CL summaries PDF

]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:38 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature )‫ ضرورت ادبیات تطبیقی در ایران (علیرضا انوشیروانی‬.1 Overview of American School of Comparative Literature ## The American School of Comparative Literature began after World War II, highlighted by René -.Wellek's speech in 1958, focusing on literary...

]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:38 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature )‫ ضرورت ادبیات تطبیقی در ایران (علیرضا انوشیروانی‬.1 Overview of American School of Comparative Literature ## The American School of Comparative Literature began after World War II, highlighted by René -.Wellek's speech in 1958, focusing on literary studies across cultures This school connects literature with other fields like history, philosophy, and arts, viewing -.literature as a global phenomenon with interrelated parts François Jost explains that comparative literature is not the same as world literature; it uses world -.literature as a resource for deeper analysis Comparative literature involves studying significant literary events and understanding an author's -.place in broader cultural contexts, not just reading individual works Owen Aldridge emphasizes that comparative literature goes beyond national boundaries, -.exploring connections with other human sciences and arts Henry Remak states that comparative literature studies literature beyond national limits and -.examines its links with other fields of knowledge A new branch called cultural studies has emerged, combining comparative literature with cultural -.contexts, expanding research areas to include popular literature and arts This modern approach recognizes literature as part of various cultural discourses, moving beyond -.traditional literary studies ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:45 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Importance of Comparative Literature ## Comparative literature is a growing field in the humanities, with more research groups and -.publications emerging, especially in Asia and Arab countries over the last two decades It fosters cultural interactions, helping people understand each other better, leading to peace and -.friendship This field shows that human thoughts share common roots, despite differences in expression and -.culture It promotes open-mindedness and reduces ethnic biases, emphasizing shared human values and -.cultural similarities Comparative literature helps individuals understand themselves through the perspectives of -.others, enhancing self-awareness In today's globalized world, it connects with other disciplines, reinforcing the importance of -.humanities in sustainable development ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:48 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature ‫تاثیرات ادبی‬ Summary of the Importance of Comparative Literature in Iran ## The influence of English poet Robert's translation of the Persian story "Sohrab and Rustam" is -.noted, highlighting cross-cultural literary connections Travel writings from past centuries shaped Western views of the East, with authors like -.Montesquieu drawing inspiration from European travelers without visiting the East themselves French travelers like Tavernier and Chardin provided detailed observations of Iranian culture, -.impacting European understanding of Iran The book "Iran in French Literature" explores European interactions with Iran, including -.translations of Persian works and their influence on French literature The popularity of authors in different cultures depends on various factors, including translation -.quality and the author's reputation Research by Roger Asselineau on Hemingway's reception in France shows fluctuations in his -.popularity over time Asselineau's study reveals that social and cultural conditions in France influenced Hemingway's -.acceptance and recognition Hemingway's works reflect influences from 19th-century French writers, showing a connection -.between American and French literary traditions The study emphasizes that literature can help individuals understand their own cultural identity -.through the lens of others Comparative literature requires careful analysis and understanding of the context in which literary -.popularity occurs It is essential to approach such studies with depth and insight rather than just focusing on statistics -.and publication details ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:52 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of Literary Similarities and Adaptations ## Literary similarities can occur between works from different times and places, often reflecting -.universal themes like love, justice, and nature These similarities may arise from shared cultural memories or archetypes found in oral traditions -.and myths Adaptation in literature involves taking inspiration from existing works to create something new, -.while still showing traces of the original Adaptations can be seen in various forms like plays, films, and stories, where the creator interprets -.and reimagines the source material The success of an adaptation largely depends on the creativity of the adapter in transforming the -.original ideas into a new context ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:55 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of Literary Similarities and Adaptations ## Literary similarities can occur between works from different times and places, often reflecting -.universal themes like love, justice, and nature These similarities may arise from shared cultural memories or archetypes found in oral traditions -.and myths Adaptation in literature involves taking inspiration from existing works to create something new, -.while still showing traces of the original Adaptations can be seen in various forms like plays, films, and stories, where the creator interprets -.and reimagines the source material The success of an adaptation largely depends on the creativity of the adapter in transforming the -.original ideas into a new context ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:57 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of Literary Schools and Movements ## In literary criticism, terms like "school," "movement," and "trend" are often used interchangeably, -.but "school" is more common in Persian There is no single definition for literary schools; critics categorize authors based on similarities, -.which can simplify understanding but also create challenges Authors do not choose a specific school for their work; critics later classify them, which may not -.always be accepted by everyone Different critics have varying definitions for each school, showing that terms can have different -.meanings across cultures and times Literary schools influence each other, and their development is affected by social, historical, and -.cultural factors, making it hard to pinpoint their exact timelines Comparative literature allows researchers to explore the origins and impacts of literary schools -.across different cultures, such as the influence of European Romanticism on American writers ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:24 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Overview of Literary Genres ## Literary genres are ways to classify literary works based on their form and features, and they can - change over time and across cultures. Not all genres are universal, and some may appear similar but.have different rules Examples of literary genres include poetry forms like ghazal and haiku, as well as prose forms like - short stories, novels, and plays. Some genres are closely tied to language, while others adapt from.different cultures The study of literary genres allows for comparisons between different countries' literatures, - expanding research in comparative literature. Contemporary Iranian writers often draw inspiration.from Western genres to address social and cultural issues in their works ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:26 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of Themes, Motifs, and Types in Comparative Literature ## Themes and motifs are closely related concepts in literature, often seen as synonyms. Themes -.represent general human interests, while motifs are specific elements that support these themes Common themes include life, death, love, justice, and heroism, while motifs can be objects like -.mirrors or ships. These can be studied across different cultures through comparative literature Types refer to symbolic characters in literature that embody specific traits of a culture. These -.characters can be historical, mythical, or fictional and often represent abstract values of society Examples of symbolic characters include Hamlet, who symbolizes doubt, and Don Quixote, who -.represents idealism. These characters transcend national boundaries and become universal symbols Some character types become clichés, like the wise old man or the trickster. These clichés can be -.found in various cultures and literature, showing shared human experiences Comparative literature studies these character types to identify common and unique traits, -.exploring their cultural and social roots and how they evolve over time ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:29 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature ‫ادبیات تطبیقی و سایر دانشها‬ Summary of Comparative Literature and Its Importance ## Ramak is the first theorist to expand comparative literature studies beyond intercultural studies to -.include other fields of knowledge French researchers viewed comparative literature as part of world literature history, while Ramak -.broadened its scope significantly after the work of Vlk The connection between literature and music is a key research area, with examples like - ".Mendelssohn's music and Goethe's "Faust Literature also influences painting, with many famous artworks inspired by literary