revenge or substitute what’s lost. 4.​ Presence of Negative Stimuli: Exposure to negative factors (e.g., abuse, neglect, family conflict) can contribute to criminal behavior. ​ Broader Application: Agnew’s theory aims to explain criminal behavior across all social classes, not just the lower class. Coping with Strain in General Strain Theory (GST) ​ Not Everyone Becomes Criminal: Experiencing strain does not automatically lead to criminal behavior; individuals cope in various ways. ​ Coping Mechanisms: ○​ Cognitive Defenses: Rationalizing the situation, such as downplaying the importance of unmet career goals. ○​ Behavioral Responses: Actions like running away or seeking revenge. ○​ Emotional Regulation: Techniques to regain balance, including physical exercise or substance use. ​ Variability in Coping: ○​ Coping ability varies based on life experiences, financial resources, temperament, and peer influences. ○​ Those with fewer economic means may struggle more with resilience. ​ Attribution of Blame: ○​ Identifying a target for blame can lead to retaliatory actions (e.g., fighting). ○​ Internalizing blame tends to reduce the likelihood of criminal behaviour (e.g., recognizing personal faults). ○​ Ambiguous strains (e.g., general feelings of depression) are less likely to provoke aggression. ​ Role of Self-Control: ○​ Research indicates that self-control can mediate the effects of strain; those with high self-control are better able to avoid delinquency. ○​ Low self-control may lead to higher delinquent behaviour in response to strain. Evaluating General Strain Theory (GST) ​ Clarification of Strain: Agnew’s GST refines the concept of strain, guiding future research on how social and life events impact offending patterns. ​ Sources of Strain:  ○​ Longitudinal studies show adolescents perceiving "life hassles" (e.g., peer rejection) and "negative life events" (e.g., crime victimization) are more likely to engage in crime. ○​ Indicators of strain such as family break-up, unemployment, and dissatisfaction with social ties correlate positively with criminal behavior. ​ Youth Criminality: ○​ Middle-class youth dropping out of school are more prone to criminal activities. ○​ Stress and anger increase interactions with delinquent peers and criminal behaviors. ​ Coping Mechanisms: ○​ Persistent drug users often feel significant life stress and associate with other substance users, using criminal behavior as a coping strategy. ​ Storylines Concept: ○​ Agnew introduces "storylines" to explain how individuals rationalize their criminal actions, often linking them to stressful events or conditions. ○​ Offenders narrate incidents that led to their crimes, framing themselves as reacting to unplanned or unusual pressures (e.g., seeking revenge, paying off debts). ​ Emotional Dynamics: ○​ A storyline typically starts with an upsetting event that amplifies strain and alters interactions. ○​ Offenders often describe a transformation into a more aggressive or desperate persona during these stressful times. ​ Identity and Blame: ○​ Negative emotions (e.g., anger, humiliation) prompt individuals to find blame, leading to criminal actions as a response to perceived threats to their identity or status. ​ Youth Perspectives: ○​ Research with homeless street youth shows that beliefs about employment and societal norms shape their responses to strain. ○​ Those who view crime as superior to available jobs are more likely to engage in criminal behavior, indicating that strain can lead to deviance as an adaptive response. ​ Baron’s Research: ○​ Explores links between labor-market strain and crime among high-risk youth, highlighting how factors like abuse, homelessness, and peer influence shape criminal behavior. ​ Low Self-Control: ○​ Influences reactions to strain and criminal events, with learned aggression mediating these effects. ​ Gender Differences: ○​ Relative deprivation affects property and violent crime differently based on gender, indicating nuanced responses to strain. Cohen's Subcultural Theory of Lower-Class Males ​ Subculture Choices: Lower-class males facing rejection by middle-class society often join one of three subcultures: corner boy, college boy, or delinquent boy. ​ Corner Boy: ○​ Engages in petty offenses (e.g., drug use) but is not a chronic delinquent. ○​ Values peer group loyalty and relies on it for support and motivation. ○​ Accepts failure to meet middle-class standards and settles into a stable life in the community, often in a low-paying job.  ​ College Boy: ○​ Aspires to middle-class success by embracing its cultural values. ○​ Faces significant challenges due to lack of academic and social skills, making success nearly impossible. ​ Delinquent Boy: ○​ Adopts oppositional norms and lives for immediate gratification. ○​ Joins gangs for independence and reacts aggressively to frustration and perceived threats (reaction formation). ○​ Willing to take risks and engage in criminal behavior as a form of rebellion Theory of Differential Opportunity: Cloward and Ohlin ​ Integration of Strain and Social Disorganization: ○​ Combines elements of strain theory and social disorganization to explain youth delinquency. ○​ Highlights the importance of fitting into a delinquent subculture. ​ Youth Gangs: ○​ Arise in disorganized areas where conventional success is unattainable. ○​ Youths desire middle-class values but lack means to achieve them. ​ Types of Gangs: ○​ Criminal Gangs: ​ Found in stable but poor areas. ​ Close connections among offenders provide training in criminal skills. ​ Members prove reliability to gain acceptance and learn criminal techniques. ○​ Conflict Gangs: ​ Develop in highly disorganized communities with no legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. ​ Engage in individualistic, unorganized crime. ​ Violence is used to gain status and respect from peers. ○​ Retreatist Gangs: ​ Composed of individuals who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate pursuits. ​ Engage in substance use and petty crime to sustain habits. ​ Seek approval and status through alternative means. Evaluation of social structure theories Influence on criminology and crime prevention: realities of high crime and delinquency rates in inner-city areas. Chronic Offenders: ○​ A small percentage of the population commits a majority of crimes, raising questions about the effectiveness of social structure explanations alone. ○​ Most lower-class individuals remain law-abiding, highlighting the complexity of criminal behaviour. Community-oriented policing: maintaining community standards rather than solely fighting crime -​ Collaboration with groups and citizens Shaw’s Chicago Area Project aimed to develop social stability through recreation programs, education improvements, and partnerships with law enforcement Chapter 8: Parental efficacy -​ Adolescents who do not recive affection from their often hostile parents during childhood are more likely to use illicit drugs and to be more aggressive as they mature -​ Loving parents with discipline are less likely to engage in crime Peer relations -​ Between the ages of 8-14, children seek out a stable peer group and that group has a bigger role in decision-making than parents do -​ Friends give them emotional support -​ Boys are more likely to be victims of physical bullying, girls more likely to face relational bullying -​ Peer pressure - stress-inducing -​ Learn to cope and discuss feelings they wouldn't talk to their parents about -​ Deviant teens provide friend groups that support it and drug use -​ “If you drink ill drink” Differential association theory -​ Sutherland's research on white-collar crimes and professional theft led him to dispute the notion that crime is a function of the inadequacy of lower-class people Principles: -​ Crime is learned in the same manner as any other behaviour -​ Crime is learned in interaction with other persons -​ Learning crime occurs within intimate personal groups -​ Techniques, supporting motives, rationalizations and attitudes -​ Not uniform, people come into contact with people who have different views on the legal code -​ A criminal perceives more benefits to violating the law -​ Vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity -​ Learning definitions favourable to criminality produces illegal behaviour Differential reinforcement theory -​ Learned behaviour -​ Direct conditioning occurs when behaviour is rewarded or punished during interaction with others -​ Involves learning from direct or indirect interaction with others  -​ Imitation - occurs through observational learning experiences liek watching TV and films Deny responsibility - beyond their contro; Deny injury - denying teh wrongfulness of an act Deny the victim - victim of crime had it coming (asked for it) Condemn the condemners - blaming others for other crimes Appeal to higher loyalties - justify illegality as an expression of loyalty to ones peers The defence of necessity - smth is morally wrong but okay if necessary The metaphor of the ledger - the balance of good qualities make up for the bad Denial of the law necessity - the law itself is not fair or just Claim that everyone else is doing it - criticism is being singled out Claim of entitlement - individual feels they are entitled to the gains of crime Containment theory: recklessly argued that even if you grow up in a criminal high environment, you can avoid it with good self-esteem Strong self-image can counter-act: -​ Internal pushes - personal factors like restlessness, hostility rebellion anxiety etc, -​ External pressures - poverty minority status etc -​ External pulls - deviant companions, mass media etc. The Four Elements of the Social Bond: 1.​ Attachment: ○​ Refers to the emotional connections a person has with others, especially family and friends. ○​ People who are attached to others care about their opinions and don’t want to disappoint them, which prevents them from committing crimes. 2.​ Commitment: ○​ Involves the time and effort spent pursuing conventional goals, like getting an education or building a career. ○​ People who have committed to these goals have more to lose by engaging in criminal activities. 3.​ Involvement: ○​ Refers to how much time a person spends in conventional, legal activities (e.g., school, work, sports). ○​ People who are busy with positive activities have less time or temptation to get involved in crime. 4.​ Belief: ○​ Refers to how strongly a person believes in society’s laws and moral rules. ○​ If someone believes in these values, they are less likely to break the law. If they don’t believe in these rules, they’re more likely to commit crimes. -​ Hirschi tested this theory through a survey of 4000 high school students, finding a strong correlation between parental child relationships, education commitment and involvement in and out of school Critiques of social control theory -​ Delinquents, not lone wolves, not always without good relationships -​ Involvement - in illegal activity increases crime -​ Social control works better for small petty crimes -​ Hirschi says weak bonds lead to crime, but Agnew argues that crime leads to weak bonds What is Labelling Theory? ​ Labelling theory explains how criminal careers are formed through social interactions and how people are treated or labelled by others. ○​ Police, courts, and prisons are often the institutions that label individuals as criminals. These systems may unintentionally reinforce criminal behavior. ○​ Once labelled as a criminal, a person may become more committed to a deviant career, especially if they bond with others who share the same label (i.e., other criminals or outcasts). ○​ This stigmatization often makes people feel isolated from society and can lead to further deviance. ○​ Often leads to more isolation Kai Erickson- deviance is not inherently a part of certain actions, but is defined by the audience's reaction to those actions Edwin Schur - something is deviant when society labels it as such Howard Beaker - moral entrepreneurs meaning groups of individuals that create rules and promote values that define deviance Primary deviance - small acts of breaking rules that don't affect one's identity, like a uni student taking drugs to study and they do well so it goes unnoticed Secondary deviance - when a deviant act is noticed and the person is negatively labelled Master Status: ​ A label that becomes more important than other parts of a person's identity (e.g., being labeled a "drug dealer" may overshadow being a "father"). Retrospective Reading: ​ When people look back at a person’s past and interpret their past actions to fit their current label. ​ Example: When someone becomes a criminal, people look at their childhood and say, “Oh, they were always suspicious.” Kaplan's General Theory of Deviance: ​ People who can’t fit into society’s rules face negative reactions (like being called a failure).  ​ These negative reactions can lead to low self-esteem and adopting deviant behaviors. ​ People who are labeled negatively might join groups of others who are also labeled as deviant, which makes them more likely to continue deviant behavior. Negative Sanctions and Deviance Amplification: ​ If a person gets punished or criticized, they may reject society's rules and hang out with others who are also labeled as deviant. ​ This group support can make their deviant behavior worse over time. John Crawford Case (Key Court Case) ​ Some criminal careers begin without labelling. ​ Labelling often follows chronic offending rather than causes it. ​ Early criminal careers may be so deeply entrenched in social and psychological problems that labelling has a relatively insignificant impact. ​ The role of labelling in John Crawford's criminal career is questioned—did negative labelling significantly contribute to his trajectory, or was it less important given the challenges he faced? Single-factor theories divide the world into those who have a producing condtion and those who don't Developmental criminology - early and late onset criminality studied, studying change in criminal career over a lifetime Multifactor theories: -​ Combine factors from structural, socialization, conflict, choice, and trait theories. -​ Explain how criminal careers form (environment, personality etc.) Latent theories -​ Focus on stable traits like personality -​ Traits are stable, but opportunities can still influence, commit more in youth bcos of opportunity Life course theories -​ Tendency changes over time -​ Some ppl stop committing crime as tehy get older, while others start -​ As people mature, the factors that influence their behavior change. For example, family may be the strongest influence in adolescence, while work and marriage may be more important in adulthood. Structural factors: Income, status Socialization factors: Family, peers Biological factors: Size, strength Psychological factors: Intelligence, personality Opportunity factors: Free time, availability of crime opportunities Daniel glazer - differnetial anticipation theory -​ People commit crimes based on the expected rewards vs costs. Social development model -​ The SDM combines ideas from social control theory, social learning theory, and structural models of crime to explain how criminal behaviour develops. -​ Community level risk factors -​ Poverty, weak social control, poor educational systems -​ Create opportunities for crime -​ Socializiation and building -​ A child’s pro-social bonds (connections to family, school, etc.) develop over time and influence their behavior. -​ Strong family bond leads to more success -​ Children with weak bonds or antisocial influences (e.g., deviant peers) are more likely to develop antisocial behaviors. -​ Role of antisocial behaviour -​ Antisocial behavior often develops through interaction with deviant peers -​ Youth who see rewards and opportunities in deviance are more likely to form attachments to deviant peers and adopt antisocial values. -​ Youth who see rewards in normal, pro-social activities will form attachments to conventional people and develop moral beliefs that guide their behavior. -​ Protection against deviance -​ The SDM suggests that commitment to conventional institutions, such as family, school, and work, can protect youth from crime. -​ Strong pro-social bonds help youth resist the negative influences around them and reduce the likelihood of deviant behavior. -​ Prediction of criminal behaviour -​ predicting violent behavior and antisocial behavior in youth, including delinquency and drug abuse. -​ Early-onset offenders (those who start committing crimes early in life) and later-onset offenders (those who start committing crimes later) can both be explained by the SDM. -​ Youths who learn deviant attitudes and have weak connections to conventional institutions (e.g., family, school) are more likely to engage in crime. -​ Those who see deviant acts as easy and rewarding are more likely to commit crimes. -​ Interventions: -​ Treatment interventions focus on building strong bonds to family and school. -​ These interventions help youths resist the temptation to engage in criminal behavior, like drug use and delinquency. Elliott's integrated theory - combines elements of strain theory, social learning theory, and social control theory to explain how crime develops in adolescents. The theory posits that certain factors contribute to the likelihood of criminal behavior, including social disorganization, poor socialization, and perceived strain. Key Components of Elliott’s Integrated Theory: 1.