Psychology Notes PDF

PART 2 OF PSYCHOLOGY: Quizlet: https://quizlet.com/ca/980628434/psychology-test-2-flash-cards/?i=4tghql&x=1jqt Motivation: Intrinsic Extrinsic -​ Internally rewarding -​ External (outside incentive) -​ Doing an activity...

PART 2 OF PSYCHOLOGY: Quizlet: https://quizlet.com/ca/980628434/psychology-test-2-flash-cards/?i=4tghql&x=1jqt Motivation: Intrinsic Extrinsic -​ Internally rewarding -​ External (outside incentive) -​ Doing an activity for its own sake -​ Doing an activity to gain an external -​ Doing something for: reward or avoid punishment → Sense of achievement, Curiosity, -​ Doing Something for: interest, pride → Money, Grades, Praise, Prizes Ex: Ex: -​ Practise Tennis for fun -​ Practice tennis to win a game -​ Read a novel for pleasure -​ Read a novel to write an essay on it Intrinsic Vs Extrinsic Video: -​ People are more likely to do well when the task included mechanical skills -​ Once the task called for cognitive (interpretive, abstract, critical thinking) skill, a larger reward led to poorer performance -​ Small and medium reward ppl did the same performance, but the highest reward person did worst performance -​ For simple, straightforward tasks, effort = performance -​ For harder, more complicated, creative thinking tasks, those motivators do not work -​ Money is a motivator, if you underpay people, they will not be motivated -​ If you pay them enough that they don’t have to worry about money, it stops working as an incentive -​ The best use of money is to pay people enough to take the issue of money off the table -​ To be an effective employee you have to meet people's expectations so that money will not be used as a motivating tool -​ 3 factors that lead to better performance/personal satisfaction: 1)​ Autonomy - our desire to be self directed, you make your own choices (if you want ppl to be engaged, you have to let them have self-direction) *example  software company allows for one day of creativity and that is the most productive day with new ideas* 2)​ Mastery - the urge to get better at stuff (don't need money, but it's for fun and you also get better at it → challenge and mastery along with making purpose) 3)​ Purpose - makes coming to work better, desire to use skills to make the world a little better. When the profit motive becomes unmoored from the purpose motive, bad things happen, and we need to make them work together. Components of Motivation In Addition to ones above: 1.​ Activation - decision to initiate behaviour 2.​ Persistence - consistent effort towards a goal despite adversity 3.​ Intensity - concentration, vigour, and persistence required Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Humanism (aka Humanist or Humanistic) -​ A psychological approach that emphasises the study of the whole person = holistic approach -​ Assumes that people are basically good and have innate need to make themselves and the world better -​ Addresses need for freedom and creative expression -​ Focusing on the conscious (as well as beyond the unconscious) Abraham Maslow 1908-1970: -​ Considered one of the founders of humanistic psychology -​ Studied ‘well’ people who weren’t struggling to see what they were doing right -​ Regarded personal growth and fulfilment in life as a basic human motive for behaviour -​ Most known for Hierarchy of needs 1948 -​ Deficiency needs = psychological → confidence -​ Growth needs = cognitive → transcendence -​ Growth needs are a product of the deficiency needs  -​ Maslow proposed a need above self-actualization -​ He added self-transcendence- the need to move beyond the self and connect to something higher than ourselves (G-d) to reach our full potential Social learning theory - Behaviourism continued: Albert Bandura: -​ Canadian psychologist whose work crossed into sociology (social learning) -​ He asserts that most human behaviour is learned through observation, imitation, modelling -​ Bandura’s social learning theory has been used to predict and change individual and group behavior Observe & Imitate: -​ Focus of study → Studied childhood aggression, wanted to explore how people assimilate to the characteristics of others into their own personalities -​ Theory → He hypothesised that children learn aggression through observing and imitating the violent acts of adults – particularly family members -​ Famous findings → Bandura’s work culminated in his famous bobo doll experiment Bobo doll experiment: -​ A child watched woman beating up an inflatable clown -​ Was put in a room, and imitated that behaviour. Other children that didn’t see the woman beating up the doll, did not have that kind of violent reaction. -​ Learning can occur through observing and imitating someone else’s behaviour -​ Learning is