Communication Skills Past Paper PDF 2020

Comprehension & Communication Skills in English Theory  War Minus Shooting- The Sporting Spirit- George Orwell  A Dilemma- A Layman looks at Science Raymond B. Fosdick.  You and Your English -Spoken English and Broken English- G.B. Shaw. Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary- Antonym,...

Comprehension & Communication Skills in English Theory  War Minus Shooting- The Sporting Spirit- George Orwell  A Dilemma- A Layman looks at Science Raymond B. Fosdick.  You and Your English -Spoken English and Broken English- G.B. Shaw. Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary- Antonym, Synonym, Homophones, Homonyms, often confused words. Exercises to help the students in the enrichment of vocabulary based on TOEFL and other competitive examinations. Functional grammar: Articles, Prepositions, Verb, Subject verb Agreement, Transformation, Synthesis, Direct and Indirect Narration. Writing Skills: Paragraph writing, Precise writing, Report writing and Proposal writing. The Style: Importance of professional writing. Preparation of Curriculum Vitae and Job applications. Synopsis writing. Interviews: kinds, Importance and process. Practical Listening Comprehension: Listening to short talk, lectures, speeches (scientific, commercial and general in nature). Oral Communication: Phonetics, stress and intonation, Conversation practice. Conversation: rate of speech, clarity of voice, speaking and Listening, politeness & Reading skills: reading dialogues, rapid reading, intensive reading, improving reading skills. Mock Interviews: testing initiative, team spirit, leadership, intellectual ability. Group Discussion.  WAR MINUS SHOOTING The Sporting Spirit George Orwell George Orwell (1903-1950), who was born in Bengal and educated in England, is well known for his greatest novel, Animal Farm, a masterly written political satire on the Russian revolution. His last work, Nineteen Eighty-four, is a grim forecast of the future of totalitarianism, written in the form of a readable novel. The Sporting Spirit first appeared in the Tribune, in December 1945 and is a refreshingly frank expression of Orwell’s views on competitive games. Summary Introduction: In the extremely competitive atmosphere in which sports is administered today, every player backed by every nation, would obviously have a strong temptation to take advantage of the gaps in the rule book, bending the rules to his favour, and conveniently interpreting the law to his advantage. Against this backdrop, George Orwell, pleads for the need to understand the importance of demonstrating sportsmanship and sets a good example on the sporting field for the others to emulate. Sports as an Unfailing Cause of ill-will: In his remarkable essay “The Sporting Spirit”, Orwell grieves over the fact that sport is an unfailing cause of ill-will, and that the visit of the Russian football team Dynamos, has only worsened the Anglo-Soviet relations instead of strengthening it. Two of the four matches played led to much bad feeling. At the Arsenal match the referee was booed at. At the match in Glasgow, it was a free-for-all right from the start. According to Orwell, football was capable of provoking the vicious passions of patriotism, resulting in fresh animosity on both sides. According to Orwell, the dictum that sports creates goodwill between the nations, is a great misnomer because, if the common peoples of the world could meet one another at football or cricket, they would not have any inclination to meet on the battlefield. Such is the ferocity and the fervour that flares up, leading to orgies of hatred, something similar to what happened in the 1936 Olympic Games, for instance. Sports Played for Exercise and Sports Played for Prestige: On the village green, when you pick up sides, no feeling of local patriotism is involved. The game is played simply for the fun and exercise. But, as soon as the question of prestige arises, and the moment you feel that you will be disgraced if you lose, the most savage combative instincts are aroused. At the international level, sport is mimic warfare. More than the behaviour of the players, it is the attitude of the spectators that aggravates the situation. And that is because of a false notion that running, jumping and kicking a ball are tests of national virtue. Even a leisurely game like cricket, demanding grace rather than strength, has caused a lot of ill-will, as seen in the controversy over body-line bowling in the 1921 match between Australia and England. Football, a game in which everyone gets hurt and every nation has its own style of play, is far worse. Worst of all is boxing. One of the most horrible sights in the world is a fight between white and coloured boxers before a mixed audience. Modern Sport and its Ancient Origin: Orwell then proceeds to inquire into how this modern cult of sport arose. Most of the games we play now are of ancient origin, but sport was not taken very seriously between Roman times and the nineteenth century. Even in the English public schools the games did not start till the later part of the twentieth century. So much that, Dr. Arnold, generally regarded as the founder of the modern public school, looked on games as simply a waste of time. Sports today: Heavily Financed Activities: But later on, chiefly in England and in the United States, games were built up into a heavily-financed activity, capable of attracting vast crowds and rousing savage passions, and the infection gradually spread from country to country. It is the most violently combative sports like football and boxing that have spread the widest. And the whole thing is bound up with the rise of nationalism. Even in the middle Ages games were played with much physical brutality but they were not mixed up with politics nor were they a cause of group hatreds. Organised games like these are most likely to flourish in urban communities where the average human being lives a sedentary or confined life and does not get much opportunity for creative labour. For these urbanites, Orwell advocates that, when it is not possible to work off surplus energy by walking, swimming, climbing trees, riding horses, one must indulge in group activities if one wants an outlet for one’s physical strength or for one’s sadistic impulses. Conclusion: Orwell winds up his essay with a fervent plea for good sportsmanship, which, according to him, is one of the most desirable qualities in any great player. As the Olympic oath majestically declares, “in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for the glory of sport and the honour of our teams," every player should imbibe these qualities of sportsmanship which would go a long way in promoting the sporting spirit between nations.  War Minus Shooting- The Sporting Spirit (Notes) George Orwell expresses his views on competitive sports in the lesson War Minus Shooting, which also appeared as an article in Tribune in December 1945. He says that, in good golden days that are during Roman Times and in 19th century sports were not taken seriously. Some games like fishing, cockfighting and ferrying of rats did exist long ago, but they were unorganized and were meant only for the rustic communities. The posh and the elite never gave any importance to games Dr. Arnold, the founder of the Modern Public School, viewed games as a mere waste of time. It was later felt that some type of group activity is essential for the outlet of physical strengthen and sadistic impulses. It is this opinion which brought the existence of a more decent word “Sports”. Then chiefly in England and in United States games were built up into a heavily financial activity and attracted the crowds by rousing savage passions and this infection spread from country to country. Games are taken seriously in London and New York. In the middle ages they were played with much physical brutality and were not mixed up with politics or a cause of group hatreds. Organized sports then started gaining momentum and flourished in the Urban Communities also. The English public schools in the later part of the last century became centres of several important sports. In Countries like Rome, Byzantium, London, New York, games were taken seriously. New sports namely walking, swimming, snowballing, climbing and finding houses made inroads in different parts of the world. England and United States witnessed costly games and savage passions were aroused. Sports then began to be linked with nationalism. At the same time they were also said to be the cause of politics, brutality and group hatred. Rivalry began to develop especially when the games were played between Jews and Arabs, Germans and Czechs, Indians and British, Italians and Yugoslavs, Russians and Porki. Sports have become one of the main reasons of international rivalry. The author suggests that instead of making things worse by sending forth a team of eleven men, labelled as national champions to do battle against some rival team and allowing it to be felt on all sides that whichever nation defeated “will loose face”. The huge crowds in Boxing, Football and Cricket matches started rattling the opposite players with boos and insults. Harsh and fiercer passions began to be aroused in England and also several other countries. Even a gentleman’s game like cricket, which is also called a leisurely game, was under question.  