Chapter 1: Readings on Industrial Revolution PDF

The Industrial Revolution and Consequences Notes prepared by Prof. Erdal Yavuz. For the sources used please, refer to the box in the bottom Toward a World Economy Until 1630, the slave trade remained in the hands of Europe's entry into the Atlantic and P...

The Industrial Revolution and Consequences Notes prepared by Prof. Erdal Yavuz. For the sources used please, refer to the box in the bottom Toward a World Economy Until 1630, the slave trade remained in the hands of Europe's entry into the Atlantic and Pacific created the Portuguese. The Dutch and British began to export an international exchange of goods, created a new slaves to plantation colonies in the Americas after world-wide economy including the Americas, and 1637. Both Europeans and indigenous peoples were paved the way for the establishment of colonies. active participants in the commerce, because it was The ability of the West to dominate the seas allowed possible to realize major profits. Western merchants to displace others from the world With the development of plantation agriculture in the trade system. The Eastern particularly the so called Americas, slaves became the primary component of Indian trade until the end of 15th Century was under the coercive labor system. the control of Islamic merchants. “It is possible that the first words spoken by Christopher Columbus on stepping ashore in the New World were the Arabic greeting "As-salam alaykum" ? Arabic had been the scientific language of most of humankind from the eighth to the 12th century. It is probably for this reason that Columbus, in his own words, considered Arabic to be "the mother of all languages," and why, on his first voyage to the New World, he took with him Luis de Torres, an Arabic- speaking Spaniard, as his interpreter. Columbus fully expected to land in India, where he knew that the Arabs had preceded him. He also knew that, for the past five centuries, Arabs had explored, and written of, the far reaches of the known world. They had been around the perimeter of Africa and sailed as far as India. They had ventured overland beyond Constantinople, past Asia Minor, across Egypt and Syria - then the western marches of the unknown Orient - and into the heart of the Asian continent. They had mapped the terrain, traced the course of rivers, timed the monsoons, scaled mountains, charted shoals and reached China, and, as a result, had spread Islam and the Arabic language in all these regions. Aileen Vincent-Barwood in http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/19920 1/columbus-what.if..htm Slaves on board of a ship. Destination America th Later at the end of the 16 Century the earliest of the colonizers, Spain and Portugal, declined in the face Between 1450 and 1850, about 12 million Africans of later competition from England, France, and were shipped to the plantations of the Americas. Holland.. Perhaps as many as four million more Africans were The creation of a world economy largely dominated killed in enslaving wars prior to shipment. by the West was a major shift in history. Latin America, Africa, the southern colonies of the SOURCES USED American coast, and some other regions were drawn Britannica Online http://www.britannica.com/ into a system that condemned them to an inferior, Questia's The Columbia Encyclopedia dependent status. http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/ After 1700’s , the West underwent a series of The Encyclopedia of World History dramatic transformations in politics, intellectual http://www.bartleby.com/67/ The Internet History Sourcebooks Project development, and industrialization. The latter in the http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ form of a so called “revolution” altered basic social United Kingdom National Archives patterns, enhanced Europe's position in the world, and http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ marked the path to be taken by other civilizations. Washington State University, World Civilizations online class http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ “Water to the mill” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The answer to the question “where comes the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page water to the mill” (“değirmenin suyu nereden geliyor?” World History: 16th to 19th Centuries is a Turkish saying) that is the origin of the wealth of http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/index.html the West, lies mostly in the Atlantic slave trade.  2 The volume of slaves shipped increased from the The logic behind the new policy proposals was the sixteenth century to a zenith in the eighteenth century. growing conscience of domestic interests of a rising By 1800, about three million slaves resided in the manufacturing bourgeoisie. Americas. At its end in the nineteenth century, the In a manufacturing economy, productive forces like slave trade still shipped more than one million slaves capital and labor have to be employed in a way to High slave mortality in the plantation environment constantly increase the productivity in order to increase required constant replenishment of workers. the profits. This maximizing trend needs protection Slavery was part of the triangular trade, in which against external competition and needs a labor freely European manufactured goods were shipped to Africa obtainable in the market. for slaves sent to the plantation colonies from which Accordingly, this transition to an industrial economy sugar and cotton were exported to Europe. needed more people freed from traditional bonds and In Africa, participation in the slave trade often obligations in the feudal domains in order to decrease reduced local economies to dependence on European the cost of labor.. manufactures. In this peculiar fashion, Africa was We observe the preliminary signs of this trend in linked to the global trade system. the 18th Century England.The English Parliament, unlike the monarchies of Europe, became more under The Disruptions caused by “Industrialized” Life the control of the merchant and capitalist