the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information -​ Humans are more taste averse whereas a bird is more sight averse -​ Cognition is our thoughts, perspectives and expectations -​ Humans can think their way out of associations (animals can’t) because of social context -​ Latent learning = passive, unconscious learning -​ Observational learning = learning by observing others -​ Modelling = process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour 4 Conditions Crucial for Success: 1)​ Attention - Paying attention to behaviour 2)​ Reproduction - Capable of copying/repeating behaviour 3)​ Retention - Remembering behaviour 4)​ Motivation - Good re ason to reproduce behaviour Connects bc BF skinner (behaviourism), behavioural psychology focuses on how the environment and reinforcement affect behaviour meanwhile Alfred Bandura (Social Learning) put forth that individuals can learn behaviour through observation. Implications for society: -​ Bandura’s research has raised many important questions surrounding the prevalence of violence in media. -​ If a stranger performing aggressive acts can be a model of aggression for children, could you argue that violence in media can be considered a source of behaviour modelling as well? -​ In other words, do you think witnessing violence in the media can cause a person to become violent? Squid Game Success… “Bittersweet” -​ “If you think about the themes of Squid Game – how far are we willing to go to accumulate personal wealth; the lengths people are forced to go to – the fact it resonated with so many around the world is worrying. You get a sense this is the reality for so many people globally. And that makes me feel hugely sad. And we had to express the experiences of these characters being pushed to those extremes. Doing that? It was terrible. The more beautiful the game set was, and the more childish and fun it seemed, the more horrific it was for the characters, and therefore us as actors.” -​ Lee Jung-Jae is the first Asian to win an Emmy for Best Lead Actor for his role in Squid Game, yet he has reservations about the show’s success Are We Born Good Video: -​ Some people think of babies as perfect, just “blobs” -​ Does the baby of 5 months know the difference between right and wrong? -​ Puppet show experiment, puppets imitating nice and mean behaviour -​ Does the 5 month old know which is right and wrong? Asks which one he likes  -​ More than 3 quarters of babies tested pick the nice puppet -​ Tried on 3 month babies as well, also looked towards the nice character -​ As young as 3 months, we show a preference for nice behaviour over mean -​ New experiment: showed a puppet behaving badly, and then needing help, one puppet helps and one doesn’t -​ Then asks baby which he prefers (chooses the one who didn’t help the mean character) -​ Sees the ball thief as deserving punishment -​ Suggests it has to come from within -​ Contradicts BF skinner experiment, says understanding what is right and wrong is born with us -​ We prefer others who are similar to ourselves, dislike others who aren’t similar to ourselves (bias) Babies have ideas of morality but it was influenced by bias, a sense of justice -​ We have initial moral sense -​ Understanding our earlier instincts can help -​ Parental nurturing and society must intervene to help us -​ Prize experiment: Youngest kids choose to get more prizes for themselves just to have more than others (don’t care about fairness) -​ By ages 9-10, they choose to give the other kids more, become generous -​ We can learn to temper with our negative thoughts of selfishness, impulse is still there but we don’t act on it the same way, we fight it -​ *When small we want more than others even if it’s less for our self, but as we grow up they wanting to share even if it's less for self Morality Are we the good guys or the bad guys? Are people born good? → does morality come down to our innate understanding of right from wrong or is it something we must learn? The Heinz Dilemma -​ A woman was near death from a rare form of cancer -​ The druggist with the medication paid 200 for the radium and charged 2000 for a small dose of the drug (10 times what it cost him to make) -​ Her husband begged him to sell it for cheaper since he couldn’t afford it  -​ The druggist refused and he broke into the store to steal the drug Should Heinz have stolen the drug? -​ Life or death - legally justified -​ Moral to save a life, justifies the action -​ Tried really hard to get the money but couldn’t -​ Should’ve taken legal actions (however lawyers are expensive and take a long time) Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife? -​ He would have acted differently -​ He wouldn’t have wanted to help her if he didn’t love her What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference? -​ If he was willing to do it for a stranger than it would be justified -​ A relationship would impact the morality -​ Why put your life on the line if you don't know the person? Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died? -​ Depends on where you live -​ People have the right of life, if someone is withholding a drug that can save your life, why should they keep it? BIG IDEA → morality vs ethics vs justice/law Morality = Opinion thesis (personal or innate) Ethics = what’s good and what's bad (measure/balance), how morality is put into society Justice/Law = Allowed vs not allowed, the social agreement about what is right and wrong, the law isn't always moral Ex: Value of Life → goes under Morality because it's something that someone personally needs to value → “I appreciate life and want to live my life to the fullest.” Kohlberg -​ - Lawerence Kohlberg began a study involving 72 boys between 10-16 middle-lower class families -​ - He presented the boys with a moral dilemma that required them to choose between two alternative, neither of the options would be acceptable and noted their responses -​ - He wasn't interested whether they said yes or no, but the reasoning -​ - Kohlberg followed 58 of the boys testing them every 3 years over the course of 20 years to observe how their moral inclinations changed with age -​ - He identified 6 stages of moral development which spanned 3 levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional and postconventional  -​ - He suggested that moral development begins at age 13 Examples of answers in stages Heinz Dilemma: Stage 1 (obedience): Should not steal because he will be put in prison. Ors should steal bc it is not worth how much the druggist is selling for. Following the rules to avoid punishment Stage 2 (self interest): Should not steal medicine because prison is awful. Should steal bc he will be happier if he saves his wife Stage 3 (conformity): should not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal → tried to do everything he can without breaking the law, you cannot blame him. Should steal the medicine because his wife expects it Stage 4 (Law and order) should not steal because it is illegal. Should steal and still take punishment. Stage 5 (social contract orientation): should not steal because scientists have a right to fair compensation. Should steal bc everyone has a right to choose life Stage 6 (universal human ethics): Should not steal because others may need medicine, should steal because saving a human life is more fundamental than property rights. Criticism of Kohlberg Dilemma: 1.​ The problems are artificial: These dilemmas are not relevant to the test subjects’ experiences (never married, likely not even paying for their own drugs) 2.​ The Sample is biased: is there an issue here that all of the participants are male? 3.​ The results may be inconsistent: testing could be more accurate if the research is carried  out longitudinal rather than across different age groups 4.​ The test is hypothetical: it only measures moral judgement not moral behaviour. Can a hypothetical answer really match a real-time decisions? 5.​ Are there distinct levels of moral development: people are not always consistent in moral development or in decision making across set stages 6.​ Is justice the most fundamental moral principle: does everyone make decisions based on abstract principles or compassion? Carol Gilligan: -​ Worked alongside Erik Erikson and Lawerence Kohlberg. While she worked as an assistant under Kohlberg, she began focusing on the moral dilemmas and development of young girls Her major ideas: -​ Believed women develop a different moral sense than men -​ Male moral sense based on abstract ideas of justice or societal demands -​ Female moral sense based on value of human relationships -​ Developed the new philosophy “ethics of core” Meaning: Women have different priorities than men in making moral decision Due to this difference, women go through stages emphasizing empathy and compassion for individuals Stage of Moral development for women: 1.​ Preconventional: Focus on survival (personal) -​ What's good for me? -​ Transition 1: realize she has a responsibility to others and begins to consider first viewpoint as potentially selfish 2.​ Conventional: Focus on Goodness as self-sacrifice (willing to help others through self-sacrifice) -​ Willing to help others even if it hurts me -​ Transition 2: realizes that self-sacrifice causes tensions within one’s self and needs to strike a balance. Transfer moral judgement from “goodness” to “truth” 3.