The controversy was witnessed over bodyline bowling and over the rough tactics of Australian team that visited England in 1921. A boxing match between white and coloured boxers gave a horrible sight. In countries like India or Burma, it is necessary at football matches to have strong cordons of police to keep the crowd from invading the field. The first big football match that was played in Spain about some time ago led to an uncontrollable riot. George Orwell says that with the passage of time International sports became a mimic warfare. Sports began to be equated with war minus shooting. Instead of promoting good will, they were resulted in much hatred and further fostering the rivalry among the nations. Sports have become competitive when they are played to win and the game has little meaning unless it is won. As soon as the question of prestige arises players do every technique to win the game as I think that their countries dignity would be lost if that are lost. The attitude of the spectators is also important in creating much rivalry they forget that victory gained through cheating is meaningless. Spectators definitely try to influence the game by cheering their own side by insulting opposite players with boos and insults. The author feels that modern games have abundant hatred, jealousy, boastfulness and ignoring of all the rules and witnessed of all the violence. Nearly all the sports practised nowadays are competitive. You play to win, and the game has little meaning unless you do your utmost to win. On the village green, where you pick up sides and no feeling of local patriotism is involved, it is possible to play simply for the fun and exercise: but as soon as the question of prestige arises, as soon as you feel that you and some larger unit will be disgraced if you lose, the most savage combative instincts are aroused. Anyone who has played even in a school football match knows this. At the international level sport is frankly mimic warfare. But the significant thing is not the behaviour of the players but the attitude of the spectators: and, behind the spectators, of the nations who work themselves into furies over these absurd contests, and seriously believe — at any rate for short periods — that running, jumping and kicking a ball are tests of national virtue. Even a leisurely game like cricket, demanding grace rather than strength, can cause much ill-will, as we saw in the controversy over body-line bowling and over the rough tactics of the Australian team that visited England in 1921. Football, a game in which everyone gets hurt and every nation has its own style of play which seems unfair to foreigners, is far worse. Worst of all is boxing. One of the most horrible sights in the world is a fight between white and coloured boxers before a mixed audience. But a boxing audience is always disgusting, and the behaviour of the women, in particular, is such that the army, I believe, does not allow them to attend its contests. At any rate, two or three years ago, when Home Guards and regular troops were holding a boxing tournament, I was placed on guard at the door of the hall, with orders to keep the women out. In England, the obsession with sport is bad enough, but even fiercer passions are aroused in young countries where games playing and nationalism are both recent developments. In countries like India or Burma, it is necessary at football matches to have strong cordons of police to keep the crowd from invading the field. In Burma, I have seen the supporters of one side break through the police and disable the goalkeeper of the opposing side at a critical moment. The first big football match that was played in Spain about fifteen years ago led to an uncontrollable riot. As soon as strong feelings of rivalry are aroused, the notion of playing the game according to the rules always vanishes. People want to see one side on top and the other side humiliated, and they forget that victory gained through cheating or through the intervention of the crowd is meaningless. Even when the spectators don't intervene physically they try to influence the game by cheering their own side and “rattling” opposing players with boos and insults. Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting. Instead of blah-blah about the clean, healthy rivalry of the football field and the great part played by the Olympic Games in bringing the nations together, it is more useful to inquire how and why this modern cult of sport arose. Most of the games we now play are of ancient origin, but sport does not seem to have been taken very seriously between Roman times and the nineteenth century. Even in the English public schools the games cult did not start till the later part of the last century. Dr Arnold, generally regarded as the founder of the modern public school, looked on games as simply a waste of time. Then, chiefly in England and the United States, games were built up into a heavily-financed activity, capable of attracting vast crowds and rousing savage passions, and the infection spread from country to country. It is the most violently combative sports, football and boxing, that have spread the widest. There cannot be much doubt that the whole thing is bound up with the rise of nationalism — that is, with the lunatic modern habit of identifying oneself with large power units and seeing everything in terms of competitive prestige. Also, organised games are more likely to flourish in urban communities where the average human being lives a sedentary or at least a confined life, and do not get much opportunity for creative labour. In a rustic community a boy or young man works off a good deal of his surplus energy by walking, swimming, snowballing, climbing trees, riding horses, and by various sports involving cruelty to animals, such as fishing, cock-fighting and ferreting for rats. In a big town one must indulge in group activities if one wants an outlet for one's physical strength or for one's sadistic impulses. Games are taken seriously in London and New York, and they were taken seriously in Rome and Byzantium: in the Middle Ages they were played, and probably played with much physical brutality, but they were not mixed up with politics nor a cause of group hatreds. If you wanted to add to the vast fund of ill-will existing in the world at this moment, you could hardly do it better than by a series of football matches between Jews and Arabs, Germans and Czechs, Indians and British, Russians and Poles, and Italians and Jugoslavs, each match to be watched by a mixed audience of 100,000 spectators. I do not, of course, suggest that sport is one of the main causes of international rivalry; big-scale sport is itself, I think, merely another effect of the causes that have produced nationalism. Still, you do make things worse by sending forth a team of eleven men, labelled as national champions, to do battle against some rival team, and allowing it to be felt on all sides that whichever nation is defeated will “lose face”. I hope, therefore, that we shan't follow up the visit of the Dynamos by sending a British team to the USSR. If we must do so, then let us send a second-rate team which is sure to be beaten and cannot be claimed to represent Britain as a whole. There are quite enough real causes of trouble already, and we need not add to them by encouraging young men to kick each other on the shins amid the roars of infuriated spectators. The author strongly feels that it is a pressing need to inculcate sportsman spirit among all of us to promote peace and goodwill through sports.  A Dilemma - A Layman Looks at Science (Raymond B. Fosdick) AUGUST 6, 1945 – The day the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima - brought home to all of us in a dramatic fashion the significance of science in human life. The impact of that bomb has left us stunned and confused. Certainly we laymen are frightened by science as we never were before. And certainly too, we are bewildered by the power which science has suddenly placed in our laps – bewildered and humbled by our realization of how unequipped we are, in terms of ethics, law, and government, to know how to use it. That, I think, is the first reaction of a layman to the stupendous repercussion of that bomb on Hiroshima. And the first question that comes to his mind is this: what use are radio and automobiles and penicillin and all the other gifts of science if at the same time this same science hands us the means by which we can blow ourselves and our civilization into drifting dust? We have always been inclined to think research and technology as being consciously related to human welfare. Now, frankly, we are not so sure, and we are deeply troubled, by the realization that man’s brain can create things which his will may not be able to control. To the layman it seems as if science were facing a vast dilemma. Science is the search for truth, and it is based on the glorious faith that truth is worth discovering. It springs from the noblest attribute of the human spirit. But it is this same search for truth that has brought our civilization to the brink of destruction; and we are confronted by the tragic irony that when we have been most successful in pushing out the boundaries of knowledge, we have most endangered the possibility of human life on this planet. The pursuit of truth has at last led us to the tools by which we can ourselves become the destroyers of our own institutions and all the bright hopes of the race. In this situation what do we do – curb our science or cling to the pursuit of truth and run the risk of having our society torn to pieces? It is on the basis of this dilemma that serious questions are forming in the public mind. Unless research is linked to a human and constructive purpose, should it not be subject to some kind of restraint? Can our scientists afford to be concerned solely with fact and not at all with value and purpose? Can they legitimately claim that their only aim is the advancement of knowledge regardless of its consequences? Is the layman justified in saying to the scientists: ‘We look to you to distinguish between that truth which furthers the well-being of mankind and that truth which threatens it? One of the scientists who played a leading role in the development of the atomic bomb said to the newspapermen: ‘A scientist cannot hold back progress because of fears of what the world will do with his discoveries’. What he apparently implied was the science has no responsibility in the matter, and that it will plunge ahead in the pursuit of truth even if the process leaves the world in dust and ashes. Is that the final answer? Is there no other answer? Frankly, as a layman, I do not know. Offhand, this disavowal of concern seems callous and irresponsible. But we may be facing a situation where no other answer is realistic or possible. To ask the scientist to foresee the use – the good or evil of the use – to which his result may be put is doubtless beyond the realm of the attainable. Almost any discovery can be used for either social or anti-social purposes. The German dye industry was not created to deal with either medicine or weapons of war; and yet out of that industry emerged sulphur drugs and mustard gas. When Einstein wrote his famous transformation equation in 1905 he was not thinking of the atomic bomb, but out of the equation came one of the principles upon which the bomb was based. Willard Gibbs was a gentle spirit whose life was spent in his laboratory at Yale University, and who never dreamed that his work in mathematical physics might have even a remote relationship to war; and yet it is safe to say that his ideas gave added power to the armaments of all nations in both World War I and World War II. I suspect that the way out of the dilemma is not as simple as the questions now being asked seem to imply. The good and the evil that flow from scientific research are more often than not indistinguishable at the point of origin. Generally they are by products, or they represent distortions of original purpose, none of which could have been foreseen when the initial discovery was made. We are driven back to a question of human motives and desires. Science has recently given us radar, jet propulsion and power sources of unprecedented magnitude. What does society want to do with them? It can use them constructively to increase the happiness of mankind or it can employ them to tear the world to pieces. There is scarcely a scientific formula or a process or a commodity which cannot be used for war purposes, if that is what we elect to do with it. In brief, the gifts of science can be used by evil men to do evil even more obviously and dramatically than they can be used by men of goodwill, to do well. I fear there is no easy way out of our dilemma. I would not absolve the scientists from some measure of responsibility, for they are men of superior training and insight and we are entitled to look to them for help and leadership more help and leadership, I venture to add, than have thus far been given. However, I note that a considerable number of scientist who were connected with the atomic bomb project have publicly expressed their apprehension of the consequences of their own creation. ‘All of us who worked on the atomic bomb, said Dr Allison of the University of Chicago, had a momentary feeling of elation when our experiment met with success; but that feeling rapidly changed to a feeling of horror, and a fervent desire that no more bombs would be dropped.  