classes. Industrialization promoted movement from the Here we may remember the famous economist country to the city. Family life was disrupted in the Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations’ proposition that, process. “the only legitimate goal of national government and Workers found themselves packed into slums and human activity is the steady increase in the overall subjected to harsh labor conditions. Workers wealth of the nation”. responded to new conditions, in some cases with The key to wealth is surplus, and surplus is outright resistance, but failed to slow the pace of increased by producing more with less cost, then we technological change. arrive to the increasing drive for technological For the middle class, women retreated from the improvements and innovations. This nature of labor force to take up duties in the domestic capitalism also explains the opposition of the household. Attitudes toward children involved greater bourgeoisie to feudal relations. concern for education and a sense of childhood. A source of social instability was the dramatic “Sheep are eating men”: Enclosures population increase that set in after 1730, a result of During the 17th and 18th Centuries, developments improved nutrition and a lower rate of infant mortality. and inventions in science and technology applied However unlike previous epochs, the population increasingly to agriculture and manufactures. increase of the eighteenth century produced more Advances in farming and animal breeding methods positive responses. increased productivity in the supply of raw materials, Upper- class families attempted to secure their like wool, for the needs of the industry. positions, and the social hierarchy became more rigid. The term “Enclosure” is used to explain the Business families attempted to increase their margins process of appropriation of former common lands of profit, sometimes by the addition of more (lands which provided free access and use to the technology. peasants) by the landlords to breed sheep for their At the lowest level, the poor were driven to seek wool. new means of employment and the higher demand for Enclosures increased the number of larger and work decreased the wages to a mere subsistence more productive and efficient capitalist farms but, level. reduced the peasants either to the status of farm Population growth stimulated a surge in production laborers or more often displaced them from their of textiles and and other goods of daily usage. This lands.(Read the box: “Sheep are eating men”) process in history is called proto-industrialization accompanying changes in social patterns in response “Sheep are eating men” to new economic conditions “When, therefore, we look at the world with the eyes of More (Thomas More) we are looking from the widest Towards the “Revolution” windows of that time; looking over an English landscape During the improving stage of the market relations seen for the first time very equally, in the level light of the in European economies, the dominant mode was sun at morning. simple trade rather than production. For what he saw was England of the Renascence; However, a manufacturing industry was also England passing from the mediaeval to the modern. Thus growing up around the logic of mercantilism. The he looked forth, and saw many things and said many arguments of the political economists of the period things, they were all worthy and many witty; but he noted one thing which is at once a horrible fancy and a homely were similar to contemporary arguments. In order to and practical fact. have a favorable balance of trade it is more profitable He who looked over that landscape said: to produce and sell goods with higher capital input and "Sheep are eating men." technology while importing cheap raw materials and This singular summary of the great epoch of our agricultural goods. emancipation and enlightenment is not the fact usually put first in such very curt historical accounts of it” From G.K. Chesterton, A Short History of England, 1917  3 During the whole 18th century growing number of No child workers under 9 years of age peasants were obliged to migrate to towns and Employers must have a medical or age contributed the increase of cheap labor reserve for the certificate for child workers manufacturers. Children between the ages of 9-13 to work no Urbanization accompanied the industrialization of more than 9 hours a day societies, and the proportion of populations living in Children between 13-18 to work no more than cities grew as societies were transformed. At the end of 12 hours a day the 18th century, throughout the world the Children are not to work at night overwhelming majority of all populations lived outside Two hours schooling each day for children of cities. In Great Britain, the proportion of the population Four factory inspectors appointed to enforce living in urban areas was 25 percent in 1831, became the law throughout the whole of the country. However, more than 50 percent in 1851, and had reached 77 the passing of this Act did not mean that overnight the percent by 1901. mistreatment of children stopped (Reader 1 and 2) The “Revolution” besides creating unsupportable working conditions was also the alteration of all urban and rural areas, the human and physical environment for the creation of industrial areas and workers’ ghettos. (Reader 3) Child prisoner, 1870 This photo comes from an album showing prisoners in Oxford Gaol. The inclusion of photos in prison records at this early date is very rare. The child is Julia Ann Crumpling, aged seven. She was sentenced to seven days' hard labour on 28th June 1870 for stealing a baby carriage. Children working in a textile factory This type of punishment for a child convict was not all Industry shouldered by children! that unusual. Even though many people thought that The term “Industrial Revolution” signifies sending a child to gaol did accelerated developments of the technology and their more harm than good, there applications to the Industry of England. Supporting an were still over 1500 children unprecedented increase in industrial production, this in adult prisons in 1871. revolution reached its peaks, at the end of the 18th This was to change later in century and mid 19th century. the century. After 1899, children had to be sent to Although by some authors the term “revolution” separate places of correction, such as Reformatory is considered to be exaggerated, it is true that between Schools. 