​ Social Disorganization (A): Adolescents living in socially disorganized neighborhoods (e.g., poverty, weak social controls) are at higher risk of engaging in criminal behavior. These neighborhoods lack stable social structures and community support systems. 2.​ Poor Socialization (B): When children are poorly socialized (e.g., inconsistent discipline, lack of parental support), they are more likely to struggle in adapting to conventional societal norms. 3.​ Perceived Strain (C): Adolescents in these environments are likely to experience strain, which increases their frustration and alienation. Strain can come from social, economic, or personal pressures that make them feel powerless or unable to achieve societal goals. 4.​ Weak Bonds to Conventional Groups (D): As strain increases, adolescents may become detached from conventional groups (family, school, peers) that could help guide them toward socially acceptable behaviors. Weakening of these bonds reduces the influence of pro-social norms. 5.​ Rejection of Social Values (E): Faced with strain and weakened social bonds, some youths may reject conventional values, feeling that societal rules are irrelevant or unattainable. 6.​ Deviant Peer Group Involvement (F): Adolescents who reject conventional values are more likely to seek out deviant peer groups. These peers provide reinforcement for criminal behavior and offer role models that validate deviance. 7.​ Positive Reinforcements for Deviance (G): Involvement with deviant peers often leads to positive reinforcement for antisocial behavior, such as approval or rewards for engaging in criminal activities. 8.​ Increased Delinquency (H): As the cycle continues, weak bonds, deviant peer influences, and positive reinforcement for deviance lead to increased criminal activity and drug abuse. Integrated Structural Marxist Theory- This theory integrates Marxist conflict perspectives with structural and process-based factors to explain crime. The theory emphasizes that crime results from alienation caused by economic and family struggles. 1.​ Alienation and Family Conflict: Crime is often linked to negative family relationships, particularly when there is economic strain, inconsistent discipline, or alienation from parents. These negative family dynamics affect children’s adjustment to school and lead to delinquent behavior. 2.​ Economic Strain: Poor job conditions and low wages contribute to alienation both at home and in the workplace, fostering frustration that can lead to criminal behavior, particularly violent or economic crimes. 3.​ Social Exclusion and Delinquency: The alienation from conventional social structures (family, work) leads to further alienation, reinforcing deviant behavior through associations with similarly alienated peers. The Glueck Research on Criminal Careers Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck’s longitudinal research on juvenile delinquency focused on the development of criminal careers, particularly the early onset of delinquent behavior as a predictor of future criminality. Key Findings: ​ Early Onset and Stability: children who engage in delinquency are more likely to continue their criminal behavior throughout adulthood. ​ Family Relations: The quality of family life—particularly discipline and emotional ties to parents—was found to be a critical factor in the persistence of delinquency. ​ Biological and Psychological Traits: Factors like low intelligence, mental illness, and physical traits (e.g., powerful physique) were also identified as contributing to the likelihood of persistent offending. Later Life Course Research: ​ Desistance: More recent studies, particularly by Laub and Sampson, show that many individuals desist from crime as they age, often due to life changes such as marriage or securing a steady job. These life changes help restructure social bonds, moving individuals away from criminal peers and toward more conventional lifestyles. ​ Life Turning Points: Positive life experiences, such as joining the military, marriage, or finding steady employment, have been shown to be critical turning points that help individuals turn their lives around. The Desistance Process: ​ Cognitive Transformations: Successful desistance often involves a shift in identity, where former offenders begin to see their deviant past as irrelevant. This transformation is supported by environmental hooks for change (e.g., meeting a supportive spouse, or getting a job that provide both new opportunities and social support. Youth Treatment Facilities: Group therapy to challenge delinquent values and promote prosocial behavior. Youth Diversion Programs: Aim to avoid the formal criminal justice system by having offenders make restitution, apologize, or do community service. Celebrity Advocacy: Public figures (e.g., athletes) encouraging youth to avoid drugs and crime. Head Start Program: Provides early education, health services, and social support to disadvantaged children, aiming to prevent future criminality. Family and School Programs: Focus on improving relationships and engagement to prevent delinquency. Multi systemic therapy: Home-based therapy targeting family, school, peers, and community relationships. Family Group Conferencing: Involves offenders, victims, and families in discussions to repair harm. Sentencing Circles: Used in Indigenous communities to involve community in determining the response to crime. Non-Custodial Programs: Focus on rehabilitation rather than incarceration. 9 social conflict theory: Marx on crime -​ Crime is a product of law enforcement policies akin to the labelling process -​ Connection between criminality and inequality -​ Engels described the rime as a function of social demoralization: workers demoralized in capitalist society, had been caught up in a process that led to crime and violence Willem Bonger - believes that society is divided into haves and have-nots, not on the basis of people's innate abilities but because of the system of production in force Rahl Dahrendorf - argued that modern soicety is organized into what he called imperatively coordinate associations: those who possess authority and use it, those who lack authority and are dominated George Vold -​ Argued that laws are created by politically oriented groups, which seek the government's assistance to help them defend their rights nd protect their interests -​ Law created to hamper and curb the interests of some opposition groups -​ May ask for help in breaking a strike as it hampers production Conflict criminology -​ Describe how control over the political and s=economic system affects teh administration of criminal justice, to show how the definitions of crime favour thsoe who control teh justice system, and to show how justice in society is skewed so that those who deserve to be punished the most are actually punished the least and vice versa Power relations - unequal distribution of power and wealth produces conflict, and in situations of relative disparity it produces resentment -​ People use power to shape public opinion -​ The power to control people is exemplified by the relationship between the justice system and members of minority groups -​ Minorities underrepresentation - affected ability to address that group's needs -​ Victimizes minorities - charged with more serious offences -​ More frequent arrests  -​ Predictive policing programs unfairly target marginalized areas Qunniey said criminal definitons are based on 1.