Nevertheless, in the long run I do not believe that we shall be successful in making science the arbiter of its discoveries. Somehow or other society itself must assume that responsibility. The towering enemy of mankind is not science but war. Science merely reflects the social forces by which it is surrounded. When there is peace, science is constructive; when there is war, science is perverted to destructive ends. The weapons which science gives us do not necessarily create war; they make war increasingly more terrible, until now it has brought us to the doorstep of doom. Our main problem therefore, is not to curb science but to stop war to substitute law for force and international government for anarchy in the relations of one nation with another. That is a job in which everybody must participate, including the scientists. But the bomb on Hiroshima suddenly woke us up to the fact that we have very little time. The hour is late and our work has scarcely begun. Now we are face to face with this urgent question: ‘Can education and tolerance and understanding and creative intelligence run fast enough to keep us abreast with or own mounting capacity to destroy? That is the question which we shall have to answer one way or another in this generation. Science must help us in the answer, but the main decision lies within ourselves. A Dilemma - A Layman Looks at Science (Notes) Raymond B. Fosdick in the lesson ‘A Dilemma’ says that science should be used only for the constructive purpose and not to be aimed at the degeneration of the society. August 6, 1945, was an unfortunate day, on which the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. It brought home to all of us, about the significance (or) importance of science in human life. Mankind was frightened by science and bewildered by its enormous power. This instance has realised the mankind how unequipped we are in terms of ethics, law, and government, to know how to use it. The author says that science is based on truth and should spring from the noblest attribute of the human spirit. There are certain inventions that can evoke both positive and negative responses. Invention of Radio, Automobiles, Radar and jet propulsions shall be aimed towards the betterment of the society rather than creating ugliness and desolation. The gifts of science, the author vehemently feels, should not blow our civilization into drifting dust. The research and Technology yield right fruits when they are related to human welfare. Science is the search for truth. But it is the same search for truth that has brought our civilization to the brink of destruction. The writer strongly feels that research shall be subjected to some kind of restraint if it is not linked to human constructive purpose; it is really disheartening to read about that leading scientists associated with atom bomb saying that one should not hold back progress because of fear of misuse of science Fosdick than says that some inventions are purely accidental and the scientists never had any evil intentions while discovering them. For instance Albert Einstein never thought of atom bomb while working for his transformation equation in 1905. Yet, from this come out one of the principles upon atom bomb is based. Similarly sulphur drugs and mustard gas which are offshoots of German dye industry was not created to deal with either medicine or weapons of war; Willard Gibbs was a gentle spirit whose life was spent in his laboratory at Yale university had never dreamt that his research in the mathematical physics might have even a remote relationship to world war I & II. These discoveries are classic examples where the gifts of science can be used by evil men to do evil even more obviously and dramatically than can be used by men of goodwill to do well. The author concludes that the towering enemy of mankind is not science but war. Science merely reflects the forces by which if it’s surrounded. When there is peace, science is constructive and when there is war, science is prevented to destructive ends. Our problem therefore is not to comb science but to stop war- to substitute law for force and international government aware in the relations of one nation with another. He feels that our education should be based on tolerance understanding and creative intelligence that should run fast enough to put an end to the evil effects of the science formally, Science must help us but the decision lies within ourselves i.e., the whole responsibility is of human beings.  YOU AND YOUR ENGLISH - SPOKEN ENGLISH AND BROKEN ENGLISH G.B. SHAW The name of George Bernard Shaw is well known in the world in which literature holds a place. No other writer, except, perhaps, Shakespeare, has earned such world-wide fame. The following text, which the literary genius prepared and spoke on a ‘gramophone’ recording for the Lingua-phone Company, is loaded with characteristic Shavian wit, but with serious purpose behind it all. The provocative ideas are couched in a simple but sparkling rhetorical style. YOU AND YOUR ENGLISH -SPOKEN ENGLISH BROKEN ENGLISH – SUMMARY Introduction George Bernard Shaw is a well-known writer. He prepared and spoke on the topic ‘Spoken English and Broken English’ on a gramophone recording for the Lingua-phone institute. In his speech the provocative ideas are couched in a simple but sparkling rhetorical style. Advantages in learning to speak well Bernard Shaw says that when we travel in the British Commonwealth or in America or when we meet a native of these countries, we have to speak English well for enough understanding. If we speak in a provincial or cockney dialect it may prevents us from obtaining some employment which is open to those who only speak what is ‘correct English’. No such thing ideally correct English No two British subjects speak exactly alike. Even educated persons, the Poet Laureate and trained speakers do not pronounce some of the simplest commonest words in the English language exactly alike. Members of the committee who are selected as models of correct speech speak differently. They differ according to the country in which they were born. Confession of Bernard Shaw Bernard Shaw confesses that he himself does not speak English in the same way. When he speaks to audience, he speaks carefully. If he were to speak carefully to his wife at home, she would think he was going mad. As a public speaker he has to take care that every word he says is heard distinctly at far end of large halls containing thousands of people. At home he speaks to his wife like mumbling. His wife also a little careless and so he sometimes has to say “What?” Advice to foreign students of English Do not try to speak English perfectly because native speakers of English won’t understand. In London nine hundred and ninety-nine out of thousand people not only speak bad English but speak even that very badly. No foreigner can ever stress the syllables and make the voice rise and fall in questions and answer, assertion and denial, in refusal and consent, in enquiry or information, exactly as a native does. Therefore, the first thing they have to do is to speak with a strong foreign accent, and speak broken English. Conclusion Bernard Shaw criticizes that it is an insult to the native speaker of English who cannot understand his own language when it is too well spoken. SPOKEN ENGLISH AND BROKEN ENGLISH (Notes) Shaw here emphasis the point that there is no such thing as ideally correct English and no two Britishers speak English exactly in the same manner. He says that because of his rich experience as a public speaker and also as a play righter he was appointed by the British Broadcasting Corporation as a member of a committee whose main aim was to develop a model of correct English speech for the British Islands. The Committee was chaired by a poet Laureate who was also an artist and his materials are the sounds of Spoken English, and a specialist in pronunciation Johnston Forbes Robertson, a well known actor known for the beauty of speech was also a member of this committee which was heterogeneous blend of Krish, Scottish, Welsh, Oxford and American members. All theses members could be recognized by their difference in speech and hence we can’t conclude that they spoke English correctly. They, of course Spoken English presentably which is easy to comprehend. Imitating them would make us persons of good social standing. It is also astonishing to note that this committee sometimes did not agree to the usage and pronunciation of most of the simple and common words of English. Shaw says that the two commonest words in English are ‘Yes’ and ‘No’. But no two members of the committee pronounce them exactly alike. Yet there are some people who find delight in avoiding them. Shaw points out that good effort is needed to comprehend or to follow words, syllable by syllable. He says that he is speaking carefully to an audience of thousands of gramphonists. But if he speaks carelessly as he speaks to his wife, the audience can’t make out, and at the same time if he speaks carefully at home, his wife thinks that he has gone mad. The usage of English differs from situation to situation. One would indeed be labelled mad or insane if one talks to his wife in the same manner as he does at a Gramophone recoding and vice - versa. Shaw, in a lighter sense, asks us to be careful even while speaking to wife and the conversation between a husband and wife should be like a conversation between a King and a Queen. Unfortunately that doesn’t happen with all of us. Shaw classifies manners