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Quiz 5 Study Notes Lecture Nine: Language Lecture Outline: Language Structure of Language Speech Comprehension & Production Structure of Language The strangers talked to the players. Structure of Language 1. Phonology/Morphology Phoneme: smallest unit of sound we can...

Quiz 5 Study Notes Lecture Nine: Language Lecture Outline: Language Structure of Language Speech Comprehension & Production Structure of Language The strangers talked to the players. Structure of Language 1. Phonology/Morphology Phoneme: smallest unit of sound we can make (e.g. mat vs. cat)  1. Phonology/Morphology Phoneme: smallest unit of sound we can make (e.g. mat vs. cat) Morpheme: smallest unit of sound we can make that has meaning (e.g. Take vs. taking) 2. Syntax Rule for how to put together sentences and phrases Tree Diagram  3. Semantics Rules for associating meaning with sentences How do we explain the following? 1. Anomaly: (abnormal meanings) Why can’t we say “Chocolate ice cream can drive a car”? 2. Self-contradiction: (contradicting meanings) Why can’t we say “My cat is not an animal”? 3. Synonymy: (synonyms/same meaning) Why does “John is not old enough” mean the same as “John is too young”? 4. Entailment: (if one thing is given/true then it leads to another thing to also be true) Why does “Pat is my aunt” mean that Pat is female? Structure of Language 3. Semantics Rules for associating meaning with sentences 4. Pragmatics Social rules of language Maxims (Rules) of Conversation 1. Quantity: Make your contribution just as informative as it needs to be, no more, no less. 2. Quality: Be truthful. Or at least make it clear when you are being sarcastic 3. Relation: Be relevant. 4. Manner: Be clear, avoid ambiguity, be brief. Speech Perception Visual cues help us identify sounds. Talking face-to-face is easier than talking on the phone. Speech Perception & Context Context is critical for speech perception Phonemic Restoration - Listeners “restore” missing phonemes by extrapolating upon other available linguistic information - Phoneme: smallest unit of sound we can make - e.g. mat vs. cat Phonemic Restoration Warren (1970) Replace a phoneme with a cough (*):  It was found that the *eel was on the axle. It was found that the *eel was on the shoe. It was found that the *eel was on the orange. It was found that the *eel was on the table. People “hear” w, h, p, and m sounds without even realizing that they were missing. Importance of Context Bransford and Johnson (1972) with context provided before the passage, participants recalled an average of 8 out of 14 distinct ideas without any context, or even with the context provided after the passage, participants only recalled about 3.6 ideas. Speech Production Errors: 1) Sound Substitutions 1. Sound substitutions and movements Sue keeps food in her vesk. Keep your hands off my weet speas. We need to wash the pons and pats. Speech Production Errors: 2) Word Substitutions Two broad classes of word substitutions (Garrett, 1988) 1. Meaning relations Toe vs. Finger Walk vs. Run 2. Form relations Guest vs. Goat Mushroom vs. Mustache We almost never make errors that involve BOTH form and meaning. Deficits in Language Collective deficits in language comprehension and production that result from brain damage Aphasias Broca’s area: Damage to this area is associated with difficulties in producing spoken language (expressive aphasia). Wernicke’s area: Damage is associated with difficulties in comprehending spoken language (receptive aphasia). Broca’s Aphasia A.k.a. expressive aphasia Characteristics: Halting, agrammatic speech Nouns & verbs ok; function words (the, or, an) impaired Damage to frontal areas of brain Wernicke’s Aphasia A.k.a. receptive aphasia Characteristics: Cannot comprehend and execute simple commands like “touchà your knee” Damage to temporal lobe of left hemisphere Lecture Ten:Problem Solving and Creativity We are going to start by doing some of our own problem solving - this will help bring to light some of the problem solving techniques that will be covered in this lecture. You have been given four short lengths of chain. Each length of the chain contains three links. Your job is to combine these four lengths of chain into one continuous necklace of 12 links with no breaks in the chain. You have the assistance of a jeweler who will break any given link for 2¢ and rejoin it together for 3¢. The problem: you have only 15¢ in your wallet. Can you put a complete necklace together for this amount of money, and if so, how? This is a classic example of a situation where means-ends analysis fails us. In order to solve this problem, one must make a first step which seems to take one further away from the goal. Learning Outcomes For this section of the course (lecture 10) you should be able to: 1. Describe and differentiate different types of thinking and problems. 