Lecture 2 (Ch2) Introduction to Ethics PDF

Lecture 2 (Ch2) : Introduction to Ethics Ethics for the Information Age Forth Edition by Michael J. Quinn We are not born for ourselves alone, but our country claims a share of our being, and our friends a share... We ought to contribute to the general good by an interchange of acts of kindness, b...

Lecture 2 (Ch2) : Introduction to Ethics Ethics for the Information Age Forth Edition by Michael J. Quinn We are not born for ourselves alone, but our country claims a share of our being, and our friends a share... We ought to contribute to the general good by an interchange of acts of kindness, by giving and receiving, and thus by our skill, our industry, and our talents to cement human society more closely together. —MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, On Duties I, 23 (44 BC) Chapter Overview Introduction Subjective relativism Cultural relativism Divine command theory Kantianism Act utilitarianism Rule utilitarianism Social contract theory Virtue Ethics Comparing workable ethical theories 3 The Ethical Point of View Virtually everybody shares “core values” Life Happiness Ability to accomplish goals Two ways to view world Selfish point of view: consider only own self and its core values Ethical point of view: respect other people and their core values 4  Defining Terms Society: Association of people organized under a system of rules Rules: designed to advance the good of members over time Morality A society’s rules of conduct What people ought / ought not to do in various situations (road network- good or bad) Ethics (philosophical study of morality- guidelines) Rational examination of morality Evaluation of people’s behavior. Ethics is broader than morality in that it includes the higher- level activities evaluating moral systems and the creation of new ways of evaluating moral problems. Ex: Observers on Balloons – people driving on road- or in shortcut. 5  Analogy Showing Difference between Morality and Ethics 6  Why Study Ethics? Not everyone can do what they want Ethics: A way to decide the best thing to do New problems accompany new technologies Email and spams www and pop-up ads for pornographic web sites “Common wisdom” not always adequate. “Common wisdom” may not exist for novel situations brought about by new technologies Workable ethical theory: produces explanations that might be persuasive to a skeptical, yet open-minded audience 7  Scenario Alexis, a gifted high-school student, wants to become a doctor. Because she comes from a poor family, she will need a scholarship in order to attend college. Some of her classes require students to do extra research projects in order to get an A. Her high school has a few older PCs, but there are always long lines of students waiting to use them during the school day. After school, she usually works at a part-time job to help support her family. One evening Alexis visits the library of a private college a few miles from her family’s apartment, and she finds plenty of unused PCs connected to the Internet. She surreptitiously looks over the shoulder of another student to learn a valid login/password combination. Alexis returns to the library several times a week, and by using its PCs and printers she efficiently completes the extra research projects, graduates from high school with straight As, and gets a fullride scholarship to attend a prestigious university.  Questions 1. Was Alexis deceitful? 2. Did Alexis treat anyone unfairly? 3. Did Alexis violate anyone’s rights? 4. Who benefited from Alexis’s course of action and how great were the benefits? 5. Who was harmed by Alexis’s course of action and how great were the harms? 6. Would you call Alexis a good role model for other students? 7. Are there better ways Alexis could have accomplished her objective? 8. Did Alexis do the right thing? Ethical Theories  Subjective Relativism Ethical Relativism Subjective relativism No universal norms of right Each person decides right and and wrong wrong for himself or herself One person can say “X is “What’s right for you may not right,” another can say “X is be right for me” wrong,” and both can be right 11  Case for Subjective Relativism Well-meaning and intelligent people may have opposite opinions about moral issues (Ex: Abortion in US) Ethical debates are disagreeable and pointless – and we don’t have to try to reconcile opposing views. Takes time on debates (more than 40 years) 12  Case Against Subjective Relativism Blurs distinction between doing what you think is right and doing what you want to do (Who are you to tell me what is right?)