1750’s and 1850’s the quality of goods produced http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/museum/item.asp?item _id=38 increased enormously and machine power began to replace the human power for the first time in the history. Industrial revolution also goes together with the Workshops turned into factories, artisans to resistance of worker in the form of machine breaking, entrepreneurs and laborers to an alienated working which will be known as “Luddite Movements”, rise of class: the industrial proletariat. Output and distribution, working class organizations, trade unions and finally passed the limits of local markets and the yields of a “Socialism” as an ideology and movement. mass production began to be directed towards export New industrial techniques mostly originating in markets. England during the early 19th Century spread rapidly in Briefly, industrial “revolution” was not a sudden Northwestern Europe, France and the U.S.A. and incident but a transformation through time resulting during the second half of the 19th century to Germany, with technical, economic, social, political and Italy and Austria. ideological alterations. Interestingly, these newly industrialized countries, If looked from another aspect, Industrial particularly the U.S.A. as compared to England gained Revolution also would mean misery of the working a better momentum towards the end of the century. people, including women and small children, laboring This was due to the application of the most recent and from early morning until night. In 1833 the English efficient technologies without the transformation cost of Government passed a Factory Act to improve outdated units. That is, countries industrializing later conditions for children working in factories. Young reached higher rates of development, while previously children were working very long hours in workplaces advanced countries due to the cost of replacing the old where conditions were often terrible. The basic act was plants became relatively slower in the race of as follows: modernization.  4 The key development of the Industrial Revolution Hence, throughout its history, political and was the application of machine power to replace men institutional framework to facilitate the above- and animals. Favorable supplies of natural resources mentioned aspects had also developed in England. and the spur of population growth helped to produce On the other hand, England had, in its territories, the first Industrial Revolution in Britain. the necessary raw materials like coal and iron ore. Industrialization built on the commercial advantages England’s overseas superiority also helped to a better Europe enjoyed in the world trade network and the access and control of raw materials and a cheap labor developments of the scientific revolution. besides the slaves in the overseas territories. The initial inventions, such as James Watt's steam High population growth and “enclosure” movements engine, that prompted the Industrial Revolution transforming peasantry to “wage competing laborers” occurred in Britain. Each invention spawned new also reinforced this advantage. technological developments in related fields. Moreover, England’s manufactured exports since the beginnings of the industrial revolution had been wool, cotton and hardware. If compared, for example to France’s silk and other luxury goods, England’s goods had a steady demand and a larger access to other markets. The brief outline below explains the necessary conditions of a leap forward such as the “Industrial Revolution”: 1. Sufficient and accelerated capital accumulation. 2. Availability and sufficient size of domestic and foreign market. 3. Access and control of raw materials 4. Free and cheap labor. 5. A political and institutional framework facilitating innovation. England, as compared to the other countries was in a more advantageous state for the above mentioned James Watt’s steam engine preconditions. During the 17th and 18th Centuries England had Transportation and communication innovations began to monopolize overseas trade in such a way that allowed products, people, and information to be moved all its wars resulted with the acquisition of a new more rapidly. Improved agricultural production fed the overseas territory. masses of workers who moved to the cities. Besides leading the North American, the South Industrialization involved a shift in the organization American and, most importantly, the Indian trades, of labor and the emergence of the factory system with England was also continuing to gain ground in the its specialization of tasks and greater discipline. Mediterranean region. Industrialization also led to the creation of larger firms Lower prices besides better quality made possible with greater access to capital and more advanced by industrialized production increased the demand for marketing techniques. English goods in foreign markets. English goods price Britain's industrialization attracted imitators in the and quality advantage had also caused the decline of United States, Belgium, France, and Germany. The local industries of common goods in the Ottoman French Revolution promoted industrialization by Empire as in other countries. sweeping away laws that restricted trade. Remember the Turkish saying “Asılacaksan İngiliz sicimiyle asıl” (“Better to have English cord if you are to Why England pioneered the Industrial Revolution? be hanged”) is a dramatic confession of quality that England of the 18th century by having the following uninterrupted finishing causes less suffering. particularities had more chance in fulfilling the above conditions. England’s first entrance to the Ottoman market Geographical situation of England was an The Ottoman Empire managed to maintain its vigor advantage with regards to sea transport and this until the late seventeenth century. At that time the helped the growth of British overseas empire to expand empire, which was overextended, began to retreat from its market. its most distant borders in Europe and the Middle East. England’s “feudal class” and the “gentry” Once the Ottoman Empire began to contract, its (landowners without feudal titles) had favorable and administrative structure, which had always depended competitive attitude towards economic change and on military expansion, began to deteriorate and corrupt. capital accumulation. (Readers 4 and 5) Some authors (for example, Max Weber, in his The Technological and cultural conservatism continued Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism) explain to cause the Ottoman Empire to disregard important this aspect by the success of Protestant belief and changes in Europe. ethics in England.  