2. Describe and differentiate problem solving techniques covered in lecture What is Thinking? Going beyond the information given (Bruner, 1957). A complex and high-level skill that fills up gaps in the evidence (Bartlett, 1958). The process of searching through a problem space (Newell & Simon, 1972). What we do when we are in doubt about how to act, what to believe, or what to desire (Baron, 1994). Types of Thinking Focused Thinking Begins with a clear starting point and has a specific goal e.g., goal based, problem solving Unfocused Thinking Has the character of day-dreaming, unintentionally calling to mind a number of different and loosely related ideas Types of Problems Well-defined Problems: Have a clear solution Present a small set of starting information Present a set of rules for solving Easy to study in the lab Ill-defined Problems: Goals not always clear Steps to solve are not always clear - E.g., how to ask for a promotion General Problem Solving Techniques Generate-and-test Means-end analysis Working backward Reasoning by analogy *Domain-independent techniques – can be used in a wide variety of problems Generate-and-Test Technique As the name suggests: Generate a number of solutions, then - Test the solutions Generate-and-test Think of all the CITIES that you can that begin with the letter “C.” Useful if there is a limited number of possibilities Problematic if: Too many possibilities No guidance over generation Can’t keep track of possibilities tested E.g., locker combination vs. retracing steps to find lost item Means-Ends Analysis Initial state: conditions at beginning of problem Goals state: condition at the end of problem Intermediate states: the various conditions that exist along pathways between the initial and the goal state Reduce the difference between initial state and goal state Involves generating a goal and then sub- goals Any sequence of moves beginning at the initial state and ending at the final goal state constitutes a solution path Forces the problem solver to analyze aspects of the problem before starting to work on it and to generate a plan to solve it Can make it more difficult to see that the most efficient path toward a goal isn’t always the most direct one There are three cats and three dogs on one side of a river with one boat. All animals need to get across the river. However, the boat will only hold two animals at once, and a minimum of one animal is required to pilot the boat to either bank. To further complicate the situation, dogs must never outnumber cats on either side of the river or the cats will be eaten. How do you get the cats and dogs across the river successfully? Starting state = || CCCDDD* (3 cats, 3 dogs on right bank with boat) Working Backward Involves creating sub-goals and reducing differences between the current state and the goal state (like means-ends analysis) But sub-goals are created working backwards from the goal state “I didn’t do great on the last test. How can I get an ‘A’ on the next test?” Before I do better I need to have a better understanding of the material Understand the material better, I need to be studying better. To improve how I study I need to do X Reasoning by Analogy Find comparisons between two situations and apply the solution from one situation to the other. “Principle-finding” analysis – moving beyond the details and focusing on the relevant structures of the problem - Induction of an abstract schema The Tumor Problem (Duncker, 1945) Given a human being with an inoperable stomach tumor, and rays that destroy organic tissue at sufficient intensity, by what procedure can one free him of the tumor by these rays and at the same time avoid destroying the healthy tissue that surrounds it? Solution: Send weak rays of radiation from several angles so that the rays converge at the site of the tumour. The radiation from any one ray will not be strong enough to destroy the tumour or surrounding healthy tissue. But the convergence of the rays will be strong enough to destroy the tumour. Gick & Holyoak (1980) Presented participants with the tumor problem But beforehand, participants read the story of the General  Presented participants with the tumor problem But beforehand, participants read the story of the General Some participants were told that the story of the General had a hint relevant to the tumor problem and others were not Results: 75% of the individuals who were told that the story of the General had a hint solved the problem correctly Only 30% of the individuals not told noticed the analogy