​ Changing social conditions 2.​ Emerging interests 3.​ Increasing demands that political economic and religious interest coudl be protected 4.​ Changing conceptions of public interest Norm resistance - Austin Turk says social conflict is inevitable R v Gladue, Lisa never was the 2nd woman in Canada to be declared a dangerous offender, 22 offences and was finally sentenced to robbery, a designation overturned, as she was a victim of racism because she was Indigenous The development of a radical criminology -​ Traced to the National Deviancy Conference held in Britain in 1968 -​ Attendees were critical of teh positivist criminology being taught in british and American universities, which sought to locate the origins of crime within the individual -​ Rejected the conservative stance of those criminologists who had a close financial relationship with government funding agencies -​ Given a powerful boost when Taylor Walton and young published the new Criminology followed by Critical Criminology, which criticized existing concepts in criminology as correctional -​ Scholars at the University of california began to follow a new radical approach to criminology, they had others such as Richard Quinney and William chablis, were influenced by teh Vietnam war, prison struggled and civil rights and feminist movements -​ Criticized mainstream criminology for being conservative and por government -​ Scoffed when their fellow scholars used statistical analyses of data to describe criminal and delinquent behaviour -​ Many famous past scientists racists and stuff -​ Saints and the Roughnecks Chambliss criticized the different ways in which two juvenile gangs were treated, one working class and the other form a higher class -​ Criminology school at Berkeley was eventually closed for what many believe were political reasons -​ New branches of radical criminology were developing elsewhere -​ In Canada left criminology developed out of these international movements but also out of a radical political economy endogenous to the country's development “Capitalist has always produced high levels of crime and violence” - Karl Marx, 3 implications of this view: -​ Each society produces its own types and amongst of crime -​ Each society has its own distinctive ways of dealing with crime -​ Each society gets the amount and type of crime it deserves Core Interest of Marxist Criminology ○​ Examines the relationship between crime, ownership, and control of private property in capitalist societies. ○​ Ownership of private property is viewed as the principal basis of power in capitalism. Surplus Value Explained ○​ Surplus value arises when the cost of labor is less than the value of the goods produced. ○​ Profit from surplus value can be: ​ Shared with workers. ​ Reinvested in technology. ​ Used to enrich owners Methods to increase surplus value: ​ Workers made to work harder for less pay. ​ Increased efficiency through technology. ​ Replacing workers with labor-saving machines. Globalization and Surplus Value ○​ Production shifts to regions with lower wages and fewer restrictions (e.g., weaker unions and environmental laws). Instrumental Marxism (Bullet Points) ​ Core Beliefs ○​ Criminal law and justice systems serve as tools for controlling the poor. ○​ The state operates as an instrument of capitalist interests. ○​ Laws protect the powerful and enforce their morality on society. ​ Economic Influence on Crime ○​ Capitalism generates surplus value by exploiting labor (e.g., through low wages or labor-saving technology). ○​ Frustration among the poor arises when affluence is visible but unattainable, often leading to crime. ​ Social Conflict and Class Rebellion ○​ Class frustration can lead to riots or protests, such as the Rodney King riots (1992) and George Floyd protests (2020). ○​ Crime often reflects class conflict rather than inherent deficiencies in the lower classes. ​ Role of the Law ○​ Laws uphold capitalist structures and maintain economic inequality. ○​ Crime control institutions focus on suppressing lower-class dissent. ○​ Legal definitions of crime favor the ruling class and marginalize the oppressed. ​ Privilege and Class Discrimination  ○​ Privilege includes rights, traits, and material goods determined by violence and coercion. ○​ Laws targeting the poor (e.g., mandatory drug testing for welfare recipients) reinforce inequality. ​ Corporate Crime vs. Traditional Crime ○​ Corporate crimes are often decriminalized or weakly regulated. ○​ Meanwhile, penalties for blue-collar crimes (e.g., drug offenses) have intensified. ​ Criticism of Instrumental Marxism ○​ The theory assumes all laws favor the ruling class, ignoring instances where laws benefit the lower class. ○​ Critics argue that capitalists often compete rather than collude. ​ Transition to Structural Marxism ○​ Due to perceived limitations, some theorists advocate structural Marxism, focusing on systemic issues rather than conspiratorial intent. Structural Marxism diverges from Instrumental Marxism by arguing that the law does not always work exclusively for the rich but serves the long-term stability of the capitalist system. Stephen Spitzer's Marxian theory identifies deviance as behavior that challenges: ​ Capitalist production modes (e.g., rejecting wage labor). ​ Consumption patterns (e.g., drug use as escapism). ​ Socialization processes (e.g., rejecting schooling). ​ Ideologies that sustain capitalism. Mechanisms to Address Threats ○​ Normalization: Formerly illegal acts, like abortion, may be legalized to reduce resistance. ○​ Conversion: Co-opting individuals into the system, such as involving gang leaders in youth programs. ○​ Containment: Isolating deviant behaviours geographically (e.g., relocating prostitution through crackdowns). ○​ Support for Criminal Enterprises: Certain activities, like organized crime, may indirectly benefit the capitalist system (e.g., through money laundering). Definition and Origins ​ Left realism emerged as a response to critiques of both strict "law and order" policies and utopian Marxist perspectives that overlook the realities of street crime. ​ Key scholars include British criminologists Lea and Young, who highlighted that street crime disproportionately affects the poor and disenfranchised. Core Ideas 1.​ Relative Deprivation: Discontent arising from inequality leads to crime, especially when no political solutions are available.  2.​ Victim-Centered Focus: Recognizes the centrality of victims in criminological research, especially those from marginalized communities. 3.​ Role of Police and Justice: While critical of excessive force, left realism views the police and courts as essential public services that can benefit all classes if reformed to be more sensitive and less oppressive. Policy Implications ​ Community-Based Crime Prevention: Advocates for pre-emptive deterrence, where community efforts target root causes of crime, such as marginalization and lack of opportunity. ​ Short-Term, Non-Draconian Solutions: Crime-control strategies should address immediate concerns without excessive reliance on punitive measures. Principles of Left Realism 1.​ Capitalism and Crime: Crime symbolizes the alienation fostered by capitalist systems. 2.​ Public-Police Relations: Effective policing depends on mutual trust and collaboration with the community. 3.​ Victim-Offender Dynamics: Recognizing the relational impact of crime is crucial for addressing its consequences. 4.