5 The Ottomans became progressively weaker in been established across western Europe and in the comparison to their Western rivals. (For a criticism of eastern United States. Ottoman policy of technology see Reader 6) The Berlin–Baghdad Railroad was an important As a remedy to the declining revenues certain scheme for the expansion of German economic measures like favorable trade agreements to attract influence in the Ottoman Empire. Western traders to deal through Ottoman ports was taken. In Turkish history writing these trade agreements are categorically called “Capitulations” In that sense we must remember that the relationship between Turkey and the United Kingdom began with the establishment of diplomatic relations in the 16th century. The first person accredited to the Ottoman Court as the representative of Queen Elizabeth I was William Harborne, who set out from London and arrived in Istanbul on Oct. 28, 1578. Harborne carried out his duties successfully and was able to establish trade on the bases of national identity between the two countries, thus doing away with Venice as the intermediary. A trade agreement between the Ottoman Empire Canals were also important in the transportation and England was signed in 1580. and a “Turkey systems of emerging industrial societies; in fact, the Company” was set up in London by English merchants construction of two major canals transformed the there. patterns of global maritime movements. In1581 the Turkey Company was formed, and in The Suez Canal, linking the Mediterranean Sea and 1592 it merged with the Venice Company (founded in the Red Sea (and ultimately the Indian Ocean) was 1583) to form the Levant Company. completed in 1869 and reduced the need for west-east shipping to go around the African continent. It changed “Appétit vient en mangeant” military and commercial shipping patterns and made (French saying “ the appetite is sharpened by Egypt a major global strategic location. eating”, and in Turkish“iştah yedikçe açılır”) The Panama Canal was opened in 1914 and Sustained increase of industrial production and transformed strategic and commercial shipping in the competition needed expanding markets for the Western Hemisphere. It joined the Atlantic and Pacific providing of raw materials and selling finished shipping routes in Central America, eliminating the products. need to go around South America (or through the All of the above advantages of England also Arctic regions). motivated and furthered new developments in many areas. Production technology Revolutionary developments were observed in The technological innovations accompanied transportation and communication technologies. Better simultaneously the social and economic changes, and means of transformation made distant places a part of this may be considered as a reciprocal process. enlarging and integrating market. The driving force of the Industrial revolution was the As expansion of the market was the natural textile industry and particularly the cotton products. outcome of the capitalist system new political and Cotton industry was not considerable through much strategic measures also had to be adopted. The of the 17th century but exploded one century later.. English diplomatic and military policies were formulated Most cotton was produced in British colonies according to the needs of the economy. The dominant namely America and India. Because it was a labor- ideology found its ground in the rise of a new economic intensive agriculture, it fueled the traffic in African doctrine: “liberalism”. The political economy of the slaves to the American plantations. period recommended and enforced “free market” The cotton produced in America imported to the policies on a global basis. One of the most spectacular homeland for the use of textile industry, and the examples of this is the Anglo-Turkish trade agreement finished product was marketed in Europe and in other of 1838. (For a “liberal” argument on the benefits of the countries. free market see Reader 7) At the beginning, having the technological superiority of production, England had almost the Transportation and communication monopoly of cotton textiles. This position altered when Developments in transportation were important America became independent and entered into the aspects of the global processes of industrialization. market as a competitor. Railroads made bulk transportation cheaper and From our history we can also observe this easier, and railroad construction played an important competition which ended by the victory of America, so role in industrialization. why since 1830’s, the ordinary cotton textile is named The first railroads were built in Great Britain in the “Amerikan bezi” in Turkey. (Reader 8) first quarter of the 19th century, and the first railroad was built in France in 1828. By 1850, rail networks had  6 The first innovation in cotton manufacture was the Along with the growth in the cotton industry, the the flying shuttle, developed by John Kay in 1733, and steel industry also had begun to grow. was one of the key developments in weaving that This was largely due to the fact that England was helped fuel the Industrial Revolution. rich of coal, and this gave an advantage to England as The flying shuttle enabled the weaver to propel compared to the countries of the continent. the shuttle through a wider strip of cloth with a single In 1712, Thomas Newcomen built a simple steam hand, and allowed the other hand to perform the engine that pumped water from the mines.