-We are good in rationalizing our bad acts. Makes no moral distinction between the actions of different people (Hitler vs Mother Teresa) SR and tolerance are two different things (choosing to act only with your race is not tolerant but it goes with SR) Decisions may not be based on reason (Selfish) Not a workable ethical theory ( behave on your own. It is not based on universal moral norms) 13  Cultural Relativism What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a society’s actual moral guidelines These guidelines vary from place to place and from time to time A particular action may be right in one society at one time and wrong in other society or at another time 14  Case for Cultural Relativism Different social contexts demand different moral guidelines (Ex Survival among centuries has shifted from people to nature) It is arrogant for one society to judge another (It is arrogant to people in US or Europe nowadays to judge nations in the past) 15  Case Against Cultural Relativism Sometimes societies have bad or wrong guidelines. (Ex: severe drought) Doesn’t explain how guidelines evolve overtime. (Ex: segregation of students in US black vs. white shifted) Provides no way out for cultures in conflict (Ex: Gaza poverty and the armed struggle vs. larger Israel and expansion in settlements) Because many practices are acceptable does not mean any cultural practice is acceptable (many/any fallacy) (Ex: there are too many ways to document programs - Which is good and which is bad?) Societies do, in fact, share certain core values Ex: (no murder, care for babies) Not a workable ethical theory 16  Good actions: Bad actions: those aligned those contrary with God’s will to God’s will Divine Command Theory Holy books We should consider holy reveal God’s books as moral will. decision-makin g guides. 17  Case for Divine Command Theory We owe God is God is the obedience to all-good and ultimate our Creator. all-knowing. authority. 18  Case Against Divine Command Theory Different holy books disagree Society is multicultural, secular Some moral problems not Ex: problems related to internet addressed in holy books. practices Based on obedience, not reason Not a workable ethical theory 19 Ethical Egoism Contrary to “Love your neighbor as yourself,” (Divine Comm. Theory) ethical egoism: The philosophy that each person should focus exclusively on his or her self-interest. The morally right action for a person to take in a particular situation is the action that will provide that person with the maximum long-term benefit.  Scenario I depend upon a friend to give me a ride to work every day. If my friend’s car breaks down and she doesn’t have $100 to fix it, I ought to loan her the money. Although I’m out $100 until she pays me back, I’m better off giving her the loan because I’m still able to travel to work and make money. If I don’t lend her the money, I’ll lose my income. Lending $100 to my friend is the right thing to do because it provides me the maximum overall benefit  The case for and against such Theory?  It does not recognize that in order to reap the benefits of living in a community, individuals Ethical egoism does not must consider the good respect the ethical point of other community of view. members. For this reason we reject ethical egoism as a workable ethical theory Kantianism Focuses on the critical importance of Good will- the desire to do the right thing. Immanuel Kant: Only thing in the world good without qualification is a good will. Ex: courage and intelligence may be used to harm people. Robbing a bank – no good will Ex: a best effort to help people may fall short – good will Reason should cultivate desire to do right thing. (Dutifulness – respect some moral rules – universal moral rules) What we ought to do NOT what we want to do 24  st Categorical Imperative (1 Formulation) Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will to be universal moral laws. A rule that always applies! EX: Make promises to break them?!! If universalized, there is no mean for making promises. 25  st Illustration of 1 Formulation Question: Can a person in a very bad or difficult situation make a promise with the intention of breaking it later? Proposed rule: “I may make promises with the intention of later breaking them.” The person in trouble wants his promise to be believed so he can get what he needs. Universalize rule: Everyone may make & break promises Everyone breaking promises would make promises unbelievable, contradicting desire to have promise believed The rule is flawed. The answer is “No.” 26  nd Categorical Imperative (2 Formulation) Act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an end. Don’t “Use” people. “respect” them This is usually an easier formulation to work with than the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative. 27  Plagiarism Scenario Carla Single mother Works full time Takes two evening courses/semester She has a child and need some time to care about History class Requires more work than normal Carla earning an “A” on all work so far Carla doesn’t have time to write final report Carla purchases report and submits it as her own work 28  st Kantian Evaluation (1 Formulation) Carla wants credit for plagiarized report Rule: “You may claim credit for work performed by someone else” If rule universalized, reports would no longer be credible indicator’s of student’s knowledge, and professors would not give credit for reports Proposal moral rule is self-defeating It is wrong for Carla to turn in a purchased report 29  nd Kantian Evaluation (2 Formulation) Carla submitted another person’s work as her own She attempted to deceive professor She treated professor as a means to an end End: passing the course Means: professor issues grade What Carla did was wrong 30  Case for Kantianism Produces Treats all Workable ethical Rational universal moral persons as moral theory guidelines