masterpieces, - ".such as Dante's "Divine Comedy The impact of literature on the lives of artists, like Michelangelo, is a deeper area of study beyond -.mere influence New topics in comparative literature include the relationship between literature and cinema, -.especially in the digital age Literature's connection to medical sciences is a fresh area of study, highlighting themes of illness -.and suffering in various literary works The "Literature and Medicine" journal has published interdisciplinary articles on this topic over the -.past few decades ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:47 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature :Great! Here’s a summary of the provided text, similar to your sample format Summary of Comparative Literature and Translation ## Comparative literature requires familiarity with several foreign languages, but reading diverse -.works in their original languages is challenging Translations play a crucial role in spreading literary influences across cultures. Many writers are -.influenced by world literature through translations Historical examples include Ralph Waldo Emerson and Goethe, who were introduced to Persian -.poets Saadi and Hafez through German translations by Hammer Purgstall Translators' worldviews and historical contexts significantly impact their translations. Multiple -.translations exist for works like Hafez's Divan, Saadi's Gulistan, and Rumi's Masnavi Scholars study the cultural, social, historical, and political factors affecting translations. For -.example, the Victorian era influenced Fitzgerald's translation of Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat Translation fidelity is impossible; every translation reflects the translator's mindset. Comparative - literature and translation studies are intertwined fields, offering new research opportunities and.established academic disciplines with numerous scholarly associations and specialized journals ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:52 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature :Here is the summary, similar to the format provided Summary of Academic Groups, Associations, and Journals in Comparative Literature ## Comparative literature is an academic field with specialized faculty members in many universities -.worldwide, encompassing East and West Its interdisciplinary nature has attracted collaboration from scholars in social sciences, fine arts, -.philosophy, history, anthropology, and psychology The first comparative literature chair was established at the University of Naples, Italy, in 1861 by - Francesco De Sanctis. Subsequently, it spread to other Western countries such as Harvard (1891),.)1910( Zurich (1896), Lyon (1897), Columbia (1899), and Paris Comparative literature programs and associations are now present in various countries, including - Egypt, Yemen, UAE, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Russia, India, China, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and newly.independent Eastern European countries The International Comparative Literature Association (ICLA) was founded in Paris in 1955 and - organizes international congresses every three years. The latest was held in August 2007 in Rio de.Janeiro, Brazil There are over 35 national comparative literature associations, including the Turkish Association - (TuCLA), established in 2007. These associations host international conferences and promote.national literature Notable regional conferences include the second and third international conferences of - Azerbaijan's comparative literature association in 2006 and 2008, emphasizing literature in context,.culture, history, sociology, philosophy, and religion Gazi University in Turkey held a conference in May 2009, emphasizing global cultural unity despite -.geographical, linguistic, political, social, and cultural differences In Iran, the Faculty of Foreign Languages at the University of Tehran has held five biennial - conferences on comparative literature, the latest focusing on "Literature and Science" in November.2008 Around 50 specialized journals in comparative literature are published in various languages -.)1877-1888( globally, with the first being the International Journal of Comparative Literature Prominent historical journals include "Journal of Comparative Literature History" (1887-1910), - "Comparative Literature Studies," and the more recent "Literary Modernity and Islamic Literature," ".and "Listening to the Tune: The Relationship between Writing and Music Advances in information technology have led to many comparative literature journals being - published electronically, such as "CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture" by Purdue.University Eastern countries publish notable journals like "Poetic Comparison" (Egypt), "Jadavpur Journal of - Comparative Literature" (India), "Comparative Literature Journal" (China), "Comparative Literature.and Culture" (Hong Kong), and "Comparative Literature Journal" (Japan) In Iran, the Academy of Persian Language and Literature published the first issue of "Comparative -.Literature" special issue !Feel free to ask if you need further details or additional summaries ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:56 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of the Conclusion on Comparative Literature ## Comparative literature is essential for understanding and introducing our culture to others. It not - only aids in a deeper understanding of national and ethnic literature but also bridges various.cultures, highlighting their shared human roots, which fosters dialogue and cultural interactions Shared cultural interests lead to mutual understanding, promoting lasting friendship and peace. - Comparative literature stimulates the growth and development of local cultures by linking the.boundaries of national literature to the limitless frontiers of global literature It facilitates the expansion of national ideas and cultural interactions on a global scale, opening -.new perspectives on the world As a concluding note, Abolhassan Najafi, head of the Comparative Literature Department at the - Academy of Persian Language and Literature, emphasized the historical neglect of this field in Iranian academia and called for its reintegration into university curricula. Comparative literature is a new philosophy and theory within literary studies and is crucial for Iran's scientific progress, given its rich.artistic and literary heritage It requires the immediate and serious attention of literary and artistic policymakers. The Academy - of Persian Language and Literature, both as a founder and a guide, must play a crucial role in reestablishing this field and founding specialized scientific societies and journals for comparative.literature in Iran ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬09:05 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature ”Francois Jost, “Introduction to Comparative Literature.2 ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬09:06 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of Internationalization and Categories in Comparative Literature ## The era of political and economic isolation is over for most nations, and Western culture has also - internationalized, reflecting in literature. Despite linguistic borders, literary beauty is shaped by.sounds, rhythms, and verbal images unique to each language A nationalistic approach to literary history and criticism is outdated. Contemporary scholarship - and university curricula emphasize the international study of literature, known as comparative.literature Comparative literature is taught globally, with significant programs in the United States, Canada, -.France, Germany, Hungary, the Soviet Union, China, Japan, North Africa, and Australia Despite its growing popularity, there is still a need for better understanding of comparative - literature's nature and objectives. This book aims to clarify concepts and illustrate procedures for.both theoretical and applied comparatistics :The field of comparative literature can be divided into four categories - Literary Relations: Examines works' organic affinities, influences, analogies, and translations,.1 also exploring interdisciplinary connections with philosophy, psychology, sociology, linguistics,.music, and painting Movements and Trends: Studies developmental phases of Western civilization, such as the.2.Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism, Romanticism, and Realism, reflecting the cultural Zeitgeist.Genres: Analyzes literary works' inner and outer forms on an international scale.3 Themes and Motifs: Investigates both abstract and conceptual themes like patriotism, revolt,.4.friendship, and death, along with literary types like Ulysses, Prometheus, Don Juan, and Faust These categories are symbolized by the elements of ancient chemistry: air (literary relations), -.water (literary movements), earth (literary genres), and fire (themes and motifs) Literature, unlike modern chemistry, is an art that requires value judgments in analysis. It involves -.a contemplative response and knowledge in diverse fields, such as history, religion, and fine arts The book's structure includes theoretical questions and specific illustrations of comparative - approaches to literature, emphasizing that no single approach provides a complete understanding of.literature. Multiple methods of analysis are necessary for a comprehensive view !Feel free to ask if you need more details or further assistance ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:22 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Simplified Summary of the Naturalization of Languages and Literature ## Over time, dialects merged into major languages, creating "national languages" and "national - literature." Renaissance scholars were patriotic, listing writers to showcase their nation's.achievements Cultural and educational changes spread to all social classes, not just the aristocracy and