(Below) combing to compact the cloth. This speeded the process and thus increased production. The “flying shuttle” of Kay James Hargreaves, a carpenter, developed the spinning jenny, which greatly speeded up the process of weaving cotton threads into cloth. Patented in 1767, Later a Scotsman named James Watt added a the spinning jenny was a series of simple machines separate cooling chamber to the machine in 1763; this rather than a single machine, and it spun sixteen cooling chamber condensed the steam so the cylinder threads of cotton simultaneously. ( Picture below) itself didn't have to be cooled. Patented in 1769, Watt's steam engine had the efficiency to be applied to all kinds of industries and began to change the face of English manufacture. The nineteenth century saw the exporting of the Industrial Revolution to Europe and the explosion of factory-based, technology driven manufactures began to be the norm. th An overview of the 19 Century The idea of “progress” of the Enlightenment that continuing growth and improvement being the destiny of human and natural life further consolidated during th the 19 Century. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution (Origin of Species, 1859) was taken as the confirmation that progress was the natural direction of life, and also valid in the analysis of social evolution. Herbert Spencer (1820 –1903) an English philosopher and liberal political theorist is considered as the father of Social In 1793, the American, Eli Whitney, invented the Darwinism, a school of thought that applied the cotton gin, which mechanized the separating of seeds evolutionist theory of survival of the fittest (a phrase from cotton fibers. These innovations made cotton coined by Spencer) to human societies, incredibly cheap and infinitely expandable as In economic theory liberals like David Ricardo compared to wool. (1772-1823) John Stuart Mill (1806-73) defended that By the end of the eighteenth century, the free, unregulated competition would bring continuous manufacture of thread and cloth was slowly moving out economic expansion and establish the universal of the family economy and into large factory mills. justice. The invention that really drove the revolution in the eighteenth century was the steam engine.  7 On the other hand Socialist theories arising from the Realism in novels presented the full panorama of injustices and inequalities caused by the social classes and personalities, while retaining industrialization, also based their ideas on human sentimentality and moral judgment (Dickens, 1812-70; perfectibility and progress found its adherents among Eliot, 1819-80; Tolstoy, 1828-1910; Balzac, 1790- the working classes. 1850) are the most popular examples.. The new class of industrial workers responded by organizing trade unions, first legalized in England And “reality” of our side: in1824. As a result of their efforts acts to reduce child The Ottoman Empire began to collapse in the face labor and regulate conditions were passed 1833. of Balkan nationalisms and European imperialist From the cultural point of view, “Realism” in incursions in North Africa and the Near East. painting as well as literature appealed to a new mass Russia accomplished its expansion taking audience with social or historical aspect of narrative. Turkestan, all the Caucasus, and Chinese areas in the With serious religious, moral, or social messages East. The new policy aimed to obtain a passage to the often drawn from ordinary life, the drawings of Mediterranean Sea. As a part of this strategy Russia Impressionists rejected the formalism, sentimentality began to sponsoring and provoking Balkan Slavs and in favor of a spontaneous, un-detailed rendering of the Anatolian communities against the Turks. world. An Impressionist forerunner: Monet’s “Soleil Levant” SOME IMPORTANT DATES ON SOME ECONOMIC INDICATORS TECHNOLOGY Before and during the “Industrial Revolution” Calculated by Erdal Yavuz from the tables 1712 The Newcomen steam engine is used to pump in B.R. Mitchell, Abstract of British water from a coal mine. Historical Statistics, Cambridge University Press,l962. 1733 John Kay invents the flying shuttle in textile machines. Output of pig iron Raw cotton imports 1769 Arkwright patents the water frame (weaving (Tons) machine working with water power) (in l000 lb.) years quantity years quantity 1776 James Watt operates better version of 1720 25 1788 68,3 1771-1780 55,721 Newcomen Steam Engine 1796 150 1781-1790 183,861 1785 Edmund Cartwright patents a power loom- 1806 244 1791-1800 320,166 weaving machine- with steam power 1823 455 1801-1810 693,706 1800 First electric battery invented by Volta. 1830 677,417 1811-1820 1,214,790 1839 1,248,781 1821-1830 2,009,000 1807 Robert Fulton’s steamboat Clermont, goes into 1840 1,396,400 1831-1840 3,874,000 service on the Hudson River. 1843 1,215,350 1841-1850 6,136,000 1847 1,999,608 1830 George Stephenson’s locomotive, The 1851-1860 10,005,000 Rocket, operates between Liverpool and 1853 2,701,000 Manchester. 1836 Samuel Morse invents the telegraph. Exports of cotton products 1840 Samuel Cunard starts the regular transatlantic (in l000 yards) passenger service by steamships. years quantity 1842 Steam power in a factory in the Ottoman 1821-1830 3,396,000 Empire, The Feshane in Defterdar, İstanbul. The use of the modern technology will 1831-1840 5,873,000 also be operational in Beykoz deri in 1843, 1841-1850 10,344,000 Basmahane, Bakırköy in1850. 1851-1860 19,970,000 1859 Commercial oil well is drilled and starts to produce in Pennsylvania. 1861-1870 24,239,000 1871-1880 36,955,000 1855 Telegraph line connecting Istanbul and Edirne inaugurated. 