​ Postconventional: Morality of Non-Violence (help without self-sacrifice) Let’s benefit everyone; I will not hurt myself -​ Belief that it was cognitive ability, not life experience that allowed women to advance Sigmund Freud: -​ Father of psychoanalysis -​ One of the most influential and controversial thinkers of 20th century (a lot of his theories now are considered wrong) -​ “Civilization began the first time an angry person cast a word instead of a rock.” → using thoughts instead of violence → your emotions have a large impact on how we act and react Freud Shaped our View on…. 1.​ Childhood - introduced the idea of many different stages of growth and how crucial the time is 2.​ Therapy - introduced idea of talking as therapy and to help with emotional distress 3.​ Personality - how our personality is formed 4.​ Dreams - what do dreams mean? What significance do they hold? What do they hold in our subconscious mind? 5.​ Sexuality - interesting, controversial opinions on sexuality Major contributions to psychology; 1.​ Psychoanalysis: approach to treatment 2.​ Psychodynamic Theory: approach to understanding consciousness 3.​ Theory of Development: approach to understanding human development Psychoanalysis (how we treat the mind): -​ A theory of how the mind world and a method of helping people in mental distress -​ Involves uncovering a patient’s unconscious thoughts through dream analysis and free association/talk therapy to cure mental distress -​ Freud was the first person to identify the unconscious mind and its influence on behaviour -​ Psychoanalytic theory → all human behaviour is influenced by early childhood and childhood experiences influence the unconscious mind throughout life Psychodynamic theory of the mind: -​ Psychodynamic → active mind -​ Freud described our minds like an iceberg - only part of our minds (conscious mind) is above the surface -​ The rest, unconscious mind is hidden from “view” but it still influences us -​ Mind made up of 3 parts… 1.​ ID (biological drives) 2.​ EGO (reason)  3.​ SUPEREGO (social values) -​ Defence mechanisms used when ID cant be controlled Psychodynamic Theory: -​ Freud describes the mind as an iceberg -​ Like an iceberg, he argues only part of our mind, the conscious part, is above the surface -​ Conscious mind: analyzes, thinks, plans -​ Unconscious mind: repressed emotions and feelings, biological urges and thoughts Levels of awareness: -​ Conscious mind: info and thinking we are aware of -​ Preconscious mind: in-between consciousness and unconsciousness; can access unconscious unknowingly (freudian slip) -​ Unconscious mind: info we are not aware of, it holds our acceptable thoughts, feelings and memories. May be recalled through dream analysis, free association and talk therapy -​ ** NOT SUBCONSCIOUS! This word implies that it is less important Freudian Slips -​ Freudian Slips: an unintentional error regarded as revealing unconscious desires -​ A slip of the tongue; the slip is interpreted as the emergence of the contents of the unconscious mind -​ Ie: Saying orgasm instead of organism (unconscious desire) Is it true? -​ Writer Jena Pincott suggested that people make 1 to 2 errors for every 1000 words they say -​ This amount to somewhere between 7 and 33 verbal slip-ups during the average day depending on how much a person talks  -​ Some of these errors are unconscious thoughts and feelings some are cased of misremembering language errors and other mistakes 3 Parts of the Mind ID (libido) -​ Present at birth; biological drives sexual and aggressive in nature -​ All unconscious -​ Impulses think..“I WANT” -​ Follows the pleasure principle (avoid pain) “I seek pleasure, I avoid pain” -​ Dreams: Indications of ID striving to fulfill desires -​ Always in conflict with SUPEREGO (Superego = I should) SUPEREGO -​ Conscience (don't get confused: conscience vs conscious) -​ “I Should” -​ Duties, rules, and values of society (including morals, culture, norms, laws..) -​ Last part of mind to develop around age 5 (assumption is that before age 5 kids can’t understand morality) EGO -​ Rational part of the mind -​ “I think” -​ Follow reality principle -​ Emerges as a child and learns from experience *The ego balances the demands of the ID with the obligations of the superego* What happens when EGO fails to balance the ID and the SUPEREGO? Theory of development → Psychosexual stages of development -​ Explains how personality develops during childhood according as influenced by ID -​ The brain develops throughout childhood in a series of stages -​ Because he focused heavily on the ‘sex drive’ (his word fo the pleasure principle), he believed that the stages were determined by the developing sexuality of a child Other Important Freudian Ideas: Defence Mechanisms: unconscious distortions of thought that protect us from anxiety arising from conflicts