clergy. - This was helped by political and economic changes, printing, new communication methods, and.better travel D'Alembert noted that Latin was replaced by vernacular languages, leading scholars to learn -.multiple languages to understand past ideas, which he predicted correctly The rise of vernacular literature fostered national pride and consciousness. Poets in their native -.languages played political roles, and literature helped expand political and economic influence Since the eighteenth century, literature has supported state prestige and national pride, much like -.ancient times when patrons supported poets like Horace and Virgil !Feel free to ask if you need more details or further assistance ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:33 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Simplified Summary of the Importance of Comparative Literature ## Unity in Diversity: Comparative literature shows the richness of different national literatures and -.their underlying unity Approaches: Nationalistic or comparative approaches depend on a country's political system. -.Dryden used models from various nations; Boileau focused on France and antiquity th-Century Cosmopolitanism: Increased international studies in literature with periodicals and 18 - comparative works in England and France. Notable figures include Henry Hallam, Voltaire, and.Madame de Stael German National Consciousness: German literature, influenced by French and English, developed -.national pride. Key figures: Bodmer, Breitinger, Lessing, Herder, and the Schlegel brothers Russia and the US: Later integrated into Western literature, embracing comparative literature. -.Notable figures: Pushkin, Veselovsky, Emerson, Longfellow, and Lowell Additional Simplified Details ###.John Andrews: His 1785 book compared French and English manners, politics, and literature - Madame de Stael: Her works, like "De la littérature" and "De l'Allemagne," were influential in the -.early 19th century Bouterwek's History: Friedrich Bouterwek wrote a comprehensive history of poetry and eloquence -.from the 13th century ".Romantic Poetry: Friedrich Schlegel described it as "progressive Universalpoesie - Comparative Literature Periodicals: Examples include "Journal étranger" (1754-1762) and "Gazette -.)1764-1766( "littéraire de l'Europe This summary provides a broader view of the key points and figures in comparative literature. Let !me know if you need anything else ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:36 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature.Sure thing! We can dive back into the detailed summaries and discussions Summary of the Development of Comparative Literature ## th-Century Foundations: Comparative literature became an academic discipline and a critical 19 - system in the 19th century. One of its first recognitions was by Sainte-Beuve, a foundational modern.critic Early Usage: The term "comparative literature" appeared before Sainte-Beuve but was popularized -.with Hutcheson M. Posnett's 1886 book Interdisciplinary Influence: During the early 19th century, the concept of comparative studies - spread across various fields like philology, history, law, and religion. Works such as Cuvier's "Legons d’anatomie comparée" and Charles de Villers' "Erotique comparée" were notable early.contributions Textbooks and Anthologies: In 1816, Jean-François-Michel Noel published "Cours de littérature - comparée," encouraging comparative reading. However, these early works did not fully employ.later-developed comparative techniques Pioneering Critics: Figures like Abel-François Villemain and Jean-Jacques Ampère produced - extensive studies on various European literatures in the early 19th century, occasionally using the ".term "littérature comparée Founding Journals: The late 19th century saw the establishment of significant scholarly journals - like "Acta Comparationis Litterarum Universarum" and "Zeitschrift für vergleichende.Literaturgeschichte," promoting comparative literary studies University Chairs: The first chair of comparative literature was established at the University of - Naples in 1861, with Francesco De Sanctis teaching. Over time, other universities followed, including.Harvard, Zurich, Lyon, Columbia, and the Sorbonne Global Expansion: Today, comparative literature is a regular field of academic inquiry worldwide, - acknowledging the necessity of studying cultural ties among individual literatures. This ongoing development suggests a promising future for the discipline as an effective approach to literary.history and criticism !If there's more you'd like to explore or another text to summarize, let me know ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:43 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of the Meaning of World Literature ## Goethe's Influence: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a prominent figure in modern times who - was familiar with European and Oriental literatures. His works, such as "West-östlicher Divan" (1819) and "Chinesisch-Deutsche Jahres und Tageszeiten" (1830), attempted to bridge different civilizations. Goethe coined the term "Weltliteratur" (world literature), emphasizing a broader.concept of literary knowledge Concept of World Literature: Goethe stressed the importance of world literature, believing that - the East and West could no longer be separated. He promoted the idea that national literature had little meaning in an interconnected world and encouraged people to read works from various.nations, focusing on aesthetic criteria rather than national pride Evolution of European Literature: The 19th century saw the rise of the notion of European - literature, with figures like Giuseppe Mazzini expanding the concept to include political unity. Historiography and literature both transformed into more humanistic disciplines, as seen in works by.historians like Jacob Burckhardt and Oswald Spengler Cultural Interactions: Throughout history, there have been continual interchanges among national - literatures in the West. Renowned authors like Petrarch, Cervantes, and Tasso found audiences across Europe. By the end of the Napoleonic wars, literary works from Russia and Scandinavia also.gained recognition in Western Europe Goethe's Advocacy: Goethe's conversations with his friend Eckermann highlighted his belief in the - value of world literature. He argued that literature should be universal and not confined to national boundaries. Goethe's concept of Weltliteratur included the best works from around the world,.forming a library of masterpieces International Criticism: Goethe believed that international literary criticism could provide valuable - perspectives. He thought foreign critics could sometimes judge works more accurately than local.critics, promoting the idea of mutual correction among different nations Legacy of World Literature: Although Goethe's pronouncements did not directly lead to - comparative literature as an academic field, they laid the groundwork for its development. His idea of Weltliteratur was later built upon by critics like Shaftesbury, Voltaire, and Lessing, who included.works from different languages in their discussions !Feel free to ask if you need more details or another section summarized ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:56 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of the Challenges and Necessity of World Literature Efficient Propagation of World Literature ### Goethe's support helped spread the idea of world literature effectively. However, at the same time, there was a tendency to narrow culture down by focusing deeply on a few works due to the sheer.volume of accessible literary material Cultural Fragmentation and Specialization ### In the 19th century, although the idea of interconnected world literature was promoted, scholars began to specialize in specific books or authors, influenced by romantic ideals. This specialization often contradicted the broader concept of Weltliteratur, which seeks to counteract such narrow.focus Modern Criticism and Specialization ### Modern literary criticism emerged, focusing on relationships between national literatures and their origins. It became highly specialized, leading to a divide between general culture and intense.specialization Issues with Specialization ### Universities often emphasize specialization, with scholars focusing on one author or period. This is despite the vast amount of literary works available, which makes it challenging to maintain a broad.literary knowledge Balancing Knowledge and Understanding ### While it's difficult to absorb all the literary knowledge available, the goal of world literature is to provide a comprehensive understanding rather than detailed knowledge of every work. Wisdom and.insightful understanding are valued over mere erudition Ultimate Goal of World Literature ### World literature aims to understand the global literary spectrum. It requires extensive knowledge, careful selection, and judgement to synthesize insights from various works. The ideal scholar, as described by Emerson, integrates knowledge from different times and places to contribute to a.deeper cultural understanding In essence, the text discusses the tension between the broad, interconnected view of world literature and the narrow, specialized focus of modern literary scholarship. It highlights the importance of balancing comprehensive understanding with detailed knowledge to truly appreciate.the richness of global literature ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:58 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature This passage discusses the balance between specialization and generalization in the field of world literature. It questions whether scholars should focus narrowly on a single subject, which can limit true cultural understanding, or strive to encompass a broader perspective. To truly understand great writers like Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, or Rousseau, they