1860 School for telegraph technicians opened in Istanbul. Index of labor wages Number of Patents 1840=100 1866 The Siemens brothers ,Germany develop the 1790 70 open-hearth process of steel making. years patents 1795 82 1771-1780 297 1866 First transatlantic cable for telegraph 1800 95 communication is laid. 1781-1790 512 1805 109 1810 124 1791-1800 675 1867 First railroad transportation in Turkey. Izmir- Aydin line. 1815 117 1801-1810 936 1820 110 1811-1820 1113 1867 Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. 1825 105 1821-1830 1545 1879 Thomas A.Edison invented light bulb. 1830 101 1831-1840 2713 1840 100 1841-1850 4654 1892 Rudolf Diesel patented the diesel engine. 1845 98 1851-1860 17,596 1899 Guglielmo Marconi transmitted the first 1850 110 1861-1870 22,027 wireless message. 1855 117 1871-1880 31,921 1860 115  9 Terms and names revolution A word signifying transformation and non-reversible break between an older system and a new one. Radical change in government, usually accomplished through violence, that may also result in changes to the economic system, social structure, and cultural values. The ancient Greeks viewed revolution as the undesirable result of societal breakdown; a strong value system, firmly adhered to, was thought to protect against it. With the advent of Renaissance humanism, there arose the belief that radical changes of government are sometimes necessary and good, and the idea of revolution took on more positive connotations. Besides its use in politics, the term also found uses like Agricultural Revolution ,Commercial Revolution , Cultural Revolution. coercive labor Also called peonage is a system of involuntary servitude based on the indebtedness of the laborer (the peon) to his creditor. It was prevalent in Spanish America, especially in Mexico, Guatemala, Ecuador, and Peru. The system arose because labor was needed to support the agricultural, industrial, mining, and public-works activities of the conquerors and settlers in the Americas. To force natives to work, the plantations got them into debt by giving advances on wages and by requiring the purchase of necessities from company-owned stores. As the natives fell into debt and lost their own land, they were reduced to peonage and forced to work for the same employer until his debts and the debts of his ancestors were paid, a virtual impossibility. He became virtually a serf, but without the serf's customary rights From: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101263953 Adam Smith (1723 –1790) was a Scottish political economist and moral philosopher. His most popular work “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” was one of the earliest attempts to study the historical development of industry and commerce in Europe. That work helped to create the modern academic discipline of economics and provided one of the best-known intellectual rationales for free trade and capitalism. One of the main points of The Wealth of Nations is that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called "invisible hand". If a product shortage occurs, for instance, its price rises, creating a profit margin that creates an incentive for others to enter production, eventually curing the shortage. If too many producers enter the market, the increased competition among manufacturers and increased supply would lower the price of the product to its production cost, the "natural price". Even as profits are zeroed out at the "natural price," there would be incentives to produce goods and services, as all costs of production, including compensation for the owner's labour, are also built into the price of the goods. If prices dipped below a zero profit, producers would drop out of the market; if they were above a zero profit, producers would enter the market. Smith believed that while human motives are often selfish and greedy, the competition in the free market would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. His theory, now referred to as "laissez-faire", which means "let them do", influenced government legislation in later years, especially during the 19th century. (However, it must be remembered that Smith advocated for a Government that was active in sectors other than the economy: he advocated for public education of poor adults; for institutional systems that were not profitable for private industries; for a judiciary; and for a standing army. One of his most famous and oft-quoted passages in The Wealth of Nations is: “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.” enclosure (or inclosure, which in Turkish Social sciences terminology is used as “çitleme”) is the process of subdivision of common land for individual ownership. Historically, enclosure is primarily associated with the subdivision of land in England from the 12th to 19th centuries. Sir Thomas More, in his 1516 work Utopia suggests that the practice of enclosure is responsible for some of the social problems affecting England at the time, like increase in stealing: “But I do not think that this necessity of stealing arises only from hence; there is another cause of it, more peculiar to England.' 'What is that?' said the Cardinal: 'The increase of pasture,' said I, 'by which your sheep, which are naturally mild, and easily kept in order, may be said now to devour men and unpeople, not only villages, but towns; for wherever it is found that the sheep of any soil yield a softer and richer wool than ordinary, there the nobility and gentry, and even those holy men, the abbots not contented with the old rents which their farms yielded, nor thinking it enough that they, living at their ease, do no good to the public, resolve to do it hurt instead of good. They stop the course of agriculture, destroying houses and towns, reserving only the churches, and enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them.” In the words of Karl Marx “enclosure” is “The parliamentary form of the robbery is that of Acts for enclosures of Commons, in other words, decrees by which the landlords grant themselves the people’s land as private property, decrees of expropriation of the people “Das Kapital (Capital), Vol. 1, Ch. 27  10 Luddite movements A social movement of English workers in the early 1800s who protested – often by destroying textile machines – against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution that they felt threatened their jobs. The movement – which began in 1811 – was named after a probably mythical leader, Ned Ludd. Since then, the term Luddite has been used to describe anyone opposed to technological progress and technological change. liberalism philosophy or movement that has as its aim the development of individual freedom. Because the concepts of liberty or freedom change in different historical periods the specific programs of liberalism also change. The final aim of liberalism, however, remains fixed, as does its characteristic belief not only in essential human goodness but also in human rationality. Liberalism assumes that people, having a rational intellect, have the ability to recognize problems and solve them and thus can achieve systematic improvement in the human condition. Often opposed to liberalism is the doctrine of conservatism, which, simply stated, supports the maintenance of the status quo. Liberalism, which seeks what it considers to be improvement or progress, necessarily desires to change the existing order. The first philosopher to offer a complete liberal doctrine of individual freedom was the Englishman John Locke (1689). From this period on the doctrines of classical liberalism were evolved. Classical liberalism stressed not only human rationality but the importance of individual property rights, natural rights, the need for constitutional limitations on government, and, especially, freedom of the individual from any kind of external restraint. Classical liberalism drew upon the ideals of the Enlightenment and the doctrines of liberty supported in the American and French revolutions. The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was characterized by a belief in the perfection of the natural order and a belief that natural laws should govern society. Logically it was reasoned that if the natural order produces perfection, then society should operate freely without interference from government. The writings of such men as Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill mark the height of such thinking. From: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101255286 political economy was the original term for the study of production, the acts of buying and selling, and their relationships to laws, customs and government. It developed in 18th century as the study of the economies of states (also known as polities, hence the word "political" in "political economy"). In contradistinction to the theory of the Physiocrats, in which land was seen as the source of all wealth, political economists proposed the labour theory of value (first introduced by John Locke, developed by Adam Smith and later Karl Marx), according to which labour is the real source of value. Political economists also attracted attention to the accelerating development of technology, whose role in economic and social relationships grew ever more important. In the late 19th century, the term "political economy" was generally superseded by the term economics, which was used by those seeking to place the study of economy on a mathematical and axiomatic basis, rather than studying the structural relationships within production and consumption. In the present, political economy refers to a variety of different, but related, approaches to studying economic behavior, which range from combining economics with other fields, to using different fundamental assumptions which challenge those of orthodox economics: Political economy is most commonly used to refer to interdisciplinary studies that draw on economics, law and political science in order to understand how political institutions and the political environment influence market behavior. Within political science, the term refers to modern liberal, realist, Marxian, and constructivist theories concerning the relationship between economic and political power among states. This is also of concern to students of economic history and institutional economics. From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_economy realism In literature and arts, an approach that attempts to describe life without idealization or romantic subjectivity. Realists has been chiefly concerned with the commonplaces of everyday life among the middle and lower classes, where character is a product of social factors and environment is the integral element in the dramatic complications. impressionism was a 19th century art movement that began as a loose association of Paris-based artists who began publicly exhibiting their art in the 1860s. The name of the movement is derived from Claude Monet's Impression, soleil levant. The influence of Impressionist thought spread beyond the art world, leading to Impressionist music and Impressionist literature. Characteristics of impressionist painting include visible brushstrokes, light colors, open composition, emphasis on light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, and unusual visual angles.  11 Readers Reader 1 “Abuse of child labor” Taken from Paul L. Huges and Robert Fries (1958) Readings in the Western Civilization. Littlefield, Adams and Co., pp. 195-196. Passages from testimony of a young worker to a Parliamentary Committee in, 1832 Where do you live? At Leeds Are your father and mother living? No; they are dead What time did you begin to work at a mill? When I was six years old What sort of a mill? A woolen mill What were the hours of work? We used to start at five and work till nine at night. What time had you for your dinner? Half an hour What time for breakfast and drinking? A quarter of an hour at each end of the day What wages had you? Two shillings and sixpence How were you kept up to your work during the latter part of they day? The over looker used to come with a strap and give us a rap or two, or if they caught us asleep they would give us a pinch of snuff till we sneezed; they would give us a slap with a strap if we did not mind our work Where did they strike you with it? Generally in the small of the back and over the head Did they strike the young children as well as the older ones? Yes And the females as well as the males? Yes State the effect upon