​ State-Offender Relationship: Harsh treatment by the justice system can exacerbate recidivism. Marxist Feminism ​ Core Idea: Gender inequality stems from capitalism, where women are commodified and exploited within a patriarchal system. This inequality is amplified by the control of property, inheritance, and labor structures. ​ Key Points: ○​ Economic dependency of women in capitalist societies limits their opportunities for crime, leading them to commit less serious offenses like substance abuse. ○​ Male violence against women is tied to powerlessness in economic structures, with women often being victims of intimate partner violence. ○​ Scholars like Messerschmidt explore how capitalist patriarchy shapes crime, arguing that men control women biologically and economically, contributing to gendered violence. Radical Feminism ​ Core Idea: Crime among women is deeply rooted in patriarchal domination and male aggression, with female criminality often a response to victimization and systemic control. ​ Key Points: ○​ Sexual exploitation, victimization, and societal structures reinforce male control, causing women to engage in behaviors labeled as deviant, such as substance abuse or running away. ○​ Patriarchal systems often ignore or trivialize female victimization, as seen in cases of sexual harassment and abuse in schools or workplaces. ○​ Radical feminists criticize the justice system for revictimizing women and perpetuating the double standard in treating female delinquents. Power-Control Theory  ​ Developed by John Hagan, this theory links family structures and workplace dynamics to gender differences in crime: ○​ Paternalistic Families: Daughters are closely controlled, leading to lower rates of delinquency compared to sons. ○​ Egalitarian Families: Less parental control leads to similar delinquency rates between sons and daughters, with middle-class girls more likely to engage in risky behaviors. Queer Criminology ​ Focus: The experiences of LGBTQ individuals in the justice system and society, highlighting systemic biases, higher incarceration rates, and targeted violence, particularly against trans people of color. ​ Key Concerns: ○​ Media and societal narratives often misrepresent LGBTQ individuals, framing them as deviant. ○​ Discrimination and violence are exacerbated by anti-LGBTQ laws and inadequate responses from law enforcement. Deconstructionism is a critical framework analyzing language and communication within legal and social structures. It examines how power relations—rooted in gender, ethnicity, and social class—are institutionalized through discourse, often perpetuating systemic inequalities. Semiotics: Language is viewed as a system of signs that convey meanings beyond their literal definitions. For example, in sports, terms like "blitz" or "hat trick" evoke imagery and context specific to the field. Value-Laden Language: Language reflects societal biases. For instance: ○​ The labeling of PMS or PMDD can medicalize and deviantize women's natural experiences, reinforcing stereotypes. ○​ Racial profiling in policing uses language to construct racialized groups as inherently "dangerous." Power Through Discourse: Police and state authorities often frame narratives (e.g., youth gangs, ethnic groups) to justify discriminatory practices while obscuring systemic racism. Aspect Deconstructionism Restorative justice Focus Language and power Healing relatinships and structure community bonds Methodology Critical discourse analysis Mediation and communit involvement application Understanding systemic Addressing harm through bias and inequality collaborative action Critique of systems Highlights institutionalized Opposes punitive state racism and sexism centred justice Peacemaking criminology advocates for a restorative, compassionate approach to justice, rejecting retributive methods like punishment and imprisonment. Key Principles: 1.​ Wholeness and Healing: Crime is seen as a breakdown in relationships and community bonds. The goal is to repair these through non-violent methods. 2.​ Critique of Punishment: Punitive measures are viewed as perpetuating violence rather than resolving it. The state's approach to punishment mirrors the harm caused by offenders, fostering further conflict. 3.​ Humanitarian Justice: Justice should involve understanding and addressing harm holistically, fostering connectedness and positive growth among all parties involved. 4.​ Conflict Transformation: Advocates for addressing the root causes of violence and societal conflict rather than merely punishing symptoms of deeper issues. Applications: ​ Mediation and Dialogue: Bringing together victims, offenders, and communities to resolve conflicts collaboratively. ​ Restorative Practices: Programs like victim-offender reconciliation aim to heal rather than alienate. ​ Educational and Social Reform: Promoting communication, challenging marginalization, and transforming societal structures that encourage violence. Chapter 12: The White-Collar Crime Problem: ​ White-collar crime costs are estimated to be in the hundreds of billions of dollars, surpassing other types of crime. ​ Occupational crime, including employee theft, accounts for billions annually. ○​ Examples: Inflated expense accounts, false invoices, personal use of company supplies. ​ White-collar crimes also result in: ○​ Property damage and loss of life. ○​ Violations of safety standards and environmental pollution. ○​ Industrial accidents caused by negligence. ​ Impacts include: ○​ Acute disasters (e.g., dam collapses). ○​ Chronic issues (e.g., diseases from industrial pollution). ​ Sociologist Gilbert Geis emphasized the seriousness of white-collar crime: ○​ Destroys public confidence and integrity in commerce. ○​ Has the potential for catastrophic consequences (e.g., nuclear safety violations, toxic waste dumping). North American companies face risks from international white-collar crimes: ○​ Examples: Theft of trade secrets, intellectual property, and technology. ○​ Fraud categories:  ​ Corporate crime: Illegal acts during normal business operations, often driven by competition. ​ Government crime: Illegal acts by government officials or with their knowledge. ​ Occupational crime: Extra earnings through rule violations (e.g., tax evasion). ​ Organized/professional crime: Incomes primarily from illegal activities. Edwin Sutherland first defined white-collar crime as conspiracies by the wealthy for personal gain without regard for the law. Modern criminologists broaden the definition: Illegal acts using nonphysical means for financial or personal gain, Includes crimes by individuals in positions of trust in businesses or government. Occupational crimes: Employees commit crimes against their employers. Corporate crimes: Offences committed by corporations themselves. Edelhertz's Categories: ○​ Ad hoc violations: Personal profit crimes (e.g., welfare or tax fraud). ○​ Abuses of trust: Crimes against organizations (e.g., embezzlement). ○​ Collateral business crimes: Actions protecting businesses (e.g., concealing pollution). ○​ Con games: Scams targeting clients (e.g., fraudulent land sales). Victim Typology in Corporate Crime: ○​ Consumer: False advertising, harmful products, price gouging. ○​ Environment: Pollution, habitat destruction. ○​ Worker: Unsafe conditions, pension fund misuse. ○​ Competitors: Price-fixing, industrial espionage. ○​ State: Tax evasion, political bribery. 1. Individual Exploitation of Institutional Position ​ occurs when individuals exploit their power to demand bribes or illegal payments for services that victims have a right to expect. ​ Examples: ○​ A fire inspector demanding payment for issuing a restaurant license. ○​ Purchasing agents receiving kickbacks for awarding contracts. 2. Influence Peddling and Bribery ​ Selling power, influence, or insider information to outsiders. ​ Government Examples: ○​ Politicians take bribes or kickbacks, such as in the sale of government contracts. 3. Corruption in the Criminal Justice System ​ Examples of Misconduct: ○​ Police officers stealing funds or narcotics confiscated in raids. ○​ Officers involved in organized crime, such as cannabis production or obstructing justice. 4. Embezzlement and Employee Fraud ​ Blue-Collar Fraud: ○​ Theft at lower organizational levels, such as pilfering goods, falsifying prices, or stealing fuel. ○​ Motivated by job dissatisfaction or perceived exploitation. The Savings and Loan (S&L) Scandal ​ Overview: A 1980s financial crisis caused by deregulation, greed, and fraud in the savings and loan industry. ​ Key Issues: ○​ Mismanagement and fraudulent loans led to significant losses ($500 billion). ○​ Funds were often diverted for personal luxuries (e.g., private jets, art collections). 