must be studied in both their national and international contexts. Focusing exclusively on minor writers may be useful for academic exercises but does not significantly shape literary history. In contrast, understanding great literary figures requires a broader, global perspective. These figures act as central points around which literary knowledge is organized, marking the shift from general world literature to the more focused.field of comparative literature ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬11:02 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of the Philosophy of Letters ## Distinct Concepts: "World literature" and "comparative literature" are related but distinct - concepts. World literature provides the raw materials and information that comparative literature.analyzes Comparative Literature Defined: Comparative literature is an organized, historical, and critical - account of the literary phenomenon as a whole. It goes beyond simply listing great works from different nations; it seeks to understand the interconnections and assign writers their place in the.broader history of ideas and aesthetics Holistic View: A comparatist views literature as an amalgam or compound, not just a series of -.individual works. Literature is seen as a cycle and a sum, reflecting interconnected cultural realities Coordination Over Juxtaposition: Comparative literature involves coordinating and synthesizing - literary events rather than merely juxtaposing them. It aims to understand the concatenation of.significant literary events within a broader cultural and intellectual context Cultural Reality: The discipline of comparative literature recognizes that interconnected - conditions, whether factual or idealistic, link different literatures. This interconnectedness forms the.foundation of comparative literary studies Literary Criticism: Comparatism is seen as a new method (novum organum) of literary criticism, -.offering a comprehensive and integrated approach to understanding literature !Feel free to ask if you need more details or another section summarized ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬11:10 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of Comparative Literature: Challenges and Definitions ## Terminological Confusion: The term "comparative literature" can be misleading as it suggests the - comparison of literature without specifying the terms of comparison. Typically, it is understood as a.systematic comparison of national literatures :Definitions of National Literature: National literature can be defined in two ways -.Popular Definition: Literature of a specific country (e.g., English literature for England) - Scholarly Definition: Literature written in the same language and cultural context, expressing a -.specific culture through a common vocabulary and syntax Inclusion Criteria: Some authors may be included in a national literature due to their cultural and - linguistic background, even if they are from different countries (e.g., Irish authors in English.literature, Austrian and Swiss authors in German literature) Historical Comparatism: Comparative literature is not a new concept. It has existed since writers - first recognized their peers in different linguistic and cultural spheres. This intellectual exchange.dates back to ancient times Early Examples: Figures like Dante and Petrarch engaged in literary cosmopolitanism, and the - "Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns" in the 17th century showcased early comparative literary.debates Modern Comparative Literature: Despite claims that it has specific critical methods, comparative - literature uses the same investigative procedures as national literature studies. It involves studying.relations, analogies, movements, trends, genres, and motifs across different literatures Misleading Terminology: The term "comparative literature" might be better termed - "comprehensive literature" due to its encompassing nature. The methodology is not fundamentally.different from national literature studies Methodological Similarity: Both comparative and national literature studies can use synchronic - and diachronic methods, deduction, induction, documents, and analogies. The difference lies in the.scope, with comparative literature covering multiple literatures Fundamental Principle: According to scholars like A. Owen Aldridge and Victor M. Zhirmunsky, - comparative literature is essentially similar to national literature studies but with a broader subject matter. Comparative study is a fundamental principle of literary research, making it synonymous.with literary criticism or literature itself !Feel free to ask if you need more details or another section summarized ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬11:14 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature Summary of Major Schools of Comparative Literature ## French School: French comparatists traditionally combined historicism and positivism with - national pride, viewing French literature as central to world literature. They focused on sources, influences, and historical development, considering comparative literature as a branch of literary.history American School: American comparatists do not have the same national focus due to the United - States' immigrant background and relatively short literary history. This school emphasizes freedom in academic inquiry, embracing various literary theories and showing little national concern. It values ".tolerance and eclecticism, often simply referred to as "literature Russian School: Marx and Engels were early promoters of comparative literature, emphasizing - universal interdependence. The Soviet Union focused on literature serving state interests, adhering to socialist realism, which viewed literature as a product of society. This approach distinguishes.between cultural imports and typological analogies based on similar social evolution Key Points ### Historical Influence: The French school initially viewed comparative literature as a means to -.explore how other literatures connect to French literature, reflecting a nationalistic perspective Diverse Approaches: The American school’s diverse backgrounds led to varied literary theories and -.less national focus, promoting a more inclusive and eclectic approach Soviet Criticism: In the Soviet Union, literature was seen through the lens of socialist realism, - focusing on its societal role and historical development. This led to the dominance of social realism.over formalist approaches This summary provides an overview of the three major schools' distinct approaches to comparative !literature. Let me know if you need further details or have more content to explore ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬11:18 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature This passage addresses the criticisms and interplay between different schools of thought in comparative literature, particularly focusing on the French, American, and Soviet (Russian).approaches Traditional Criticism of Soviet Literary Ideals ### Critics argue that Soviet literary ideals neglect the aesthetic aspect of culture, the spontaneity of -.the human mind, and individual merit Works of art are seen as having a highly personal character, created by individual authors like -.Defoe, Richardson, Cervantes, and Pushkin, rather than by society as a whole Socialist Realist Perspective ### Socialist realists acknowledge that historical, cultural, and institutional conditions form the -.necessary foundation for any piece of literature They argue that society provides the infrastructure and standards, while individual artists execute -.the creation of literature Diverse Attitudes of Comparative Schools ### Comparative literature is shaped by different attitudes in American, Russian, and French schools, -.each representing major aspects of comparative criticism Literary history has seen art viewed as personal, impersonal, or collective, with Romanticism, -.Formalism, and Socialist Realism being recent expressions Mutual Criticisms ### :Each school critiques the others for overemphasizing certain aspects - French comparatists are seen as intellectual customs officers, focused on cultural importations -.and national pride Americans are criticized for not deeply engaging with literary content and for their aestheticism -.and dehypostatization of national literatures.Soviets face criticism for their ideological dogmatism and the political nature of socialist realism - Complementary Theories ###.Despite their differences, these three schools of thought complement each other - The text predicts that over time, these theories will blend harmoniously, enhancing the discipline -.of comparative literature In summary, the passage explores the tension and eventual convergence of different comparative literature theories, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each approach and predicting a.future synthesis of these ideas ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬11:22 1403/09/12[ ,English Literature The point of this passage is to emphasize the importance and the evolution of comparative literature as a modern academic discipline. It highlights the shift from a Eurocentric view of literature to a more inclusive and global perspective. Comparative literature now recognizes the.interconnectedness of all literatures, including those from so-called exotic or non-European regions It argues that national-focused literary studies are outdated and that understanding literature requires a comprehensive, international approach. This holistic view of literature as a global phenomenon helps define the essence of literary creation and establish criteria for value judgments.across different cultures The passage also underscores that comparative literature is not just an academic discipline but a broader philosophy of letters, promoting a new humanism. It aims to restore the inclusive ideal of education, integrating diverse literary traditions