equals Could be applied No to all people for discrimination all history 31  Case Against Kantianism Sometimes no single rule Ex: stealing to feed starving babies adequately characterizes an Am I stealing (perfect duty- not to steal)? Am I protecting lives (imperfect duty- helping others)? Perfect duty must prevail. action. Sometimes there is no way to In a conflict between a perfect duty and an imperfect duty, perfect duty prevails resolve a conflict between In a conflict between two perfect duties, no solution rules Protect life of others, don’t kill people (two perfect duties) Your mother’s hair-cut Kantianism allows no She asks if you like this hair-cut/ exceptions to moral laws. Rule: don’t lie should be bent??!! 32  Utilitarianism (contrast to Kantianism) Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill An action is good if it benefits someone An action is bad if it harms someone Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent unhappiness for an individual or a community Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = pleasure Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = evil = pain 33  Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle) An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties. Total sum of pleasure = Negative or Positive 34  Act Utilitarianism Utilitarianism Act utilitarianism Morality of an action has Add up change in nothing to do with intent happiness of all affected Focuses on the beings consequences Sum > 0, action is good A consequentialist theory Sum < 0, action is bad 35 Highway Routing Scenario State may replace a curvy stretch of highway New highway segment 1 mile shorter 150 houses would have to be removed Some wildlife habitat would be destroyed 36  Evaluation Costs Benefits Conclusion $20 million to $39 million savings in Benefits exceed costs compensate automobile driving Building highway a homeowners costs good action $10 million to construct new highway Lost wildlife habitat worth $1 million 37  Focuses on happiness Down-to-earth (practical) Comprehensive (considers all the elements of an action or a Case for Act particular situation) Utilitarianism Workable ethical theory 38 Case Against Act Utilitarianism Unclear whom to include in calculations In the highway example children in one side might find it difficult to cross the highway Too much work Susceptible to the problem of moral luck Ex: Sending flowers to a patient and causing an allergy for him. This cost him much. Then your act is BAD. 39  Rule Utilitarianism We ought to adopt moral rules which, if followed by everyone, will lead to the greatest increase in total happiness Act utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to individual action Rule utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to moral rules 40  Anti-Worm Scenario August 2003: Blaster worm infected Soon after, Nachi worm appeared thousands of Windows computers Took control of vulnerable computer Located and destroyed copies of Blaster Downloaded software patch to fix security problem Used computer as launching pad to try to “infect” other vulnerable PCs 41  Evaluation using Rule Utilitarianism Proposed rule: If I can write a helpful worm that removes a harmful worm from infected computers and shields them from future attacks, I should do so Who would benefit People who do not keep their systems updated Who would be harmed People who use networks People who’s computers are invaded by buggy anti-worms (may make bugs to data or programs) System administrators (detect and respond) Conclusion: Harm outweighs benefits. Releasing anti-worm is wrong. 42  Compared to act utilitarianism, it is easier to perform the utilitarian calculus. Case for Rule Avoids the problem of moral luck Utilitarianism It is interested in the typical result NOT the unusual result. Workable ethical theory 43  Social Contract Theory Thomas Hobbes Jean-Jacques Rousseau “State of nature” -- rational people In ideal society, no one above rules understand that cooperation is essential : That prevents society from enacting bad rules living in a continual fear, and danger of violent death “Since no man has any natural authority over We implicitly accept a social contract his fellows, and since force alone bestows no Establishment of moral rules to govern right, all legitimate authority among men relations among citizens must be based on covenants” Government capable of enforcing these -(Rousseau, 1968) rules Ex: residents of Baghdad after Iraq Invasion – no social contract with the state. 44  In the spring of 2003, a coalition of military forces led by the United States invaded Iraq and removed the government of Saddam Hussein. When the police disappeared, thousands of Baghdad residents Social looted/robbed government ministries. Contract Sidewalk arms merchants did a thriving business selling AK-47 assault rifles to homeowners needing Theory protection against thieves. Are Iraqis much different from residents of other countries, or should we view the events in Baghdad as the typical response of people to a lack of governmental authority and control?  