2. Client Fraud - individuals stealing from organizations. ​ Health Care Fraud: ○​ Doctors and chiropractors billing for services not provided or inflating claims. ○​ Kickback schemes and coaching patients to fake injuries. ​ Bank Fraud: ○​ Examples include false loan applications, money laundering, and auto title frauds. ​ Tax Evasion: ○​ Citizens and businesses underreport income, contributing to an underground economy valued at 3% of Canada’s GNP. ○​ Enforcement challenges mean middle-income taxpayers are more targeted than wealthy individuals or corporations. 3. Corporate Crime ​ Definition: Illegal actions by corporations aimed at boosting profits or market position, often causing public or environmental harm. ​ Examples: ○​ Hazardous Products: Companies knowingly sold defective goods, such as Firestone tires that caused fatal accidents. ○​ Workplace Safety Violations: Incidents like the Westray mine disaster killed workers due to negligence. ○​ Environmental Crimes: Actions like dumping hazardous waste, as seen in cases like Lac-Mégantic. Unregulated Practices: Many cases stem from inadequate oversight, allowing unethical practices to thrive. Economic and Social Impact: These crimes cause widespread harm, from financial collapses to loss of life and environmental destruction. Accountability Gap: Perpetrators, especially those in high positions, are rarely convicted, perpetuating a cycle of abuse. Public Trust Erosion: Crimes by respected individuals and corporations undermine trust in institutions. Green Criminology ​ Focus: Examines harms to the environment caused by corporate and governmental actions. ​ Harms Perspective: Analyzes the physical, financial, emotional, and cultural harm caused by environmental damage. ○​ Examples of Harm: ​ Toxic waste dumping. ​ Air pollution, like AK Steel Corp.'s violations resulting in a $1.65 million civil penalty. ​ Unsafe agricultural practices, including chicken farming, which can pollute ecosystems and harm health. Westray Mine Disaster (1992): Poor safety conditions caused a methane explosion, killing 26 miners. This led to the 2004 Westray Bill, making corporate executives criminally accountable for workplace safety violations. Lac-Mégantic Train Disaster (2013): An unmanned, improperly secured crude oil train derailed in Quebec, killing 47 people and destroying much of the town. Subsequent investigations revealed systemic industry failings, such as poor supervision and safety practices. Green crimes are seen through the lens of harm rather than strict legal definitions. This perspective advocates for severe penalties for activities causing long-term environmental damage, such as toxic waste dumping and air pollution, due to their enduring effects on health and ecosystems. Notable Cases 1.​ Deepwater Horizon (2010): ○​ Explosion and oil spill caused ecological devastation in the Gulf of Mexico and highlighted corporate negligence in prioritizing profit over safety. ○​ Harms extended to worker safety and marine ecosystems. 2.​ Lac-Mégantic Disaster (2013): ○​ A runaway train carrying crude oil derailed, killing 47 people and destroying the town.  ○​ The train's operator, MMA Railway, faced negligence charges, but its bankruptcy complicated accountability. 3.​ Kinder Morgan Pipeline Expansion: ○​ Controversial due to its environmental risks and perceived violations of Indigenous rights. ○​ Activists like Elizabeth May labeled it a "crime against future generations," protesting the prioritization of resource extraction over climate action. Forms of Green Crime 1.​ Deforestation and Illegal Logging: ○​ Contributes to biodiversity loss, carbon emissions, and displacement of Indigenous communities. 2.​ Unsafe Work Environments: ○​ Over 20 million workers exposed to hazardous materials globally, often in the pursuit of profit. 3.​ Toxic Waste Dumping: ○​ Creates residual harm, poisoning ecosystems and leading to diseases like cancer. Activism and Resistance ​ Protests and Civil Disobedience:​ Activists, including Indigenous groups, often engage in direct action to prevent environmental harm, sometimes labeled as "ecoterrorism." ​ Corporate and Government Pushback:​ Governments and corporations use surveillance, legal injunctions, and law enforcement to suppress environmental protests, aligning economic interests with state power. Corporate Culture Theory ​ White-collar crime is compared to street-level crime, where deviance is learned through cultural and organizational norms, much like gang behavior in lower-class subcultures. ​ Business organizations may indirectly encourage deviance by: ○​ Setting unrealistic profit goals. ○​ Normalizing rule-breaking to achieve success. ○​ Developing subcultures resistant to regulation, teaching new employees how to break laws. ​ Conditions that foster white-collar crime: ○​ Weak market conditions. ○​ Intense competition. ○​ Limited law enforcement oversight. ○​ Corporate cultures that prioritize profit over ethics. ​ Shame of discovery: Public exposure and corporate policies (like whistleblowing) can deter white-collar crime by emphasizing accountability and minimizing secrecy. Hirschi and Gottfredson argue that white-collar crime is driven by low self-control, not corporate culture. Enforcement Challenges ​ Detection and enforcement largely depend on government agencies and regulatory bodies. ​ Challenges include: ○​ High costs of investigations. ○​ Limited resources for prosecuting white-collar crime, especially when violent crimes are prioritized. ○​ Canada’s lax securities and banking laws, which allow white-collar crime to persist. Compliance Strategies ​ Aim to ensure conformity without criminal prosecution, often focusing on self-policing and incentives. ​ Examples: ○​ Economic sanctions for regulatory breaches (e.g., fines for pollution or workplace safety violations). ○​ Exclusion from government contracts as punishment for fraudulent practices. ○​ Policies emphasizing the act (not the individual) to avoid stigma. Deterrence Strategies ​ Focus on detecting violations, holding individuals accountable, and enforcing penalties to discourage crime. ​ Emphasis on: ○​ Punishing white-collar criminals to signal consequences. ○​ Publicized cases of severe punishment (e.g., long prison sentences for executives) as a deterrent. ​ Challenges: ○​ While some executives face harsh penalties, most offenders receive lighter sentences (e.g., under a year in prison). ○​ Limited resources and higher priority given to other crimes (e.g., violent crime) hinder prosecution. ○​ Public pressure from highly publicized crimes may increase penalties but risks overreaction in cases of negligence. Shifts in Enforcement ​ The perception of white-collar crime is evolving: ○​ There’s increased public demand for justice, pushing governments to impose stricter penalties. ○​ However, efforts to "get tough" may sometimes disproportionately punish negligence rather than intentional crimes. Organized Crime and Legitimate Enterprises ​ Integration with Legitimate Business: Organized crime groups often infiltrate or buy into legitimate businesses, such as garbage collection or real estate, to launder their criminal proceeds. ○​ For example, criminal organizations invest in the Canadian real estate market to launder money through fake mortgages or solicitor-client privilege. ○​ These organizations can also manipulate labor unions and corrupt public officials for financial gain. ​ Organized Crime Tactics: ○​ Protection Money: Criminals often extort legitimate businesses. ○​ Monopolies and Cartels: Organized groups limit competition by controlling markets. ○​ Illegal Manipulation of Stocks/Bonds: These groups also engage in financial fraud, including the manipulation of stocks and bonds. Historical Evolution: ○​ The first organized gangs in the U.S. were Irish immigrants, with Italian immigrants later forming the Black Hand gangs in the 1890s. ○​ Prohibition created a profitable illegal liquor trade, and post-WWII, gangs expanded into legitimate businesses such as hotels, restaurants, and entertainment. By paying off politicians and law enforcement, these groups often operated with