Chat GPT Study Guide PDF

Here is a structured **study guide** that provides concise answers to each **key term** and **key topic** to help you prepare for your final exam effectively. **Key Terms** **1. Categorical vs Continuous Variables** - **Categorical**: Variables that represent groups or categories (e.g., gen...

Here is a structured **study guide** that provides concise answers to each **key term** and **key topic** to help you prepare for your final exam effectively. **Key Terms** **1. Categorical vs Continuous Variables** - **Categorical**: Variables that represent groups or categories (e.g., gender: male, female). - **Continuous**: Variables that can take on an infinite range of values along a scale (e.g., age, weight). **2. Mean** - The arithmetic average of a set of values. Suitable for **continuous data**. **3. Range** - The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. **4. Standard Deviation** - A measure of how spread out the values are around the mean. Larger SD = more variability. **5. Independent Variable (IV)** - The variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. **6. Dependent Variable (DV)** - The variable measured to assess the effect of the independent variable. **7. Operational Definitions** - Specific, measurable definitions of abstract variables (e.g., "aggression" = number of fights in school). **8. Hypothesis** - A testable prediction about the relationship between variables. **9. Reliability** - The consistency of a measurement tool over time or across raters. **10. Reactivity** - When participants alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed. **11. Internal Consistency** - The extent to which items in a test measure the same construct; measured using **Cronbach's Alpha**. **12. Cronbach's Alpha** - A statistic used to measure internal consistency (values ≥ 0.7 indicate good reliability). **13. Validity** - The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. **14. Literature Review** - A summary and analysis of prior research relevant to the research question. **15. Plagiarism** - Using someone else's work or ideas without proper citation. **16. Probability Sampling** - Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected (e.g., random sampling). **17. Non-Probability Sampling** - Participants are chosen non-randomly (e.g., convenience sampling). **18. Convenience/Haphazard Sampling** - Selecting participants who are easiest to access. **19. Sampling Bias** - Occurs when certain groups are underrepresented in the sample. **20. Correlation Coefficient** - A statistic (Pearson's r) that measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. **21. Third Variable Problem** - A confounding variable that influences both the IV and DV. **22. Inferential Statistics** - Allows researchers to make generalizations about a population based on sample data. **23. P-Value** - Probability that the results occurred by chance. Significant if p \<.05. **24. Chi-Square** - A statistical test for relationships between **categorical variables**. **25. T-Test** - Compares means between **two groups** (categorical IV, continuous DV). **26. ANOVA** - Tests differences between **three or more group means**. **27. Post-Hoc Analysis** - Identifies which specific groups differ after a significant ANOVA result. **28. Pearson's R** - The correlation coefficient for two continuous variables. **29. Peer Review Process** - A process where research is reviewed by experts to ensure quality before publication. **30. Open-Ended Questions** - Allow participants to respond freely; rich data but harder to analyze. **31. Close-Ended Questions** - Provide specific response options; easier to analyze. **32. Likert Scale** - Measures agreement or intensity (e.g., strongly agree to strongly disagree). **33. Rating Scale** - Measures opinions or preferences on a scale (e.g., 1--10). **34. Frequency Scale** - Measures how often something occurs (e.g., never, sometimes, always). **35. Interviewer Bias** - When the interviewer's behavior influences responses. **36. Social Desirability** - Participants respond in a way they think is socially acceptable. **37. Retrospective Memory Bias** - Errors in memory recall of past events. **38. Demographics** - Characteristics of a sample (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity). **39. IRB (Institutional Review Board)** - Ensures ethical research practices and participant protection. **40. Ethics in Research** - Guidelines to ensure research is safe, fair, and respects participants\' rights. **41. Informed Consent** - Participants' agreement to participate after being fully informed of risks and benefits. **42. Assent** - Verbal or written agreement from children to participate in research. **43. Beneficence** - Ensuring the research benefits outweigh the risks. **44. Freedom from Harm** - Protecting participants from physical or psychological harm. **45. Confidentiality** - Protecting participants' private information. **46. Vulnerable Population** - Groups requiring special protections (e.g., children, disabled individuals). **47. Generalizability** - The ability to apply findings to a larger population. **48. Replication** - Repeating studies to confirm findings. **49. Internal Validity** - The degree to which the IV caused changes in the DV, free of confounding variables. **50. Confounding Variables** - Variables that interfere with the IV-DV relationship. **51. Factorial Designs** - Designs that examine two or more IVs simultaneously. **52. Statistical Interactions** - When the effect of one IV depends on another IV. **53. Main Effects** - The effect of one IV on the DV, averaged across other IVs. **54. Between-Subjects Designs** - Participants are assigned to only one condition. **55. Within-Subjects Designs** - Participants are exposed to all conditions. **56. Random Assignment** - Randomly assigning participants to groups to control for bias. **57. Naturalistic Observation** - Observing behavior in its natural setting without intervention. **58. Systematic Observation** - Using a specific plan to observe and code behaviors. **59. Coding System** - A structured method for recording observed behaviors. **60. Longitudinal Study** - Follows the same participants over time. **61. Cross-Sectional Study** - Compares participants of different ages at one point in time. **62. Single Subject Design** - Focuses on one individual or case over time. **63. Response Rate** - Percentage of participants who complete a study. **64. Content Analysis** - Systematic analysis of text or media content. **Key Topics** **Categorizing Variables** - Categorical: Groups/categories. - Continuous: Measured on a scale. **Operationalizing Variables** - Clear, measurable definitions. Example: Stress → cortisol levels. **Types of Measures** 1. **Self-Report**: Direct but biased (e.g., questionnaires). 