into a unified global understanding. This approach reflects the historical and cultural developments that have led to the current view of comparative.literature as an essential field for studying the world's literary heritage ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬11:23 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature ”?S. S. Prawer, “What Is Comparative Literature Summary of "What is Comparative Literature?" by Prawer ## Term Issues: The term "comparative literature" is problematic because "literature" today is seen - only as an object of study, unlike terms like "comparative anatomy." Historical meanings of."literature" encompassed broader cultural knowledge study, unlike te Lane Cooper criticized "comparative literature" as a meaningless term. He -.preferred "the comparative study of literature" for accuracy, despite its clumsiness problematic because "li German and Dutch terms more precisely describe the activity of -.comparative literature, unlike the adjectival form in English and French parative literature" is Comparative literature uses comparison as a main tool, but all literary -.studies involve comparison. It should make comparisons across national boundaries e" is problematic because "li Comparing works like Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship" - with novels by Stifter and Keller highlights differences due to national traditions but remains within.German literature. True comparative literature crosses linguistic barriers erms like "comparative ana Comparative literary studies can include works by multilingual authors - like Yvan Goll, Samuel Beckett, and Vladimir Nabokov. Critics must be polyglot to fully appreciate.their achievements The paper discusses the complexities and nuances of defining and practicing comparative literature, emphasizing the importance of linguistic and cultural breadth in the field. Let me know if you need !further analysis or another section summarized ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬11:27 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Summary of "What is Comparative Literature?" by Prawer: Part 2 ### :Distinction Between Comparative and General Literature -.General Literature: Focuses on the study of literature without regard to linguistic boundaries - Comparative Literature: Involves studying national literatures in relation to each other, often -.through direct comparisons.These two areas often overlap and are interconnected in practice - :Lexical Fields in Comparative Literature -.Comparative Literature is associated with General Literature and World Literature (Weltliteratur) - :World Literature (Weltliteratur) - Historiographical Approach: Writing a history of literature on a global or European scale by -.juxtaposing chapters on various national literatures Canon of Great Books: Signifying classics or the best works in literature, such as the Odyssey, the -.Aeneid, and the Divine Comedy Goethe's Vision: Goethe used Weltliteratur to promote awareness of other national traditions - and openness to works from different countries and languages, encouraging cultural exchange and.interaction without abandoning national traditions :Integration and Cultural Exchange - André Gide's vision of "Europeanizing" culture during World War I resonates with Goethe's idea -.of Weltliteratur, though Goethe expanded his view to include Eastern cultures Goethe's later works, such as "West-östlicher Divan" and "Chinesisch-deutsche Jahres- und - Tageszeiten," reflect his efforts to enrich German literature through engagement with distant.literatures and cultures :Implications for Comparative Literature - Goethe's concept of Weltliteratur is closely related to comparative literature, prompting - questions about cultural interaction and the significance of national and international literary.traditions This summary captures the main points of Prawer's discussion on comparative literature, general literature, and Weltliteratur, highlighting their interconnections and implications for literary studies. !Let me know if you need further analysis or another section summarized ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬11:34 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature The formation of a literary canon, or the selection of great authors, involves complex social, political, :and cultural dynamics. Here are the key points addressed in the text :Formation of the Literary Canon ### Cultural and Historical Context: The importance given to certain authors like Lucan and Statius in.1 Dante's *Divine Comedy*, or Virgil's precedence over Homer before the seventeenth century, is.influenced by the cultural and historical context of their times Social and Political Influences: Figures like Dostoevsky gained prominence in twentieth-century.2 Europe due to evolving social and political conditions. Similarly, General de Gaulle's choice of Dante, Goethe, and Chateaubriand as the greatest European literary figures reflects his personal, cultural,.and national influences :Critique of Eurocentric Canons ### René Etiemble's Plea: In *Comparaison n'est pas raison* (1963), René Etiemble advocated for.1 expanding the literary canon beyond Europe, encouraging a more global perspective in recognizing.literary excellence Colonial Attitudes: The contrasting view is illustrated by the well-meaning but narrow-minded.2 attitude of the Reverend Director at College Libermann in Dakar, who dismissed African cultural.heritage and imposed a Eurocentric standard of civilization and literary value :Broader Understanding of Literature ### Global Perspective: Embracing a global perspective in literary studies, as suggested by Etiemble.1 and inspired by Goethe, involves recognizing and valuing the diverse literary traditions and.contributions from all over the world Inclusivity in Canons: To foster a richer and more inclusive literary canon, there is a need to move.2 beyond the limitations of national and Eurocentric frameworks, recognizing the unique contributions.of different cultures to world literature In summary, the text emphasizes the necessity of understanding the formation of literary canons within their broader social, political, and cultural contexts. It calls for an inclusive approach that.acknowledges the value of diverse literary traditions across the globe ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬11:37 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Summary of "What is Comparative Literature?" by Prawer: Part 3 ### Expanding Comparative Literature: Modern comparative literary studies aim to extend their scope - to break down cultural imperialism. Scholars like Milman Parry, Albert B. Lord, and C.M. Bowra have.broadened the concept of literature to include oral traditions Personal Literary Canon: No single reader can encompass all of world literature. Each individual - must create their own canon based on personal affinities, similar to Sainte-Beuve's idea of finding.personal classics Related Terms: René Wellek lists terms related to comparative literature, such as "learning," - "letters," and "belles lettres," as well as "universal literature" and "international literature," ".competing with "comparative literature" or "Weltliteratur :Working Definition of Comparative Literary Study -.Examination of literary texts in more than one language -.Investigation of contrast, analogy, provenance, or influence -.Study of literary relations and communications between different language groups - :Differences from Pichois and Rousseau's Definition -.Comparative literature is not limited to more than one national culture -.Recognizes the significance of bilingual authors and multilingual regions - Acknowledges the influence of social, educational, geographical, and historical forces on national -.literatures This summary captures Prawer's discussion on the goals of modern comparative literature, the creation of personal canons, related terms, and the working definition of comparative literary study, emphasizing the importance of breaking down cultural barriers and recognizing diverse influences. !Let me know if you need more details or further assistance ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬11:42 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Summary of "What is Comparative Literature?" by Prawer: Part 4 ### :Role of Comparative Literary Studies - Henry H. Remak's View: Comparative literary studies should explore relationships between - literature and other areas of knowledge such as arts, philosophy, history, social sciences, sciences,.and religion Scope of Comparative Literature: While it’s important to explore these areas, a strict definition of -.comparative literature focuses on distinguishing it from other literary scholarship :Defining Different Languages - Linguistic Systems: Debates exist on whether modern British and American English, or German -.and Swiss-German, are different linguistic systems Diglossic vs. Bilingual: Distinguishing diglossic situations (e.g., High German vs. Swiss-German) -.from bilingual ones (e.g., someone fluent in both High German and French) Language and Dialect: Max Weinreich’s epigram highlights the fluid distinction between language -.and dialect :Scope of Literature - Beyond Classics: Comparative literature should not focus solely on canonical works. It should also - examine popular and humble writings like Gothic novels, boulevard novels, penny-dreadfuls,.melodramas, and police gazettes, which can reveal new insights Influence of Popular Culture: Great authors like Balzac, Dickens, and Dostoevsky drew from -.popular entertainment to enrich their works :History of Comparative Literature - Early Usage: The terms 'Littérature comparée' and 'Comparative Literature' emerged in the early -.nineteenth century, influenced by comparative anatomy Academic Discipline: Comparative literature became an academic discipline with courses by Noël -.and Laplace at the Sorbonne in the early 19th century Historical Comparisons: Literatures from