James Rachels’s Definition “Morality consists in the set of rules, Similar to governing how people are to Kantianism but treat one another, that rational rules are not to be universalized, but people will agree to accept, for their specific society mutual benefit, on the condition that should agreed others follow those rules as well.” upon. 46  Kinds of Rights Negative right: A right that another can guarantee by leaving you alone Free Expression – no interference from others. Positive right: A right obligating others to do something on your behalf Free education --- other must do something for you Absolute right: A right guaranteed without exception Free expression and right for life – no interference Limited right: A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances – there might be an exception. Free education limited to 12th grade because of under budgeting. Correlation between Positive rights tend to be more limited Kinds of Rights Negative rights tends to be more absolute 47  John Rawls’s Principles of Justice Both cooperative and competitive behavior can be found in every society To avoid unequal distribution of wealth and power: Each person may claim a “fully adequate” number of basic rights and liberties, so long as these claims are consistent with everyone else having a claim to the same rights and liberties Any social and economic inequalities must Be associated with positions that everyone has a fair and equal opportunity to achieve. Ex: People with same intelligence, talent, …etc, should have the right to achieve the same position regardless of their social position. Be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle) Ex: differences in Taxes according to income 48 DVD Rental Scenario (using Social Contract Theory) Bill owns chain of DVD rental stores Collects information about rentals from customers Constructs profiles of customers Sells profiles to direct marketing firms Some customers happy to receive more mail order catalogs; others unhappy at increase in “junk mail” 49  Evaluation (Social Contract Theory) Consider rights of Bill, customers, and mail order companies. Does customer have right to expect name, address to be kept confidential? Privacy right. If customer rents DVD from bill, who owns information about transaction? If Bill and customer have equal rights to information, Bill did nothing wrong to sell information. If customers have right to expect name and address or transaction to be confidential without giving permission, then Bill was wrong to sell information without asking for permission. 50  Case for Social Contract Theory Framed in language of rights Provides clear analysis of certain citizen/government problems Why to punish criminals? To protect lives…. They have the right to liberty if they follow the rules Workable ethical theory 51 Case Against Social Contract Theory No one signed contract Some actions have multiple characterizations - Ex: Don’t steal. Conflicting rights problem Ex: Abortion - the privacy right of mother, against the fetus’s right to live. May unjustly treat people who cannot uphold contract Ex: Drug addicts – some countries put in prisons Other countries put in hospitals 52  Virtue Ethics Some moral philosophers criticize Kantianism, utilitarianism, and social contract theory because they ignore what these philosophers consider to be important aspects of living a moral life: ✔ moral education, ✔ moral wisdom, ✔ family and social relationships, and ✔ the role of emotions. Over the past several decades: a resurgence of interest in virtue ethics, an ethical theory that accounts for all of these factors  Virtue Ethics Back to ancient Greece. “Arete”: virtue or excellence reaching one’s highest potential. Path to true happiness and genuine flourishing as a human being lies in living a life of virtue… Aristotle’s Nicmachean Ethics, 4th century BC. Intellectual virtues are those virtues associated with reasoning and truth. Moral virtues, often called virtues of character by today’s writers, are habits or dispositions formed through the repetition of the relevant virtuous actions.  Case for Virtue Ethics Many situations it makes more sense to focus on virtues than on obligations, rights, or consequences. Many situations it makes more sense to focus on virtues than on obligations, rights, or consequences. Recognizes that our moral decision-making skills develop over time. Recognizes the important role that emotions play in living a moral life.  Different people may have quite different conceptions of human flourishing. The Case Against Cannot be used to guide government Virtue Ethics policy. Undermines attempts to hold people responsible for their bad actions.  Virtue Ethics However, virtue ethics does provide a framework for people to analyze moral situations, to reach a conclusion about the right course of action, and to justify the conclusion using logical arguments. Therefore, we determine that virtue ethics is a workable ethical theory, along with Kantianism, act utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism, and social contract theory.  Comparing Workable Ethical Theories Theory Motivation Criteria Focus Kantianism Dutifulness Rules Individual Act Consequence Actions Group Utilitarianism Rule Consequence / Rules Group Utilitarianism Duty Social Rights Rules Individual Contract Agents and Virtual Ethics Actions Individual Consequences 58 Thank you!