impunity. Syndicate Evolution: Over time, organized crime has become less about Mafia-like syndicates and more about loosely connected groups vying for control of illegal markets. This shift is evident in the emergence of new criminal groups and their widespread global reach. Key Characteristics of Organized Crime ​ Financial and Political Power: Organized crime is intertwined with legitimate industries, which provide opportunities for money laundering and corrupt activities. As a result, criminal organizations can sustain and expand their influence. ​ Violence and Corruption: Despite the business-like operations, organized crime often involves coercion, intimidation, and the manipulation of legal systems to avoid prosecution. ​ Expanding Activities: Modern organized crime groups have evolved beyond traditional crimes like drug trafficking, branching out into cybercrime and more sophisticated financial fraud. Ethnic groups collaborate in crimes, and competing with traditional organizations like the Hells Angels Economic Gain in Organized Crime ​ Transnational organized crime groups generate profits from illegal goods and services, including:  ○​ Drugs, sex trafficking, arms, pornography ○​ Money laundering through legitimate businesses, land fraud, and computer crimes. ​ Heavy reliance on modern technologies (internet, global communication, transportation systems, banking, and credit card systems). ​ Terrorist organizations may engage in criminal activities for funding but are separate from traditional organized crime. ​ Transnational criminal groups may assist terror groups with transportation and communication. Controlling Organized Crime ​ George Vold: Organized crime operates like capitalist enterprises (ruthless, monopolistic, and secretive). ​ U.S. Measures: ○​ Organized Crime Control Act & RICO Act: Expanded racketeering crimes to include murder, kidnapping, gambling, arson, robbery, bribery, extortion, narcotics violations, and prostitution. ​ Canada Measures: ○​ Bill C-69: Police can seize property from crime proceeds. ○​ RCMP and local police: Significant arrests during biker gang turf wars. ○​ Bill C-24 (post-9/11): $200 million over 5 years to fight organized crime. ○​ Cooperation with the U.S.: Joint anti-drug and money-laundering investigations (e.g., Montreal-based money-laundering ring). ○​ Witness Protection Program and National Action Plan to Combat Smuggling Chapter 13: The Law and Society’s Protection- The law’s main purpose is to protect society and its members. Public Order Crimes (Victimless Crimes) - These are often labeled "victimless crimes" because they involve actions that do not cause harm to a specific person but violate societal norms or moral sensibilities. consent and Morality - When consenting adults engage in acts like sex work, some believe the state has no right to regulate their actions. Moral Progress: The shift in societal attitudes towards homosexuality shows how legal systems evolve with changing moral views. Debating Morality ○​ Devlin’s View: In the 1950s, Sir Patrick Devlin argued that society requires shared moral values to function. Without these shared beliefs, society would disintegrate. Moral Crusades and the Role of Vigilantes - ○​ Moral Entrepreneurs: People like Howard Becker have defined moral crusaders as individuals who, believing their views are right, take actions to impose their beliefs on others, often through aggressive tactics. ○​ Example of Vigilantism: The anti-pornography movement has led to censorship attempts, banning books or protesting the activities of controversial figures. The Link Between Immorality and Criminality ○​ Not all immoral acts are criminalized. ○​ Seven Deadly Sins (pride, sloth, lust, gluttony, wrath, avarice, envy) are immoral but not illegal. Challenges in Enforcing Moral Laws ○​ Laws often fail to effectively address social harm when there is public division over the morality of an act. Laws regulating public order crimes (like prostitution and pornography) can create a moral divide in society. Enforcement Challenges: ○​ When laws targeting victimless crimes (e.g., prostitution) are too aggressively enforced, they can be viewed as overreach or discriminatory. The Changing Landscape of Sex Work ​ Technological advances have created new avenues for sex work, such as online platforms where sex workers can interact with clients. ​ Some sex workers now operate independently through personal websites or through services that allow for background checks for safety purposes. ​ The professionalization of sex work in some cases, such as call girls or escort services, demonstrates the variation within the industry. Prostitution-Related Offences (PROs) Statistics ○​ 2012 Statistics: ​ A total of 2,077 prostitution-related offences (PROs) were recorded in Canada. ​ In 2009, 90% of these were for communication (attempting to solicit sex or arranging sexual services), which was considered an enforcement-related crime. ​ This represented a 91% increase over the previous decade, largely due to a shift in law enforcement priorities, particularly targeting communication between sex workers and clients. Gender Breakdown: ○​ The split between male and female arrests was typically 50-50, with roughly equal numbers of male clients and female sex workers charged. ○​ However, this appears gender-neutral at first glance but is actually a gender imbalance because more resources are focused on arresting female sex workers (often the "victims" in these cases) rather than male clients. Changes in Sex Trade Laws ○​ Pre-2014 Legal Landscape: ​ Under the previous Criminal Code, Section 213 criminalized the act of communicating for the purpose of prostitution in public places. ​ The law made it illegal to attempt to stop a vehicle or impede traffic for solicitation purposes. ​ “Public place” included any place accessible to the public, including motor vehicles in public view. ○​ Post-2014 Legal Reforms: ​ Changes to the law in 2014 led to the decriminalization of selling sexual services, but purchasing sexual services (i.e., clients) became a criminal offence. ​ Additionally, it became illegal to advertise or promote the sale of sexual services not belonging to the seller themselves, criminalizing activities like pimping or running a business based on sexual exploitation. ​ The changes aimed to shift focus away from criminalizing sex workers (mostly women) and more towards prosecuting customers (johns) and pimps who exploited sex workers, addressing past gender discrimination in the laws. Decline in Prostitution-Related Offences ○​ In 2016, prostitution-related offences dropped significantly: ​ There were only 219 cases of prostitution and 2 bawdy-house offences. ​ 147 cases involved procuring (facilitating sex work) and 119 cases were related to communication for prostitution. ​ This was a dramatic reduction from the thousands of cases recorded in the 1990s, due in part to the legal changes and shifting enforcement priorities. ○​ 2021 Statistics: ​ Only 45 cases of prostitution-related offences were recorded, representing a 34% decline from the previous year. This further illustrates the trend toward reduced legal intervention in sex work. ​ Types of Sex Trade Work ○​ Street-level sex workers (hustlers, hookers, streetwalkers): ​ Often the most vulnerable workers, these individuals face poverty, addiction, and exploitation.  ​ They are often young runaways, often from marginalized backgrounds, and are at risk of physical and sexual violence. ​ Intersectionality: Many street sex workers are ethnic minorities or come from backgrounds marked by abuse and poverty. ○​ Bar girls (B-girls): ​ Typically found in bars, especially in towns with military bases or transient populations. ​ They wait to be approached by customers and often serve as part of a social environment of drinking and entertainment. ○​ Call girls: ​ These workers are considered the "aristocrats" of the sex trade, with fees of thousands of dollars per encounter. ​ Many call girls come from middle-class backgrounds and cater to upper-class clientele. They operate through escort services or independent customer lists, often using discreet communication methods like phones or online arrangements. ○​ Massage parlours, photography studios, and escort services: ​ Other venues that may serve as covers for sex work, where workers can sometimes present a more professional image. ​ Online Sex Work ○​ The rise of online sex work has transformed the industry, allowing sex workers to connect with clients without physical interaction. ○​ Many sex workers now have personal websites or use platforms like AdultFriendFinder to advertise their services. ○​ Safety and trust are important factors in this shift. Some services even offer background checks for clients to ensure both parties are protected. ​ Factors Leading to Sex Work ○​ Upbringing: Many sex workers come from backgrounds marked by extreme conflict, including sexual and physical abuse, poverty, and homelessness. ○​ Studies show that a high percentage of sex workers were abused as children, with Indigenous women disproportionately represented in certain regions like Vancouver. ○​ Motivations: Economic necessity, drug addiction, and the need for survival often outweigh any psychological factors, suggesting that sex work is more a result of structural inequality than personal choice. ​ The Child Sex Trade ○​ The global nature of the child sex trade is a pressing issue, with children from Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Europe trafficked into sex tourism. ○​ Canada has implemented laws to combat sex tourism involving minors, focusing on individuals who travel abroad to exploit children. ○​ Sex tourism ​ Pimps and Their Role in the Sex Trade ○​ Pimps are individuals who profit off the earnings of sex workers. They often provide protection and logistical support to workers but also exploit them. ○​ While the traditional role of pimps has declined with the rise of independent sex workers, organized crime and drug dealers have increasingly taken  control of the sex trade, especially as laws against brothels became more stringent in the early 20th century. ○​ The legal consequences of pimping are severe, especially if minors are involved or if trafficking is detected, but there are higher financial rewards in these criminal activities. Jeffrey Epstein Case: ​ In 2019, billionaire financier Jeffrey Epstein was charged with sex trafficking and conspiracy. ​ Epstein had a long history of sex charges, particularly involving minors. ​ His long-time associate, Ghislaine Maxwell, was also indicted in 2021 for sex trafficking of underage girls, with charges alleging she groomed and transported victims aged 14 and older. ​ Epstein died by suicide while awaiting trial. Johns: ​ Johns are men who purchase sexual services from sex workers. ​ Typically, Johns are between 20-40 years old, married, and heterosexual. ​ Reasons for seeking out sex workers include the desire for discreet sex or services they cannot obtain elsewhere. ​ The role of Johns is a key subject in debates about sex work. Sex work regulation: -​ Minor offence, a fine or a short jail sentence -​ Attending John school - learning about the effects of sex work -​ R. v. Bedford declared that some Canadian prostitution laws, such as those prohibiting brothels and public solicitation, were unconstitutional because they endangered sex workers' safety. The Tropic of Cancer and The Pill were controversial works that faced bans but later gained literary value. Child Pornography Rings: ​ Child pornography rings exploit children, often involving adults in positions of trust, like counselors or teachers, to recruit victims. Controlling the Sex Trade: ​ Investigators are cross-trained to understand the links between drugs, sex, and weapons. ​ Awareness campaigns aim to deter victimization from sex trafficking. ​ Consistent law enforcement is necessary to reduce the perception that engaging in the sex trade is low-risk. Pimps and Traffickers:  ​ Pimps and traffickers earn significant income, with some making between $5,000 to $32,833 per week. ​ They primarily rely on psychological coercion to control sex workers, rather than physical violence. ​ Many sex workers have backgrounds in social problems, and some rely on friends or acquaintances for protection. Anesthetics: PCP (angel dust) is the most widely abused anesthetic drug, known for causing hallucinations. Volatile Liquids: Products like lighter fluid and glue are inhaled for short-term euphoria, but can cause disorientation and drowsiness. Barbiturates: Known as "downers," these drugs depress the central nervous system, leading to feelings of relaxation, but can result in overdose deaths. Tranquillizers: Used to reduce anxiety, these include Valium and Librium, but can lead to addiction and painful withdrawal. Amphetamines: These stimulants, such as methamphetamine (crystal meth), elevate mood and cause euphoria, but long-term use can lead to severe mental health issues. Cannabis: Though not addictive, cannabis can cause altered perceptions and increased appetite. It was decriminalized in Canada for medical use and regulated for recreational use in 2018. Hallucinogens: Drugs like LSD and mescaline cause sensory distortions, including visual and auditory hallucinations. Cocaine: Initially used for medical purposes, it is now known for causing euphoria but has serious addictive properties, particularly in its smokable form (crack cocaine). Narcotics: Opium derivatives, including morphine and heroin, create euphoria and pain relief, but long-term use can lead to addiction, especially in low-income communities. Steroids: Used for muscle enhancement, these drugs can cause severe health problems like liver damage and depression. Designer Drugs: MDMA (ecstasy) and synthetic hallucinogens are made in small batches and induce mood-altering effects. Alcohol: Despite its legality, excessive alcohol use remains a major substance abuse problem, linked to accidents, violence, and health issues. Gabapentin: Originally for epilepsy, it is now abused for its euphoric effects, especially in the U.S. Fentanyl: A potent opioid that has caused a significant rise in overdoses, particularly in Canada. Youth and Crime: ○​ Many youths who abuse substances continue into adulthood with ongoing substance abuse, but some stop criminal activities. ○​ Those who persist in both drug use and crime often come from poor backgrounds, have criminal families, or lack opportunities. Drug Smuggling: ○​ Smuggling operations are often run by middle-aged men with strong organizational skills and the willingness to take risks. These operations are dynamic, with shifting participants due to law enforcement crackdowns or changes in drug sources. Drug Use and Criminality: ​ Many drug users commit crimes to support their addiction. ​ A high percentage of prisoners have a history of drug and alcohol abuse, and many committed crimes under the influence of drugs. ​ Drug users often engage in violent crimes or crimes to generate income for drugs. ​ The drug-crime connection may also involve the violent world of drug distribution. Factors Contributing to Drug Abuse: ​ Subcultural View: Drug use is linked to poverty, low self-esteem, and exposure to drug-abusing peers. ​ Psychodynamic View: Drug use may stem from emotional distress, such as depression or anxiety, and helps control unconscious impulses. ​ Genetic Factors: Drug abuse may have a genetic component, as children of drug-abusing parents are more likely to develop addictions. ​ Social Learning: Drug use is learned through observation, especially in dysfunctional family settings. ​ Problem Behavior Syndrome (PBS): Drug abuse is part of a broader pattern of maladjusted behavior, including delinquency and family conflict. ​ Rational Choice: Some people choose drugs for pleasure, relaxation, or social enhancement, despite potential negative consequences. ​ Constructionist View: Drug criminalization is influenced by social construction and the views of powerful claimsmakers in society. Drugs and Crime: ​ Drugs are criminalized due to their perceived link to crime, with alcohol abuse associated with domestic violence and homicide. ​ Research shows that substance abuse and criminality are strongly correlated, with drug use increasing crime rates, particularly property and violent crimes. ​ Addiction Cycle: ​ Addiction progresses in stages from occas