various cultures have been compared since ancient -.times, such as Romans comparing their poetry to Greek poetry Key Points ### Comparative literature explores interconnections between literature and other disciplines, though -.its core focus is on literature across linguistic and cultural boundaries.Defining different languages and dialects can be complex and often disputed - Comparative literature should include both canonical and popular works, recognizing the influence -.of diverse literary forms The discipline has historical roots in ancient literary comparisons and gained formal academic -.status in the 19th century This summary captures Prawer's discussion on the broader scope of comparative literary studies, challenges in defining linguistic differences, and the importance of including a wide range of literary !works. Let me know if you need further details or have more content to explore ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬12:46 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature This passage discusses the evolution of comparative literary studies, especially after Latin lost its role :as a universal language, and nationalism began to rise in Europe. Here are the key points :Evolution and New Functions of Comparative Literary Studies ### Restoring Unity and Enriching Traditions: As Europe became more divided by nationalism,.1 comparative literary studies took on the role of trying to restore a sense of unity and universality..They also aimed to enrich local traditions by introducing beneficial contacts with other cultures Looking Beyond the Western World: Initially, comparatists focused on Indian classics (with the.2 German Romantics) and later expanded to Arab, Persian, and Chinese literatures (with Goethe). In modern times, this scope has further widened to include other Far Eastern and African literary and.oral traditions :Methods and Goals ### New Methods of Analysis: Comparative literature has benefited from new and subtler methods.1.of analysis and classification, which have improved literary studies overall Shaping Native Traditions: Comparisons across linguistic frontiers help shape a sense of native.2.traditions by highlighting contrasts Altering National Literature: They can also influence the course of national literatures by.3.providing examples from other cultures Constructing General Literary Theory: With a broad reference, comparative literary studies.4.contribute to the development of a general theory of literature :Illustrative Figures ### August Wilhelm Schlegel: His work exemplifies using comparative literature to shape native.1.traditions.Matthew Arnold: He used comparative literature to influence the course of national literatures.2.Friedrich Schlegel: He contributed to constructing a general theory of literature.3 :Intellectual Curiosity and Challenges ### Intellectual Curiosity: Comparative literary studies have often been pursued out of purely.1 intellectual curiosity, setting them apart from the polemical interests of earlier critics like Lessing or.Voltaire Risks of Positivism: There is a danger of comparative literature becoming overly positivistic,.2.turning into a mere collection of facts without a genuine literary experience Rescue by Scholar-Critics: Talented scholar-critics, both within and outside universities, as well as.3 creative writers who engage with and critique works in other languages, have helped maintain the.vitality of comparative literature In essence, the passage highlights the importance and challenges of comparative literary studies in enriching and connecting diverse literary traditions, advancing scholarly methods, and fostering intellectual curiosity. It underscores the ongoing need to balance factual analysis with genuine.literary engagement ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:42 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature ”Henry H. H. Remak, “Comparative Literature, Its Definition and Function ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬07:44 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Comparative Literature and Its Distinctions.French scholars have significantly contributed to comparative literature scholarship.American scholars should not dismiss French topics in comparative studies.There is a fundamental distinction between American and French approaches to literature.French literature often neglects the relationship between literature and other fields.American curricula include broader topics, while French focuses strictly on literature The French fear that interdisciplinary studies may undermine the respectability of comparative.literature.The term "comparative literature" is often used too broadly, risking its meaningfulness.A more discriminating approach is needed to define what constitutes comparative literature.Comparative literature should only include systematic studies of literature and other fields.The relationship between literature and other disciplines must be coherent and separable Comparative Literature vs. World Literature.Comparative literature often focuses on specific countries or authors.World literature implies global recognition and enduring quality over time.Comparative literature can include contemporary works, unlike world literature.Studies of lesser-known authors can reveal significant literary trends.The American concept of comparative literature includes interdisciplinary inquiries.World literature lacks a systematic comparative method, unlike comparative literature.Courses in American colleges often mislabel comparative literature as world literature.General literature lacks a comparative approach and is often too broad The Haziness of Definitions.Scholars face challenges in adequately covering multiple literatures.A third group of scholars is needed to integrate findings from various literatures.Rigid divisions between national, comparative, and general literature are impractical.Scholars should explore connections between national and comparative literature.The best comparative scholars maintain ties to national literature Clarity in Terminology.The term "comparative literature" should be used with stricter criteria.World literature should not be used interchangeably with comparative literature.General literature is too vague and should be avoided in favor of more precise terms.The ongoing debate about comparative literature's methodology is essential for its evolution.Theory and practice in comparative literature must be balanced for effective scholarship Interdisciplinary Studies in Comparative Literature.The expansion of comparative literature into non-literary fields is increasing.Interdisciplinary approaches may enhance the understanding of literature.Unique artistic qualities can be highlighted through comparative studies.Collaborative efforts are necessary for comprehensive literary histories.The volume of sources necessitates teamwork in literary scholarship Selective Bibliography.A selective bibliography acknowledges subjective factors in its compilation.Recent publications are prioritized for relevance in comparative literature.Various viewpoints are represented to provide a balanced perspective.The bibliography aims to guide scholars in the field effectively.Exclusions are made for works that do not directly address comparative literature's essence ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:55 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Simple Sentences Paraphrase: Comparative Literature and Its Distinctions ###.French scholars have played a big role in comparative literature -.American scholars should not ignore French topics in their studies -.There is a key difference between American and French literary approaches -.French literature often overlooks connections to other fields -.American programs cover broader topics, while French ones focus just on literature - French scholars worry interdisciplinary studies may harm the respectability of comparative -.literature.The term "comparative literature" is often used too loosely, losing its meaning -.We need clearer definitions for what counts as comparative literature -.Comparative literature should include systematic studies of literature and other fields -.Connections between literature and other disciplines must be clear and distinct - Comparative Literature vs. World Literature ###.Comparative literature often focuses on specific countries or authors -.World literature refers to globally recognized works that stand the test of time -.Comparative literature can include modern works, unlike world literature -.Studying lesser-known authors can show important literary trends -.American comparative literature includes interdisciplinary studies -.World literature lacks the systematic method of comparative literature -.American colleges often confuse comparative literature with world literature -.General literature is too broad and lacks a comparative focus - The Haziness of Definitions ###.Scholars struggle to cover multiple literatures effectively -.We need a third group of scholars to combine findings from various literatures -.Strict divisions between national, comparative, and general literature are impractical -.Scholars should explore links between national and comparative literature -.The best comparative scholars stay connected to national literature - Clarity in Terminology ###.Use "comparative literature" with stricter criteria -.Do not confuse world literature with comparative literature -.Avoid using "general literature" and opt for more precise terms -.The debate on comparative literature's methods is crucial for its growth -.Balance theory and practice for effective comparative literature scholarship - Interdisciplinary Studies in Comparative Literature ###.Comparative literature is expanding into non-literary fields -.Interdisciplinary approaches can deepen understanding of literature -.Comparative studies can highlight unique artistic qualities -.Collaborative efforts are needed for comprehensive literary histories -.The sheer volume of sources requires teamwork in literary scholarship - Selective Bibliography ###.A selective bibliography acknowledges personal biases in its creation -.Recent works are prioritized for relevance in comparative literature -.Various viewpoints are included for a balanced perspective -.The bibliography aims to guide scholars effectively -.It excludes works that do not directly address comparative literature's essence - ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬08:56 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Henry H. Remak's general view of comparative literature, based on the summary, emphasizes the :following points Interdisciplinary Focus: Comparative literature should explore the relationships between.1 literature and other areas of knowledge, such as the arts, philosophy, history, social sciences,.sciences, and religion. This approach can illuminate literary facts through a broader lens Clear Definitions: The study of comparative literature must define its scope clearly, distinguishing.2 it from other literary scholarship. This involves acknowledging the complexities of defining different languages and recognizing the importance of systematic and coherent relationships between.literature and other disciplines Beyond Canonical Works: Comparative literature should not be limited to the best-known works.3 or canonical texts. It should also include more humble writings of entertainment and instruction, as.these can provide significant insights into literary trends and influences Historical Perspective: The history of comparative literature goes beyond the academic.4 discipline's formal establishment in the 19th century. It includes the long-standing practice of.comparing literatures from different cultures and languages, dating back to ancient times Collaboration and Balance: Effective comparative literary studies require collaboration among.5 scholars and a balance between theory and practice. This helps create comprehensive literary histories and enhances the understanding of literature through interdisciplinary and cross-cultural.perspectives Overall, Remak's view of comparative literature advocates for a broad, interdisciplinary, and inclusive approach, emphasizing clear definitions, historical awareness, and the importance of.collaboration in literary scholarship ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬09:22 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature René Wellek and the Crisis of Comparative Literature.René Wellek, a key figure in comparative literature, was born in Vienna in 1903.He was educated in Vienna and Prague, joining the Prague linguistic circle.Wellek became a professor at Yale University after fleeing to the U.S. during WWII.Co-authored "Theory of Literature," linking history, theory, and criticism.Advocated for a synoptic view of literature, critiquing narrow historical approaches.His unfinished "History of Modern Criticism" reflects his extensive literary scholarship.Wellek argued for a broad definition of comparative literature amidst ongoing crises.He criticized the outdated methodologies of his contemporaries in literary studies.Comparative literature combats the isolation of national literary histories.Wellek questioned the distinction between "comparative" and "general" literature.He emphasized the need for a coherent subject matter in comparative literature.Critiqued the focus on sources and influences, advocating for holistic literary analysis.Wellek highlighted the limitations of causal explanations in literary scholarship.He called for a reexamination of aims and methods in literary studies.Wellek's views reflect a broader crisis in literary scholarship since 1914 The Quest for a New Humanism.The concept of New Humanism was influenced by scholars from diverse backgrounds.Many scholars had patriotic motivations, impacting their comparative literature studies.Cultural nationalism often distorted the genuine desire for cross-national understanding.Curtius and Carré expressed disillusionment with their earlier views on cultural relations.The idea of cultural bookkeeping emerged, focusing on national literary influences.Farinelli criticized the absurdity of quantifying cultural influences in literature.A reorientation in comparative literature is necessary to overcome current crises.The distinction between "comparative" and "general" literature should be abandoned.Literary scholarship should focus on literature as a unified discipline without restrictions.The authority of specialists in literary studies is often overstated and limiting.True literary scholarship requires a balance of criticism, history, and theory.Wellek argued for a holistic approach to understanding literary works and their contexts.The study of literature must remain distinct from broader cultural and historical analyses.A focus on the intrinsic qualities of literary works is essential for meaningful scholarship.The ultimate goal is to elevate literary scholarship beyond nationalistic confines The Future of Literary Scholarship.Literary scholarship must confront its methodological stagnation and redefine its focus.The study of literature should not be conflated with cultural history or public opinion.A clear understanding of "literariness" is crucial for advancing literary studies.The relationship between a work of art and its author should be critically examined.A holistic view of literature incorporates both intrinsic and extrinsic analyses.The relevance of art and literature to human experience must be acknowledged.Wellek emphasized the importance of critical engagement in literary scholarship.The goal is to achieve true objectivity in literary studies, transcending national biases.Literary scholarship should be an imaginative act, preserving and creating human values.The focus should shift from nationalistic calculations to universal human experiences.Ultimately, literature should be seen as a means of exploring and understanding humanity ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬09:36 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature René Wellek's View on Comparative Literature ### :Background and Influence - René Wellek, born in Vienna in 1903, was educated in Vienna and Prague. He joined the Prague -.linguistic circle and later became a professor at Yale University after fleeing to the U.S. during WWII He co-authored "Theory of Literature," which linked history, theory, and criticism. His unfinished -."History of Modern Criticism" reflects his extensive literary scholarship :Broad Definition Amidst Crisis - Wellek argued for a broad definition of comparative literature, especially during times of crisis in - literary scholarship. He criticized outdated methodologies and emphasized the need to combat the.isolation of national literary histories He questioned the distinction between "comparative" and "general" literature, advocating for a -.coherent subject matter and holistic literary analysis :Critique of Traditional Approaches - Wellek critiqued the focus on sources and influences, highlighting the limitations of causal - explanations in literary scholarship. He called for a reexamination of the aims and methods in.literary studies, reflecting a broader crisis since 1914 :Quest for a New Humanism - Wellek was influenced by the concept of New Humanism, which was shaped by scholars from - diverse backgrounds. He noted that patriotic motivations often distorted the genuine desire for.cross-national understanding He emphasized the need to move beyond cultural bookkeeping and quantifying influences, -.arguing for the abandonment of rigid distinctions between "comparative" and "general" literature :Focus on Unified Discipline - Wellek argued that literary scholarship should focus on literature as a unified discipline, without -.restrictions. He believed that the authority of specialists is often overstated and limiting He advocated for a holistic approach that balances criticism, history, and theory, emphasizing the -.intrinsic qualities of literary works for meaningful scholarship :Future of Literary Scholarship - Wellek called for confronting methodological stagnation and redefining the focus of literary -.scholarship. He argued that literature should not be conflated with cultural history or public opinion He stressed the importance of understanding "literariness" and critically examining the -.relationship between a work of art and its author Wellek promoted a holistic view that includes both intrinsic and extrinsic analyses, -.acknowledging the relevance of art and literature to human experience He emphasized critical engagement and true objectivity in literary studies, aiming to transcend -.national biases and focus on universal human experiences Ultimately, Wellek believed literature should be seen as a means of exploring and understanding -.humanity, moving beyond nationalistic confines to preserve and create human values Wellek's views highlight the need for a broad, interdisciplinary, and holistic approach to comparative literature, advocating for a balance between theory and practice and a focus on the intrinsic.qualities of literary works ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬09:37 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature ”?Susan Bassnett, “What is Comparative Literature Today ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬09:48 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Comparative Literature: An Overview.Comparative literature studies texts across cultures, emphasizing interdisciplinary connections.Readers often arrive at comparative literature from various literary interests.The journey may start from a desire to transcend single subject boundaries.Matthew Arnold's view highlights the interconnectedness of literature and events.Reading across cultures leads to discovering influences and similarities among authors.Goethe advocated for awareness of foreign literature as a shared human experience.Comparative literature may seem like common