into two types namely Company Manners and Home Manners which also vary according to the situation. Family members do not speak among themselves in the manner as they do on ordinary occasions when they are in the presence of an outsider. Shaw further adds by citing an example of ‘key hole moral’ the listener gets surprised to note the difference between two situations. The difference is greater in speech than in anything else. Foreigners need not speak English perfectly if they want to travel in England and if they are wise to be understood these. Even if they do so, they will not be understood since a vast majority in London speaks bad English. If a foreigner speaks perfect English, he/she will be suspected of being a beggar or a confidence trickster. Speaking English too well is in fact a pedantic affectation. George Bernard Shaw further mentions that the stranger hears every syllable distinctly when he asks him what O’ Clock is it? But his wife hears it as “Cloxst”, because it is good enough for her but not to the listener. Shaw emphasizes that there is no such thing as perfectly correct English and there is presentable English which we call “Good English”. In London, Shaw points out that Nine hundred ninety nine out of every thousand people don’t only speak bad English but speak even that very badly. They neither speak it correctly nor be understood when it is well spoken. He suggests the foreigners, to speak with a foreign accent, and speak broken English, that is English without grammar. Then, the native understands the foreigner and try to understand and gets ready to help. The native never expects the foreigner to be polite and to use elaborate grammatical phrases. Shaw cites an example i.e. “Will you have the goodness sir, to direct me to the railway terminus at charring cross” But if the foreigner shouts “Please! Charing Cross! Which way!” The stranger would have no difficulty, responding to it half a dozen people will immediately overwhelmed to help. If any foreigner requests the native, pronouncing all the vowels and consonants beautifully, how will not understand, and would suspect him to be a beggar or a confidence trickster. Finally, G.B. Shaw suggests us that one must not speak too well even with cultivated people, during private inter course also. While dispelling the fears of foreigners with regard to the language G.B. Shaw says that little knowledge is adequate to travel England, and adds that to speak too well is a pedantic affectation, even among English people. G.B. Shaw says that is an insult to the native who can’t understand his own language when it is too well spoken.  Reading comprehension Reading comprehension involves two levels of processing, shallow (low-level) processing and deep (high-level) processing. Deep processing involves semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words. Shallow processing involves structural and phonemic recognition, the processing of sentence and word structure and their associated sounds. This theory was first identified by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart. Vocabulary Reading comprehension and vocabulary are inextricably linked. The ability to decode or identify and pronounce words is self-evidently important, but knowing what the words mean has a major and direct effect on knowing what any specific passage means. Students with a smaller vocabulary than other students comprehend less of what they read and it has been suggested that the most impactful way to improve comprehension is to improve vocabulary. Most words are learned gradually through a wide variety of environments: television, books, and conversations. Some words are more complex and difficult to learn, such as Homonyms, words that have multiple meanings and those with figurative meanings, like Idioms, Similes, and Metaphors. Broad vocabulary approach The method of focusing of broad instruction on many words was developed by Andrew Biemiller who argued that more words would benefit students more, even if the instruction was short and teacher-directed. He suggested that teachers teach a large number of words before reading a book to students, by merely giving short definitions, such as synonyms, and then pointing out the words and their meaning while reading the book to students. The method contrasts with the approach by emphasizing quantity versus quality. There is no evidence to suggest the primacy of either approach. Morphemic instruction The final vocabulary technique, strategies for learning new words, can be further subdivided into instruction on using context and instruction on using morphemes, or meaningful units within words to learn their meaning. Morphemic instruction has been shown to produce positive outcomes for students reading and vocabulary knowledge, but context has proved unreliable as a strategy and it is no longer considered a useful strategy to teach students. This conclusion does not disqualify the value in "learning" morphemic analysis - prefixes, suffixes and roots - but rather suggests that it be imparted incidentally and in context. Accordingly, there are methods designed to achieve this, such as Incidental Morpheme Analysis. Reading strategies Reciprocal teaching In the 1980s Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar and Ann L. Brown developed a technique called reciprocal teaching that taught students to predict, summarize, clarify, and ask questions for sections of a text. The use of strategies like summarizing after each paragraph has come to be seen as effective strategies for building students' comprehension. The idea is that students will develop stronger reading comprehension skills on their own if the teacher gives them explicit mental tools for unpacking text. Text factors There are factors that once discerned, make it easier for the reader to understand the written text. One is the genre, like folktales, historical fiction, biographies or poetry. Each genre has its own characteristics for text structure that once understood help the reader comprehend it. A story is composed of a plot, characters, setting, point of view, and theme. Informational books provide real world knowledge for students and have unique features such as: headings, maps, vocabulary, and an index. Poems are written in different forms and the most commonly used are: rhymed verse, haikus, free verse, and narratives. Poetry uses devices such as: alliteration, repetition, rhyme, metaphors, and similes. "When children are familiar with genres, organizational patterns, and text features in books they're reading, they're better able to create those text factors in their own writing." Non-Verbal Imagery Media that utilizes schema to make connections either planned or not, more commonly used within context such as: a passage, an experience, or one's imagination. Some notable examples are emoji, emoticons, cropped and un-cropped images, and recently Imojis which are humorous, cropped images that are used to elicit humour and comprehension. Visualization Visualization is like a "mental image" created in a person's mind while reading text, which "brings words to life" and helps improve reading comprehension. Asking sensory questions will help students to visualize. Students can practice visualizing by imagining what they "see, hear, smell, taste, or feel" when they are reading a page of a picture book aloud, but not yet shown the picture. They can share their visualizations, and then check their level of detail against the illustrations. Partner reading Partner reading is a strategy created for pairs. The teacher chooses two appropriate books for the students' to read. First they must read their own book. Once they have completed this, they are given the opportunity to write down their own comprehensive questions for their partner. The students swap books, read them out loud to one another and ask one another questions about the book they read. This strategy: *Provides a model of fluent reading and helps students learn decoding skills by offering positive feedback. *Provides direct opportunities for a teacher to circulate in the class, observe students, and offer individual remediation. Multiple reading strategies There is a wide range of reading strategies suggested by reading programs and educators. The National Reading Panel identified positive effects only for a subset, particularly summarizing, asking questions, answering questions, comprehension monitoring, graphic organizers, and cooperative learning. The Panel also emphasized that a combination of strategies, as used in Reciprocal Teaching, can be effective. The use of effective comprehension strategies that provide specific instructions for developing and retaining comprehension skills, with intermittent feedback, has been found to improve reading comprehension across all ages, specifically those affected by mental disabilities. Reading different types of texts requires the use of different reading strategies and approaches. Making reading an active, observable process can be very beneficial to struggling readers. A good reader interacts with the text in order to develop an understanding of the information before them. Some good reader strategies are predicting, connecting, inferring, summarizing, analyzing and critiquing. There are many resources and activities educators and instructors of reading can use to help with reading strategies in specific content areas and disciplines. Some examples are graphic organizers, talking to the text, anticipation guides, double entry journals, interactive reading and note taking guides, chunking, and summarizing. The use of effective comprehension strategies is highly important when learning to improve reading comprehension. These strategies provide specific instructions for developing and retaining comprehension skills. Implementing the following instructions with intermittent feedback has been found to improve reading comprehension across all ages, specifically those affected by mental disabilities.  Comprehension Strategies Research studies on reading and comprehension have shown that highly proficient readers utilize a number of different strategies to comprehend various types of texts, strategies that can also be used by less proficient readers in order to improve their comprehension. 1. Making Inferences: In everyday terms we refer to this as “reading between the lines”. It involves connecting various parts of texts that aren’t directly linked in order to form a sensible conclusion. A form of assumption, the reader speculates what connections lie within the texts. 2. Planning and Monitoring: This strategy centre around the reader’s mental awareness and their ability to control their comprehension by way of awareness. By previewing text (via outlines, table of contents, etc.) one can establish a goal for reading-“what do I need to get out of this”? Readers use context clues and other evaluation strategies to clarify texts and ideas, and thus monitoring their level of understanding. 