2. **Behavioral**: Objective but time-consuming (e.g., observations). 3. **Physiological**: Accurate but costly (e.g., EEG). **Inter-Rater Reliability** - Agreement among observers. Improved by training and clear operational definitions. **Sections of Research Paper** 1. **Introduction**: Background, research question, hypothesis. 2. **Methods**: Participants, measures, procedures. 3. **Results**: Findings; no interpretation. 4. **Discussion**: Interpret findings, strengths/limitations, implications. 5. **Abstract**: Brief summary of aims, methods, results, and implications. **Statistical Significance** - p \<.05 indicates findings are unlikely due to chance. **Main Effect vs. Interaction** - Main Effect: Impact of one IV. - Interaction: Combined effect of IVs. **Correlational vs Experimental Design** - Correlational: No manipulation, examines relationships. - Experimental: Manipulates IV to observe DV changes. **Advantages of Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Studies** - **Longitudinal**: Tracks change but costly and prone to attrition. - **Cross-Sectional**: Quick and affordable but no temporal data. **Ethical Considerations** - Informed consent, assent, beneficence, confidentiality, freedom from harm. **Examples of Stressful Research** - Strange Situation, Marshmallow Test: Ethical if benefits outweigh risks. This study guide is detailed yet concise to help you focus on the most critical content for your exam. Let me know if you\'d like specific sections expanded further! **1. Madsen and Collins (2008)** - **Research Question**: Does adolescent interaction with parents at age 13 predict behaviors in romantic relationships at ages 20--21? - **Hypothesis**: Parental collaborative processes (e.g., conflict resolution) predict better collaborative and expressive behaviors in future romantic partnerships. - **Method**: - Observational study focusing on **expressive processes** (emotional expressions, e.g., conflict) and **collaborative processes** (e.g., problem-solving, balancing needs). - Participants: Adolescents and their parents at age 13; followed up at ages 20--21 to assess romantic relationships. - **Results**: - **Expressive processes**: Did **not** predict later romantic behaviors. - **Collaborative processes**: Strong predictor of future collaborative and expressive behaviors in romantic partnerships. - **Implications**: Findings align with **attachment theory**---parental collaboration is a stronger indicator of future relationship functioning than emotional expression alone​(notes for study final). **2. Key Recommendations from Morsbach and Prinz (2006)** - **Culturally Competent Research**: - Include diverse samples to ensure findings are generalizable. - Develop culturally valid tools with **literal and functional equivalence** (e.g., accurate translations of terms like "depression" or "respect"). - Acknowledge within-group variability---cultures are not monolithic entities. - **Avoid Cultural Bias**: - Researchers should not default to their own cultural group for comparisons. - Consider **contextual factors** (e.g., adversity, socioeconomic status) alongside cultural differences. - **Recommendation**: Cultural research must adopt a **pluralistic perspective** to account for diversity within cultural groups​(notes for study final). **3. Lebrun-Harris et al. (2019): Methodology** - **Topic**: Bullying as a public health issue among U.S. children and adolescents. - **Research Aim**: - Estimate the prevalence of parent-reported **bullying victimization** and **perpetration**. - Examine associations between bullying and health outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety, behavioral issues). - **Data Source**: - **2016 National Survey of Children's Health** (cross-sectional survey). - Caregivers completed surveys on children aged **0--17**. - **Measures**: - Bullying victimization: "This child is bullied, picked on, or excluded by other children." - Bullying perpetration: "This child bullies others, picks on them, or excludes them." - Health outcomes: Internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety), developmental delays, family factors (e.g., adverse childhood experiences). - **Response Rate**: 69.7% of targeted households. - **Key Findings**: - **Victimization prevalence**: 22.7% of youth. - Risk factors: Internalizing problems, behavioral issues, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). - Implications: Early intervention and family-centered prevention strategies are critical​(notes for study final). **4. Thirlwall & Creswell (2010): Methodology** - **Study Focus**: Evaluating treatment for children with **anxiety disorders**. - **Methodology**: - Participants: Children diagnosed with anxiety disorders. - Procedure: Administered **Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)** in either individual or group settings. - Measures: Anxiety symptoms were assessed pre- and post-treatment using standardized diagnostic tools. - **Goal**: To identify whether CBT effectively reduces anxiety symptoms and to compare treatment formats (group vs. individual therapy). (While the specific findings are not directly provided in the notes, the methodology emphasizes a structured CBT intervention for anxious children.) **5. Key Recommendations from Henrich et al. (2010)** - **Addressing WEIRD Bias**: - Researchers must move beyond focusing solely on **Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD)** populations. - **Recommendations**: - Encourage funding for research with **diverse and "inconvenient" samples**. - Support **cross-cultural research collaborations** to address cultural variability. - Examine the **generalizability** of findings to other populations. - Use **low-cost approaches** to include underrepresented groups (e.g., rural, indigenous communities). - **Broader Implications**: Expanding research diversity enriches our understanding of **universal vs. culturally specific behaviors** and reduces cultural bias in psychological research​