sense but has a contentious history.Ongoing debates question the object of study and the discipline's validity.Critics like Benedetto Croce dismissed comparative literature as a non-discipline.Croce argued for literary history as the true focus, not comparative studies.Scholars like Charles Mills Gayley emphasized literature's universal human expression.François Jost viewed comparative literature as a broader humanistic perspective.The idealistic vision of comparative literature faces challenges in modern contexts.The rise of literary theory and post-colonial studies shifted focus from comparison.Comparative literature is gaining traction in non-Western contexts, emphasizing national identity Indian scholars are redefining comparative literature, scrutinizing Western literature from their.perspective ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:27 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Explanation of Comparative Literature: An Overview ### Cross-Cultural Study: Comparative literature examines texts from different cultures, highlighting.1 the connections between literature and other disciplines such as philosophy, history, and social.sciences Diverse Interests: People often come to study comparative literature due to varied literary.2.interests, seeking to go beyond the confines of a single subject or national literature Interconnectedness: Matthew Arnold emphasized that literature is intertwined with historical.3 events and cultural developments. By reading across cultures, readers can uncover influences and.similarities among different authors Goethe's Perspective: Goethe promoted the idea of recognizing and appreciating foreign.4.literature as a shared human experience, encouraging cultural exchange and understanding Contentious History: Despite seeming like a common-sense approach, comparative literature has.5 faced debates regarding its focus and legitimacy as a discipline. Some critics, like Benedetto Croce, argued that literary history should be the main focus, dismissing comparative literature as non-.essential Universal Expression: Scholars like Charles Mills Gayley highlighted literature's ability to express.6 universal human experiences, while François Jost saw comparative literature as a means to adopt a.broader, more humanistic perspective Modern Challenges: The idealistic vision of comparative literature faces challenges in the context.7 of modern literary theory and post-colonial studies, which have shifted focus away from traditional.comparative approaches Non-Western Contexts: Comparative literature is becoming more prominent in non-Western.8 countries, where it often emphasizes national identity. For instance, Indian scholars are redefining.the field by critically examining Western literature from their unique perspectives In summary, comparative literature is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field that studies texts across cultures, aiming to uncover universal human experiences and foster cross-cultural understanding. Despite its contentious history and modern challenges, it continues to evolve and expand, especially.in non-Western contexts ]‫ظ‬.‫ ب‬10:28 1403/09/13[ ,English Literature Based on the previous text, Susan Bassnett's general view of comparative literature can be :summarized as follows Interdisciplinary and Cross-Cultural Focus: Comparative literature studies texts across different.1 cultures and emphasizes the connections between literature and various disciplines such as.philosophy, history, and the social sciences Personal Journey: Readers often arrive at comparative literature through diverse literary.2.interests, motivated by a desire to transcend single subject boundaries Historical Interconnectedness: Figures like Matthew Arnold highlight the interconnectedness of.3 literature and historical events, advocating for reading across cultures to uncover influences and.similarities among authors Goethe's Influence: Goethe's advocacy for awareness of foreign literature underscores.4.comparative literature's role in fostering a shared human experience and cultural exchange Debates and Criticism: Comparative literature has a contentious history, facing ongoing debates.5 about its focus and validity. Critics like Benedetto Croce dismissed it as a non-discipline, arguing that.literary history should be the main focus Universal Human Expression: Scholars like Charles Mills Gayley and François Jost view.6 comparative literature as a means to explore universal human experiences and adopt a broader.humanistic perspective Modern Challenges: The rise of literary theory and post-colonial studies has shifted focus from.7 traditional comparative approaches, but the field is gaining traction in non-Western contexts,.emphasizing national identity Redefining Perspectives: Indian scholars, for example, are redefining comparative literature by.8.critically examining Western literature from their unique cultural perspectives In essence, Bassnett's view emphasizes the interdisciplinary and cross-cultural nature of comparative literature, its historical interconnectedness, and the ongoing need to adapt and redefine the field in.response to modern challenges and diverse perspectives ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬09:48 1403/09/14[ ,English Literature Henry H. H. Remak, “Origins and Evolution of Comparative Literature and Its Interdisciplinary ”Studies ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬09:49 1403/09/14[ ,English Literature Summary of Paper on Comparative Literature ### :Shift in Focus.1 American scholars increasingly approach texts by looking outward to other disciplines (political, -.ethnic, racial, gender, etc.) to show their cultural commitments The traditional practice of comparing entire literary works from different cultures has become -.rare :Change in Methodology.2 Scholars now use texts to elucidate context and confirm theories rather than bringing context to -.understand the full meaning of the text There's a major shift from focusing on literary-cultural studies to incorporating non-literary -.disciplines :.Current State in the U.S.3.The core literary aspect of comparative literature has become secondary or almost abandoned - True interdisciplinary studies (e.g., historiography, philosophy, anthropology, hard sciences, -.technology) have enriched comparative literature :Challenges of Interdisciplinary Approach.4 Interdisciplinary studies have sometimes led to amateurish approaches and have diminished the - focus on the international and linguistic aspects that require deep knowledge of another non-English.culture.Most interdisciplinary studies in the U.S. are monolingual and monocultural - :Goals and Outcomes.5 Originally, interdisciplinary scholarship aimed to foster affinity and interaction between -.disciplines and to refine and redefine distinctions While the first goal has been achieved to an extent, the second goal has been overshadowed by -.the prevalence of cultural theory and criticism In summary, the paper critiques the current state of comparative literature, noting the shift from a focus on literary and cultural comparisons to interdisciplinary and context-driven approaches. It highlights both the enrichment and challenges brought by this shift and calls attention to the need.for maintaining the core international and linguistic aspects of the discipline ]‫ظ‬.‫ ق‬09:59 1403/09/14[ ,English Literature Comprehensive Summary of the Paper ## The paper discusses the evolution and current state of comparative literature, particularly in the :American context. Here are the main points derived from the provided contexts Cultural Denominators: The paper begins by identifying common cultural denominators that are of - interest to general practitioners in the field of comparative literature. This sets the stage for a. discussion on how literature interacts with various cultural contexts Shift in Scholarly Focus: It notes a significant shift among American scholars who now often focus - on non-aesthetic disciplines such as political, ethnic, racial, and gender studies. This trend has led to a decline in the comparative analysis of integral literary works across different cultures, which is. traditionally the core of comparative literature Contextual Analysis: The paper argues that the approach to context has changed; rather than using - context to illuminate the text, scholars now often use the text to elucidate context. This represents a deductive approach rather than an inductive one, indicating a shift in methodology within the. discipline Interdisciplinary Studies: Since the 1950s, there has been a rise in interdisciplinary studies within - comparative literature, which has enriched the field by incorporating insights from historiography, philosophy, and cultural anthropology. However, this has also led to a neglect of the international. and inter-linguistic aspects that require a deep understanding of non-English cultures Monolingual and Monocultural Trends: The paper highlights a concerning trend where most - interdisciplinary studies in the U.S. are predominantly monolingual and monocultural, which undermines the foundational goals of comparative literature that emphasize cross-cultural. understanding Goals of Interdisciplinary Scholarship: The paper reflects on the dual aims of interdisciplinary - scholarship that were envisioned decades ago. While the goal of fostering affinity and interaction has been somewhat successful, the equally important goal of refining and redefining distinctions. within literature has been overshadowed by the rise of cultural theory and criticism In summary, the paper critiques the current trajectory of comparative literature in the U.S., advocating for a balance between interdisciplinary approaches and a robust engagement with the literary core of the discipline. It calls for a renewed focus on the international and inter-linguistic dimensions of literature to preserve its unique identity and relevance in a rapidly changing cultural.landscape