3. Asking Questions: To solidify one understands of passages of texts readers inquire and develop their own opinion of the author’s writing, character motivations, relationships, etc. This strategy involves allowing oneself to be completely objective in order to find various meanings within the text. 4. Determining Importance: Pinpointing the important ideas and messages within the text. Readers are taught to identify direct and indirect ideas and to summarize the relevance of each. 5. Visualizing: With this sensory-driven strategy readers form mental and visual images of the contents of text. Being able to connect visually allows for a better understanding with the text through emotional responses. 6. Synthesizing: This method involves marrying multiple ideas from various texts in order to draw conclusions and make comparisons across different texts; with the reader’s goal being to understand how they all fit together. 7. Making Connections: A cognitive approach also referred to as “reading beyond the lines”, it involves finding a personal connection to reading, such as personal experience, previously read texts, etc. to help establish a deeper understanding of the context of the text. Define Reading Comprehension? According to Webster's Dictionary, comprehension is "the capacity for understanding fully; the act or action of grasping with the intellect." Reading is "to receive or take in the sense of, as letters or symbols, by scanning; to understand the meaning of written or printed matter; to learn from what one has seen or found in writing or printing. Identifying words on a page does not make someone a successful reader. When the words are understood and transcend the pages to become thoughts and ideas then you are truly reading. Comprehension therefore is the capacity for understanding those thoughts and ideas. Applying what you have read and understood becomes the successful conclusion. Comprehension Regulation: You can become an active, effective reader through comprehension regulation. This is a method for consciously controlling the reading process. Comprehension regulation involves the use of pre-planned strategies to understand text. It is a plan for getting the most out of reading. It allows you to have an idea of what to expect from the text. Most importantly, it gives you techniques to use when you are experiencing difficulties. As an active reader, you can get an idea of what the writer is trying to communicate by:  Setting goals based on your purpose for reading  Previewing the text to make predictions  Self-questioning  Scanning  Relating new information to old Skills for being an effective reader and for increasing comprehension are:  Finding main ideas and supporting details/evidence  Making inferences and drawing conclusions  Recognizing a text's patterns of organization  Perceiving conceptual relationships  Testing your knowledge and understanding of the material through application Read the Preface & Introduction: Read the preface and introduction you'll get essential information for understanding the author's perspective. The preface usually provides information about the author's objective, the organizational plan, how it is different from others, and the author's background. Once you know the author's objective or goal, it's easier to see relationships among the facts presented. The introduction lays the foundation for the rest of the text in the form of overview and background information that will make it easier to digest information. Make More Than One Pass: Reading articles and textbooks often requires more than one pass. It usually takes two, three, or even more readings to grasp difficult concepts. Skim the table of contents, preface, headings, and conclusions. Stop and think about the author's intent as well the instructor's purpose in making the assignment and purpose for reading. Take Notes: In early readings, take the briefest of notes while reading by adding brackets in margins or underlining minimally. Note pages where you might want to take formal notes. After reading, take more extensive notes. When reading and note taking are complete, reread all of your notes, think about what you've read, and add more notes based on your reflections. Your goal is to have notes that are concise, capture the reading - and replace it so that you don't have to go back and reread. Don't Highlight: If you underline text, do so minimally and stay focused on the important details. Avoid the temptation to highlight every line. Heavy highlighting is a procrastination tool because usually you're marking what you should learn instead of focusing on learning it. Identifying Topics, Main Ideas and Supporting Details: Understanding the topic, the gist, or the larger conceptual framework of a textbook chapter, an article, a paragraph, a sentence or a passage is a sophisticated reading task. Being able to draw conclusions, evaluate, and critically interpret articles or chapters is important for overall comprehension in college reading. Textbook chapters, articles, paragraphs, sentences, or passages all have topics and main ideas. The topic is the broad, general theme or message. It is what some call the subject. The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed. Details, major and minor, support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much, or how many. Locating the topic, main idea, and supporting details helps you understand the point(s) the writer is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship between these will increase your comprehension Grasping the Main Idea: A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or central theme. Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is the most important piece of information the author wants you to know about the concept of that paragraph. When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get across. This is especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An author organizes each paragraph's main idea and supporting details in support of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph supports the paragraph preceding it. A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly somewhere in the paragraph. That main idea may be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the middle, or at the end. The sentence in which the main idea is stated is the topic sentence of that paragraph. Identifying the Topic: The first thing you must be able to do to get at the main idea of a paragraph is to identify the topic - the subject of the paragraph. Think of the paragraph as a wheel with the topic being the hub - the central core around which the whole wheel (or paragraph) spins. Your strategy for topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question, "What is this about?" Keep asking yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the answer to your question becomes clear. Sometimes you can spot the topic by looking for a word or two that repeat. Usually you can state the topic in a few words  In writing, there are three types of paragraphs: introductory, transitional, and summarizing. Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the main ideas of the chapter or section; (2) the extent or limits of the coverage; (3) how the topic is developed; and (4) the writer’s attitude toward the topic. Transitional paragraphs are usually short; their sole function is to tie together what you have read so far and what is to come - to set the stage for succeeding ideas of the chapter or section. Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly the main ideas of the chapter or section. The writer may also draw some conclusion from these ideas, or speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has presented. Strengthening Reading Comprehension: 1. Analyze the time and place in which you are reading - If you've been reading or studying for several hours, mental fatigue may be the source of the problem. If you are reading in a place with distractions or interruptions, you may not be able to understand what you're reading. 2. Rephrase each paragraph in your own words - You might need to approach complicated material sentence by sentence, expressing each in your own words. 3. Read aloud sentences or sections that are particularly difficult - Reading out loud sometimes makes complicated material easier to understand. 4. Reread difficult or complicated sections - At times, in fact, several readings are appropriate and necessary. 5. Slow down your reading rate - On occasion, simply reading more slowly and carefully will provide you with the needed boost in comprehension. 6. Turn headings into questions - Refer to these questions frequently and jot down or underline answers. 7. Write a brief outline of major points - This will help you see the overall organization and progression of ideas. 8. Highlight key ideas - After you've read a section, go back and think about and highlight what is important. Highlighting forces you to sort out what is important, and this sorting process builds comprehension and recall. 9. Write notes in the margins - Explain or rephrase difficult or complicated ideas or sections. 