between the ID and ego ​ The theory was continued to be developed by his daughter, Anna Dream analysis ( Not on test) : Freud believes that our dreams acted as wish fulfilment, a manifestation of our ids desires Defence Mechanisms & Psychosexual Development: Psychoanalysis - Strategy for treating the unconscious mind Psychodynamics - Theory of how the mind is split into three parts: the ID the ego and superego Defence Mechanism - theory of how the unconscious mind copes Psychosexual development - theory on mind’s development Defence Mechanisms According to Freud -​ Defence Mechanisms: Unconscious distortions of thought that product us from anxiety arising from conflicts between id and ego -​ When the demands of the ID and the commands of the superego cannot be balanced, the ego has failed its job -​ When this happens, we might experience feelings of frustration and failure -​ To deal with these feelings, we might use defense mechanisms → the use of mental devices to distort reality in order to protect the ego from feelings of failure and frustration Four key of defence mechanisms 1)​ Rationalization: an excuse is invented to explain a failure. The excuse is considered reasonable by the person who invented it. 2)​ Repression: unpleasant urges/thoughts are pushed out of our conscious mind into the unconscious 3)​ Displacement: taking anger out on a innocent person or thing because direct aggression against the actual cause of frustration may not be socially acceptable 4)​ Projection: seeing traits and feelings in other people that we sense in ourselves but cannot admit openly. Three characteristics of defense mechanisms: 1)​ Reactions: reactions to feelings of frustration, tension, and worry 2)​ Unconscious: occurs in our unconscious where we have less control 3)​ Distortions: distortions of reality (if what is happening is too painful to think about, we protect ourselves by changing our view of the painful situation into one we can bear) Psychoanalysis (treatment)- treat disordered behaviour, we need to access unresolved/ repressed childhood experiences/ behaviours in our unconscious mind Psychodynamic (how) - How the unconscious + conscious mind work (balance b/w ID, Ego, Superego) Psychosexual development - How unconscious + conscious mind develops + is hindered during life → where the issues of the unconscious come from Review QUESTION ANSWERS: 1.​ The esteem stage of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is important because it builds confidence and self-worth, which are necessary for someone to reach self-actualization. When people feel respected and recognized, they are more motivated to grow and take on challenges. For example, a student praised for their hard work may feel inspired to participate more in class, building the belief in themselves needed to achieve their full potential. Without meeting esteem needs, self-doubt can prevent individuals from striving for their goals. 2.​ Yes, it is still important to study Freud, even though many of his theories are outdated or incorrect, because his work laid the foundation for modern psychology and sparked important discussions about the human mind. Freud introduced groundbreaking ideas, such as the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and the influence of early childhood experiences on development, which continue to shape how we understand behavior today. For example, in class, we discussed how his concept of defense mechanisms like repression and denial is still used in therapy, even if not in the same way Freud originally described. Additionally, studying Freud helps us understand how psychological theories evolve over time, showing how newer ideas build on or reject older ones. While his ideas may not always be scientifically accurate, they remain valuable for their historical and intellectual influence on psychology. Does Prison Benefit society? Prisons can benefit society to some extent, but their effectiveness depends on how they align with key psychological and ethical theories: 1.​ Gilligan’s Ethics of Care: Prisons prioritize punishment over empathy and relational repair. They fail to address the root causes of crime or foster rehabilitation. Restorative justice, which focuses on care and repairing harm, would better align with societal needs. 2.​ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Prisons provide basic safety for society and physiological needs for inmates but neglect higher needs like belonging, esteem, and self-actualization, which are crucial for rehabilitation and reducing recidivism. While prisons offer some societal safety, they often hinder long-term benefits. Systems focused on care, justice, and addressing root causes of crime would serve society more effectively.