10. Determine whether you lack background knowledge - Comprehension is difficult, at times, and it is impossible, if you lack essential information that the writer assumes you have. SYNONYMS Synonyms are those words, which are very nearly alike in meaning but not quite. We have to choose from a number of synonyms, the particular word that exactly expresses the idea that we wish to convey. Synonyms can provide you with variety in speech or writing. There are endless examples of synonyms, making it easy for you to avoid overusing the same word and sounding repetitive. List of Synonyms  Action o Come — advance, approach, arrive, near, reach o Go — depart, disappear, fade, move, proceed, recede, travel o Run — dash, escape, elope, flee, hasten, hurry, race, rush, speed, sprint o Hurry — rush, run, speed, race, hasten, urge, accelerate, bustle o Hide — conceal, cover, mask, cloak, camouflage, screen, shroud, veil o Move —go, crawl, inch, poke, drag, toddle, shuffle, trot, dawdle, walk, traipse, mosey, jog, o Do — execute, enact, carry out, finish, conclude, effect, accomplish, achieve, attain o Have — hold, possess, own, contain, acquire, gain, maintain, believe, bear, beget, occupy, absorb, fill, enjoy o Use — employ, utilize, exhaust, spend, expend, consume, exercise o Get — acquire, obtain, secure, procure, gain, fetch, find, score, accumulate, win, o Keep — hold, retain, withhold, preserve, maintain, sustain, support o Put — place, set, attach, establish, assign, keep, save, set aside, effect, achieve, do, build o Take — hold, catch, seize, grasp, win, capture, acquire, pick, choose, select, prefer, remove, steal, lift, rob, engage, bewitch, purchase, buy, retract, recall, assume, occupy, consume o Make — create, originate, invent, beget, form, construct, design, fabricate, manufacture, produce, build, develop, do, effect, execute, compose, perform, accomplish, earn, gain, obtain, acquire, get o Break — fracture, rupture, shatter, smash, wreck, crash, demolish, atomize o Destroy — ruin, demolish, raze, waste, kill, slay, end, extinguish o Kill — slay, execute, assassinate, murder, destroy, cancel, abolish o Cut — gash, slash, prick, nick, sever, slice, carve, cleave, slit, chop, crop, lop, reduce o Fall — drop, descend, plunge, topple, tumble o Fly — soar, hover, flit, wing, flee, waft, glide, coast, skim, sail, cruise o Decide — determine, settle, choose, resolve o Help — aid, assist, support, encourage, back, wait on, attend, serve, relieve, succour, benefit, befriend, abet o Mark — label, tag, price, ticket, impress, effect, trace, imprint, stamp, brand, sign, note, heed, notice, designate o Plan — plot, scheme, design, draw, map, diagram, procedure, arrangement, intention, device, contrivance, method, way, blueprint o Show — display, exhibit, present, note, point to, indicate, explain, reveal, prove, demonstrate, expose o Begin — start, open, launch, initiate, commence, inaugurate, originate o Big — large, enormous, huge, immense, gigantic, vast, colossal, gargantuan, sizable, grand, great, tall, substantial, mammoth, astronomical, ample, broad, expansive, spacious, stout, tremendous, titanic, mountainous o Little — small, tiny, diminutive, shrimp, runt, miniature, puny, exiguous, dinky, cramped. o New — fresh, unique, original, unusual, novel, modern, current, recent o Old — feeble, frail, ancient, weak, aged, used, worn, dilapidated, ragged, faded, broken-down, o False — wrong, fake, fraudulent, counterfeit, spurious, untrue, unfounded, erroneous, deceptive, incorrect, inaccurate, mistaken, erroneous, improper, unsuitable o True — right, accurate, proper, precise, exact, valid, genuine, real, actual, trusty, steady, loyal, dependable, sincere, fair o Fast — quick, rapid, speedy, fleet, hasty, snappy, mercurial, swiftly, rapidly, quickly, snappily, speedily, like a flash o Slow — unhurried, gradual, leisurely, late, behind, tedious, slack o Cool — chilly, cold, frosty, wintry, icy, frigid  o Hot — feverish, warm, heated, sweltering, torrid, fiery, flaming, sizzling, charged, burning, seared, chafed´, inflamed o Quiet — silent, still, soundless, mute, tranquil, peaceful, calm, restful, hushed, inaudible reticent, reserved, taciturn, secretive, uncommunicative o Noisy — loudly, ear-splitting, stentorian, strident, clamorous, boisterous, clangourous, deafening, roisterers, uproarious o All — complete, entire, full, gross, outright, perfect, total, utter, whole, any, complete, every, sum, totality, each and every, every bit of, bar none, every single, everything, everyone o None — nothing, nobody, no one, zero, zilch, no one at all, no part, not a bit, not a soul, not a thing, not any, not anyone, not anything, not one, nonexistent, null nadir, nil, naught, void, nada, blank, nix o Normal — daily, traditional, familiar, routine, proper, ordinary, typical, everyday, usual, commonplace, natural, classic, standard, general, o Strange — abnormal, aberrant, anomalous, bent, bizarre, deviant, queer, eccentric, freakish, unusual, extraordinary, insane, irrational, disorderly, rare, exceptional.  Descriptive o Describe — portray, characterize, picture, narrate, relate, recount, represent, report, record o Difference — disagreement, inequity, contrast, dissimilarity, incompatibility o Explain — elaborate, clarify, define, interpret, justify, account for o Idea — thought, concept, conception, notion, understanding, opinion, plan, view, belief o Look — gaze, see, glance, watch, examine, gape, ogle, scrutinize, inspect, leer, behold, observe, view, witness, explore o Story — tale, myth, legend, fable, yarn, account, narrative, chronicle, epic, anecdote, record, memoir o Tell — disclose, reveal, show, expose, uncover, relate, narrate, inform, advise, explain, divulge, declare, command, order, bid, recount, repeat o Think — judge, deem, assume, believe, consider, contemplate, reflect, mediate  Feelings o Anger — enrage, infuriate, arouse, nettle, exasperate, inflame, madden  o Angry — mad, furious, enraged, excited, wrathful, indignant, exasperated, aroused, inflamed o Calm — quiet, peaceful, still, tranquil, mild, serene, smooth, composed, collected, unruffled, level-headed, unexcited, detached, aloof o Eager — keen, fervent, enthusiastic, involved, interested, alive to o Fear — fright, dread, terror, alarm, dismay, anxiety, scare, awe, horror, panic, apprehension o Happy — pleased, contented, satisfied, delighted, elated, joyful, cheerful, ecstatic, jubilant, gay, tickled, gratified, glad, blissful, overjoyed o Hate — despise, loathe, detest, abhor, disfavour, dislike, disapprove, abominate o Love — like, admire, esteem, fancy, care for, cherish, adore, treasure, worship, appreciate, savour o Moody — temperamental, changeable, irritable, testy, peevish, fretful, spiteful, sulky, touchy o Sad — miserable, uncomfortable, wretched, heart-broken, unfortunate, poor, downhearted, sorrowful, depressed, dejected, melancholy, glum, gloomy, dismal, discouraged, unhappy o Scared — afraid, frightened, alarmed, terrified, panicked, fearful  Negative o Awful — dreadful, terrible, abominable, bad, poor, unpleasant o Bad — evil, immoral, wicked, corrupt, sinful, depraved, rotten, contaminated, spoiled, foul, rank, ghastly, execrable o Crooked — bent, twisted, curved, hooked, zigzag o Dangerous — perilous, hazardous, risky, uncertain, unsafe o Dark — shadowy, unlit, murky, gloomy, dim, dusky, shaded, sunless, black, dismal, sad o Dull — boring, tiring, tiresome, uninteresting, slow, dumb, stupid, unimaginative, lifeless, humdrum, dreary o Fat — stout, corpulent, fleshy, beefy, paunchy, plump, full, rotund, tubby, pudgy, chubby, chunky, burly, bulky, elephantine o Gross — improper, rude, coarse, indecent, crude, vulgar, outrageous, extreme, grievous, shameful, uncouth, obscene, low  o Hurt — damage, harm, injure, wound, distress, afflict, pain o Lazy — indolent, slothful, idle, inactive, sluggish o Predicament — quandary, dilemma, pickle, problem, plight, spot, scrape, jam o Trouble — distress, anguish, anxiety, worry, wretchedness, pain, danger, peril, disaster, grief, misfortune, difficulty, concern, pains, inconvenience, exertion, effort o Ugly — hideous, frightful, terrifying, gross, grisly, ghastly, horrid, unsightly, plain, homely, evil, repulsive, repugnant, gruesome  Positive o Amazing — incredible, unbelievable, improbable, fabulous, wonderful, fantastic, astonishing, astounding, extraordinary o Beautiful — pretty, lovely, attractive, gorgeous, dazzling, splendid, magnificent, comely, fair, ravishing, graceful, elegant, fine, exquisite, aesthetic, pleasing, radiant, glowing, blooming, sparkling o Brave — courageous, fearless, dauntless, intrepid, plucky, daring, heroic, valorous, audacious, bold, gallant, valiant, doughty, mettlesome o Bright — shining, shiny, gleaming, brilliant, sparkling, shimmering, radiant, vivid, colourful, lustrous, luminous, incandescent, intelligent, knowing, quick-witted, smart, intellectual o Delicious — savoury, delectable, appetizing, luscious, scrumptious, palatable, delightful, enjoyable, toothsome, exquisite o Enjoy — appreciate, delight in, be pleased, indulge in, luxuriate in, bask in, relish, devour, savour, like o Famous — well-known, renowned, celebrated, famed, eminent, illustrious, distinguished, noted, notorious o Funny — humorous, amusing, droll, comic, comical, laughable, silly o Good — excellent, fine, superior, wonderful, marvellous, qualified, suited, suitable o Great — noteworthy, worthy, distinguished, remarkable, grand, considerable, powerful, much, mighty o Mischievous — prankish, playful, naughty, roguish, waggish, impish, sportive o Neat — clean, orderly, tidy, trim, dapper, natty, smart, elegant, well-organized, super, desirable, spruce, shipshape, well-kept, shapely  o Popular — well-liked, approved, accepted, favourite, celebrated, common, current  Talk / Speech o Answer — reply, respond, retort, acknowledge o Ask — question, inquire of, seek information from, put a question to, demand, request, expect, inquire, query, interrogate, examine, quiz o Cry — shout, yell, yowl, scream, roar, bellow, weep, wail, sob, bawl o Say/Tell — inform, notify, o Mean (Something) — add up to, affect, be important, be of value, be substantive, carry weight, connote, count, denote, express, imply, intend, involve, signify, spell, stand for, suggest, value, weigh in,  Unsorted o Somewhat — a little, sort of, kind of, a bit, relatively, slightly, moderately, to some extent / degree , reasonably o Somehow — in a way, virtually, to a certain extent, in some measure, to some extent, to a certain degree, quasi , in a manner of speaking, effectively anyhow, anyway, anywise, by hook or by crook, another, howsoever, in any way, somehow or other, someway, by some means o Definite — certain, sure, positive, determined, clear, distinct, obvious o Fair — just, impartial, unbiased, objective, unprejudiced, honest o Important — necessary, vital, critical, indispensable, valuable, essential, significant, primary, principal, considerable, famous, distinguished, notable, well- known o Interesting — fascinating, engaging, sharp, spellbinding, curious, captivating, enchanting, bewitching, appealing o Part — portion, share, piece, allotment, section, fraction, fragment o Place — space, area, spot, plot, region, location, situation, position, residence, dwelling, set, site, station, status, state  Antonym An antonym is the opposite of another word. Antonyms can be used to help show contrast between two things or give clues to exactly what is meant. Below are some examples of antonyms: Antonym Examples  Achieve – Fail  Guilty – Innocent  Active – Idle  Hire – Fire  Afraid – Confident  Include – Exclude  Ancient – Modern  Individual – Group  Arrive – Depart  Innocent – Guilty  Arrogant – Humble  Knowledge – Ignorance  Ascend – Descend  Liquid – Solid  Attack – Defend  Major – Minor  Attractive – Repulsive  Marvellous – Terrible  Adversity – Prosperity  Mature – Immature  Affirm - Deny  Maximum - Minimum  Blunt – Sharp  Noisy – Quiet  Brave – Cowardly  Optimist - Pessimist  Cautious – Careless  Ordinary – Extraordinary  Complex – Simple  Partial – Complete  Compliment – Insult  Passive – Active  Crazy – Sane  Permanent – Unstable  Crooked – Straight  Plentiful – Sparse  Condemn - Approve  Positive – Negative  Decrease – Increase  Powerful – Weak  Demand – Supply  Praise – Criticism  Destroy – Create  Private – Public  Divide – Unite  Problem – Solution  Drunk – Sober  Professional – Amateur  Expand – Contract  Profit – Loss  Freeze – Boil  Quality – Inferiority  Full – Empty  Random – Specific  Generous – Stingy  Rigid – Flexible  Giant – Dwarf  Segregate – Integrate  Gloomy – Cheerful  Shame – Honour  Simple - Complicated  Union – Separation  Single – Married  Unique – Common  Strength – Weakness  Upset – Relaxed  Sunny - Cloudy  Urge – Deter  Superb – Awful  Vacant – Occupied  Temporary – Permanent  Vague – Definite  Timid – Bold  Vertical – Horizontal  Toward – Away  Villain – Hero  Tragic – Comic  Visible - Invisible  Transparent - Opaque  Wax - Wane  Triumph – Defeat  Wealth – Poverty  Homonyms and Homophones Homonyms Homonyms are words that are pronounced the same and spelled the same but have different meanings. Homonyms are words that are both spelled and pronounced the same as each other yet have different meanings. The category is somewhat subjective, because words sometimes have related, only very slightly different, meanings. Therefore, a homonym is a word that has the same name as another word, meaning that the two words look and sound exactly alike. A simple example of a homonym is the word “pen.” This can mean both a holding area for animals and a writing instrument. Another example is “book,” which can mean something to read or the act of making a reservation. In both cases, the sound and spelling are the same, and only the definition changes. A word that sounds the same or is spelled the same as another word but has a different meaning, e.g."No" and "know" are homonyms. More Examples of Homonyms Here are a few more examples of homonym pairs:  address (to speak to)/address (location)  air (oxygen)/air (a lilting tune)  band (a musical group)/band (a ring)  bark (a tree’s out layer)/bark (the sound a dog makes)  current (up to date)/current (flow of water)  die (to cease living)/die (a cube marked with numbers one through six)  fair (equitable)/fair (beautiful)  kind (type)/kind (caring)  lie (to recline)/lie (to tell a falsehood)  match (to pair like items)/match (a stick for making a flame)  mean (average)/mean (not nice)  Pole (a person from Poland)/pole (a piece of metal that holds a flag)  pound (unit of weight)/pound (to beat)  ream (a pile of paper)/ream (to juice a citrus fruit)  rose (to have gotten up)/rose (a flower)  spring (a season)/spring (coiled metal)  tender (gentle)/tender (to pay money)  tire (to grow fatigued)/tire (part of a wheel) Homophones Homophones are words that sound alike, thanks to that all-important suffix “phone,” which means sound. Homophones are two or more words that sound alike but that are spelled differently and have different meanings. Homonym traces back to the Greek words homos, meaning “same,” and onuma, meaning “name.” So a homonym is sort of like two people who have the same name: called the same thing but different Homophones have the same sound but different meaning, and they are often spelled differently. For example, consider the word “plate” and “plait.” A plate is a dish for eating, but a plait is a special knot or twist, usually indicating something braided, like hair or rope. Homophones occur in English because there are multiple ways to spell the same sound. For example:  The sound of /n/ can be spelled with the letter N or the letter combination KN, resulting in the homophones night and knight  The sound of /ā/ can be spelled A-consonant-E or AY (among other possible spellings), giving us daze and days.  The schwa sound (the muffled /uh/ sound of vowels in unaccented syllables) causes words like complement and compliment to be pronounced alike. Homophones may or may not be spelled the same, because the definition is really about the sound. Other examples:  mat/matte  two/too Here are some more examples of homonyms:  Bear and bear We saw a bear in the woods. The cold was more than he could bear. (Same spelling, same pronunciation.)  Left and left They left the coin on the beach. Turn left when you get to the lemonade stand. (Same spelling, same pronunciation.)  Commonly confused words English has a lot of commonly confused words. They look alike, sound alike or, worst of all, look and sound alike but have completely different meanings. Other words look and sound different but are similar in meaning, and it’s hard to determine which the correct one in a given context is. There are a lot of words that look or sound alike but have very different meanings, such as pore and pour or flaunt and flout. Take a look at these two sentences – one of them contains a mistake: I poured over book after book. We pored over the catalogues. Here’s a quick-reference list of pairs of words that regularly cause people problems. The words follow the accepted British English spelling. Hopefully the following list of pairs of commonly confused words will help you keep them straightened out. Accept vs. Except Accept (verb) - to receive  I accepted all my birthday gifts with gratitude. Except (conjunction) - apart from; otherwise than; were it not true  When Susan travels, she packs everything except the kitchen sink. Affect vs. Effect Affect (verb) - to have an effect on; influence; produce a change in; to stir the emotions  The dog's death affected his owners. Effect (noun) - anything brought about by a cause or agent; result  The new speed limit law had little effect on the speed of the motorists. A Lot vs. Allot A lot (noun phrase) -many  A lot of people came to the party. *"A lot" is always two separate words. "Alot" is not a real word. Allot (verb) - to distribute, give or assign  Fifteen minutes were allotted to each of the speakers at the conference. Allusion vs. Illusion Allusion (noun) - an indirect reference  The Austin Powers movies often make allusions to the James Bond films. Illusion (noun) - a false idea or conception; belief or opinion not in accord with the facts; an unreal, deceptive, or misleading appearance or image  The magician created the illusion that he was levitating. Breath vs. Breathe Breath (noun) - air taken into the lungs and then let out  Take a deep breath. Breathe (verb) - to inhale and exhale  Just calm down and breathe. Desert vs. Dessert Desert (verb) - to forsake or abandon; to leave without permission; to fail when needed  Soldiers should not desert their posts. Desert (noun) - dry, barren, sandy region  The largest desert in the world is the Sahara. Dessert (noun) - a sweet course served at the end of a meal  Fruit makes a healthy dessert after lunch or dinner. Lose vs. Loose Lose (verb) - to become unable to find; to mislay; to fail to win or gain  Did you lose your glasses again?  How many games did your team lose last season? Loose (adjective) - not tight; giving enough room  I’ve lost twenty pounds, and now these jeans are really loose. Principal vs. Principle Principal (noun) - a governing or presiding officer, specifically of a school; (adjective) - first in rank, authority, importance, degree, etc.  The student’s parents had to have a meeting with the principal. Principle (noun) - a fundamental truth, law, doctrine, or motivating force, upon which others are based  The student’s parents thought that they had instilled stronger moral principles in their son. Site vs. Sight Sight (noun) - something seen, a view, field of vision  She was a sight for sore eyes. Site (noun) - a piece of land considered for a specific purpose  The corner lot was a perfect site for the new shopping centre. Stationary vs. Stationery Stationary (adjective) - not moving or not movable; fixed or still  I rode the stationary bike at the gym for an hour. Stationery (noun) - writing materials; specifically, paper and envelopes used for letters  My grandmother has given me a lot of stationery over the years. I think she wants me to use it to write her. Than vs. Then Than (conjunction) - used to introduce the second element in a comparison  My right foot is bigger than my left foot. Then (adverb) - at that time; next in order; (adjective) - of that time; (noun) - that time  Take off all your clothes first. Then get in the shower.  Emily drove up to New York with her then boyfriend, Nick.  Let's wait until we're hungry; we can decide what we want to eat then. Their vs. There vs. They’re Their (adjective) - of, belonging to, made by, or done by them  They were proud of their work. There (noun) - that place or point  Just put it over there. They’re (contraction) of they + are  They’re going out to dinner tonight. To vs. Too vs. Two To (preposition) - in the direction of and reaching; as far as; to the extent of  I’m going to Baltimore. Too (adverb) - in addition; as well; besides; also; more than enough; superfluously; overly; to a regrettable extent; extremely  I’m going to Baltimore, too.  I'm too busy. I can't go to Baltimore. Two (adjective) the number 2  I have two jobs. Your vs. You're Your (adjective) - belonging to you  Is this your dog? You're (contraction) - you are  You're a great mother!  Who vs. Whom Who (subject pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a person that (used to introduce a relative clause)  Who is going to the party with you? Whom (object pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a person that (used to introduce a relative clause)  With whom are you going to the party? Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct word. 1. My little cousin turns ________(to, too, two) years old tomorrow. 2. The next-door neighbour’s dog is ________(quite, quiet, quit) loud. He barks constantly throughout the night. 3. ________(Your, You’re) mother called this morning to talk about the party. 4. I would rather eat a slice of chocolate cake ________(than, then) eat a chocolate muffin. 5. Before the meeting, he drank a cup of coffee and ________(than, then) brushed his teeth. 6. Do you have any ________(loose, lose) change to pay the parking meter? 7. Father must ________(have, of) left his briefcase at the office. 8. Before playing ice hockey, I was ________(suppose, supposed) to read the contract, but I only skimmed it and signed my name quickly, which may ________(affect, effect) my understanding of the rules. 9. Tonight she will ________(set, sit) down and ________(right, write) a cover letter to accompany her résumé and job application. 10. It must be fall, because the leaves ________(are, our) changing, and ________(it’s, its) getting darker earlier. Vocabulary based on TOEFL and other competitive examinations Vocabulary is an important part of the TOEFL, and many questions on the exam require you to have a strong vocabulary. Here is a list of the 327 best TOEFL vocabulary words in order to guide your studying. The 327 TOEFL Words You Need to Know Word Definition Sample Sentence Abundant Present in large quantities. Living close to a lake means we have an abundant supply of water. Accumulate To gradually collect. Each fall, leaves accumulate in our driveway. Accurate Correct; free from errors. Make sure your address is accurate before submitting your online order. Accustomed Used to something. Having 8AM classes means I’m accustomed to getting up early. Acquire To come into possession of. When my grandmother died, I acquired her cookbook collection. Adamant Refusing to change an opinion. The defendant was adamant that he was innocent. Adequate Enough to suit your needs. Our house isn’t big, but it’s adequate for the two of us. Adjacent Close to or next to. The park is adjacent to the school. Adjust To change something so it The bike seat may be too high; you’ll serves its purpose better. probably need to adjust it. Advantage Something that makes it easier His height gives him an advantage in to achieve success. basketball. Advocate To publicly support. My aunt is a major advocate for women’s’ rights. Adverse Unfavourable; against one’s I had an adverse reaction to my desires. medication and had to stop taking it. Aggregate To combine. We should aggregate our resources to share them more easily. Aggressive Assertive and pushy. The salesperson was very aggressive when trying to get us to buy the television. Allocate To put aside for a specific The village needs to allocate funds for purpose. building the new school. Alternative Another option or choice. If the ATM is broken, an alternative solution is to stop by the bank. Amateur Someone who is inexperienced He’s an amateur soccer player and is still or not highly skilled in a learning the rules of the game. particular area. Ambiguous Having several potential When I asked the HR manager what my meanings; unclear and difficult chances were of getting the job, she gave to understand. me a very ambiguous reply. Ambitious Having large goals. My son is very ambitious and hopes to be a millionaire by the time he’s thirty. Amend To change for the better; to I believe we should amend our country’s improve. tax laws. Ample Plentiful. Our new apartment has ample space for the two of us. Anomaly Deviation from the norm. The basketball player is the team’s best free thrower, so his missing both shots was an anomaly. Annual Occurring yearly. The annual company barbeque takes place every August. Antagonize To tease or be hostile towards a The boy loves to antagonize his little person or group. sister by pulling her hair. Attitude Manner or feeling. After she got grounded, the teenager had a bad attitude for the rest of the day. Attribute To give credit. Be sure to attribute credit to your sources when writing a research paper. Arbitrary Based on a whim or random Flipping a coin is an arbitrary way to decision. make a decision. Arduous Requiring a lot of effort. After you cross the bridge, there’s an arduous walk up the hill. Assuage To lessen a negative feeling. The mother assuaged her child’s fear of the dark. Assume To suppose without solid proof. I assumed he was rich because he worked as a lawyer. Augment To increase or make larger. She augments her regular salary by babysitting on the weekends. Benefit Something positive or A benefit of doing homework on Friday advantageous. is that your weekend will be free. Berate To scold. Our neighbor berated us after we broke his window playing baseball. Bestow To give as a gift. The medal was bestowed upon him by the president. Boast To brag or talk with excessive He always boasts of his talents after he pride. wins a game. Boost To help raise or increase I gave him a pep talk to boost his self- something. esteem before his speech. Brash Rude and tactless. The brash man always asked inappropriate questions. Brief Short (in terms of time). It will only have a brief meeting, so you’ll still have plenty of time for lunch. Brusque Abrupt to the point of rudeness. After being away for so long, I expected more than her brusque greeting. Cacophony A harsh, unpleasant mixture of The cuckoo clock shop lets off a noise. cacophony every hour. Cease To stop. I wish they would cease arguing. Censure To express strong disapproval. Every parent in our district censured the education cuts. Chronological Arranged in order of time or Put the historical events in chronological date. order to make them easier to study. Clarify To make clear; to remove I didn’t understand the instructions, so I confusion. asked the teacher to clarify them. Coalesce To combine or grow together. The people on the street eventually coalesced into a group. Coerce To force someone to do The young boy was coerced into stealing  something against their will. by his friends. Cognizant Being aware or having Before mountain climbing, you need to knowledge of something. be cognizant of the risks. Cohesion Uniting; becoming one. Water molecules show strong cohesion when they stick together. Coincide To occur at the same time. This year Thanksgiving coincided with my birthday. Collapse To fall down or break down. The old building finally collapsed, leaving nothing but a pile of rubble. Collide To hit one another with a The two cars collided on the freeway. forceful impact. Commitment Dedication to a cause or activity. Joining a school play is a big commitment. You’ll need to practice every evening. Community A group of people who live or The Chinese community in my city is work together. hosting a New Year celebration next week. Conceal To hide. The mountains concealed the ocean from view. Concur To agree. He believes women should be paid as much as men, and I concur. Conflict A disagreement or fight. The conflict between the two families has been going on for generations. Constrain To restrict or repress. You should move your plant to a bigger pot, otherwise you’ll constrain its roots. Contemplate To consider thoughtfully. I spend a lot of time contemplating what career I want to have. Continuously To go on without stopping. My neighbours have been continuously blasting their music since last night. Contradict To give the opposite opinion. I told the employees that sales were down, but my boss contradicted me and said sales were actually up. Contribute To give something (usually Every roommate contributes part of his money or time) to a common paycheck to the grocery bill. fund or cause. Convey To make known. I’ve conveyed my interest in working for that company. Copious Abundant. He always takes copious notes during class to study later on. Core Central; of main importance. Although many employees left the company, the core leadership remained. Corrode To gradually wear away. The rust corroded the paint on my car. Cumbersome Burdensome; clumsy Trying to carry four grocery bags at once was very cumbersome. Curriculum The courses given by a school or Our school needs to add more music program. courses to its curriculum. Data Facts, statistics, or pieces of The data from these graphs show that information. yearly temperatures are increasing. Decay To decline in health or After the tree died, its wood began to excellence. decay. Deceive To trick or mislead. He deceived me by pretending to be a millionaire. Decipher To find the meaning of. The spy deciphered the secret code. Declaration An announcement. He made a declaration to the office that he was quitting. Degrade To lower in quality. My attempt at cake degraded into a crumbly mess. Demonstrate To show. Let me demonstrate the proper way of throwing a football. Deny To state that something isn’t He denied being the robber. true. Deplete To significantly decrease. Your shopping sprees have depleted my savings. Deposit To deliver and leave an item. Please deposit your books in the bin outside the library. Desirable Worth having or wanting. Bravery is a desirable trait for firefighters to have. Despise To hate. I despise early morning classes. Detect To locate something. The police dog detected the missing child’s scent. Deter To discourage. The warning signs on the house deterred trespassers. Deviate To differ from the norm. I decided to deviate from my normal route home and took a shortcut. Devise To plan or create. The coach devised a plan for winning the game. Diatribe A sharp criticism or attack. The politician went into a diatribe against her opponent. Digress To wander from the main The teacher digressed from the lecture to subject. discuss the weather. Dilemma A situation where one must The student faced the dilemma of choose between two difficult attending school sick or missing her choices. exam. Diminish To shrink or reduce. Sprinkle baking soda on the carpet to diminish the stain. Dispose To get rid of. I need to dispose of this trash. Disproportion Too large or small when The piece of pie I received was ate compared to something else. disproportionately small. Disrupt To interrupt by causing a The protesters disrupted the politician’s disturbance. speech. Distort To misrepresent. The camera filter distorted the image. Distribute To give portions of something. Distribute the materials evenly among the class. Diverse Showing a lot of variety. This city has a very diverse population. Divert To cause a change of course. Because of the accident, the police had to divert traffic down a side street. Dynamic Constantly changing. The theater has dynamic shows, so you never know what you’ll see. Ease To reduce unpleasantness or This prescription will ease your allergies. difficulty. Efficient Maximizing productivity. Now that I’m following a schedule at work, I’m much more efficient. Eliminate To remove. Our team lost the match and was eliminated from the competition. Elite A select, above-average group. The elite detective team were also sent for when there were big crimes. Eloquent Moving speech or writing. Her eloquent writing has gained her many fans. Emphasize To give special importance to The teacher emphasized the due date of when speaking or writing. the project. Endure To suffer through something He has endured four knee operations so difficult with patience. far. Enhance To intensify or magnify. The falling snow enhanced the beauty of the small village. Epitome A perfect example of something. The duchess is the epitome of class. Equivalent Equal. Twenty-four is equivalent to two dozen. Erroneous Incorrect. He apologized for his erroneous statement. Estimate An approximate value. Try to get an estimate of the number of people attending the concert. Evade To avoid or escape. By hiding in the bathroom, we were able to evade the intruder. Evaluate To assess. At the end of the class, every student will evaluate how well the professor taught. Evidence Facts or information that help These fossils are evidence of evolution. prove or disprove something. Evolve To gradually change. The small school evolved into a world- class institution. Exemplary Worthy of imitation. She is an exemplary student, and you should copy her study habits. Exclude