your health and limbs of those long hours of labor? It produced a weakness in my knees; I was made crooked with standing the long hours. Just show the gentlemen your limbs (The witness exhibited to the committee his limbs, which appeared exceedingly crooked). How old were you when your limbs began to fail you? About eight years and a half Had you any brother or sister working at the mill?. Yes, I had two sisters and a brother. Have those long hours of labor had any effect upon the rest of your family? Yes, upon one of my sisters. Is she crippled? She is nearly as bad as I am. Were the children unhappy at the state in which they were? Yes, they were. Have you seen them crying at their work? Yes. Had you time to go to a day school or a night school during this labor? No. Can you write? No, not at all. Had you to work by gaslight? Yes. What effect do you think that has upon the eyes? It nearly made me blind; I was forced to go into the infirmary and the doctors said they did not expect they could cure me. What do you do now? I sell potatoes. Reader 2 Social Aspects of the English Industrial Revolution Statements of witnesses before the Ashley Mines Investigation Commission. Parliamentary Papers, 1842 I am Sarah Gooder, I am 8 years old. I'm a coal carrier in the Gawber Mine. It does not tire me, but I have to trap without a light and I'm scared. I go at four and sometimes half past three in the morning, and come out at five and half past in the evening. I never go to sleep. Sometimes I sing when I've light, but not in the dark; I dare not sing then. I don't like being in the pit. I am very sleepy when I go in the morning. I go to Sunday-school and learn to read. They teach me to pray. I have heard tell of Jesus many a time. I don't know why he came on earth, I don't know why he died, but he had stones for his head to rest on. I am Isabella Read, 12 years old, coal-bearer. I am brought with sister and brother; it is very sore work; cannot say how many rakes or journeys I make from the pit's bottom to wall face and back. I carry out about one hundred and thirty pounds of coal on my back, but have to stoop so much and creep through water, which is up to the calves of my legs. I do not like the work, nor do the other girls, but they are made to like it. I am Mary Barrett, I am 14 years old. I have worked down in the pit five years. Father is working next pit. I have 12 brothers and sisters--all of them but one live at home. They weave, and wind, and hurry, and one is a counter. One of them can read; none of the rest can read or write. They never went to day- school, but three of them go to Sunday-school. I carry for my brother John, and come down at seven o'clock. I go up at six, sometimes seven. I do not like working in the pit, but I am obliged to get a living. I work always  12 without stockings, or shoes, or trousers. I wear nothing but may underwear. I have to go up to the headings with the men. They are all naked there; I am got well used to that, and don't care now much about it. I was afraid at first, and did not like it. I am Patience Kershaw, I am 17 years old. My father has been dead about a year. My mother is living and has ten children, five lads and five lassies; the oldest is thirty, the youngest is four. All my sisters have been coal carriers but three went to the mill. Alice went because her legs swelled from carrying in cold water. I never went to school. I go to Sunday-school, but cannot read or write. I go to the pit at five o'clock in the morning and come out at five in the evening. I get my breakfast of porridge and milk first. I take my dinner with me, a loaf, and eat it as I go. I do not stop or rest any time for that purpose. I get nothing else until I get home, and then have potatoes and meat, not meat every day, though. The bald place upon my head is made by pushing the coal cart. I push the cart a mile and more under ground and back; they weigh over three hundred pounds; I push 11 a day. I wear a belt and chain at the workings to get the cart out. The men that I carry for are naked except their caps. They pull off all their clothes. I see them at work when I go up. Sometimes they beat me, if I am not quick enough, with their hands. They strike me upon my back. The boys take liberties with me; sometimes they pull me about. I am the only girl in the pit. They are about 20 boys and 15 men. All the men are naked. Reader 3 Friederich Engels :Industrial Manchester, 1844 Source and introduction from : http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1844engels.html Manchester, in South-east Lancashire rapidly rose from obscurity to become the premier center of cotton manufacture in England. This was largely due to geography. Its famously damp climate was better for cotton manufacture than the drier climate of the older eastern English cloth manufacture centers. It was close to the Atlantic port of Liverpoll (and was eventually connect by one of the earliest rail tracks, as well as an Ocean ship capable canal - although thirty miles inland, it was long a major port). It was also close to power sources - first the water power of the Pennine mountain chain, and later the coal mines of central Lancashire. As a result, Manchester became perhaps the first modern industrial city. Friedrich Engels' father was a German manufacturer and Engels worked as his agent in his father's Manchester factory. As a result he combined both real experience of the city, with a strong social conscience. The result was his The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844. The town itself is peculiarly built, so that a person may live in it for years, and go in and out daily without coming into contact with a working-people's quarter or even with workers, that is, so long as he confines himself to his business or to pleasure walks. This arises chiefly from the fact, that by unconscious tacit agreement, as well as with outspoken conscious determination, the working people's quarters are sharply separated from the sections of the city reserved for the middle-class;... …… Manchester, whose former inhabitants have removed with their descendants into better built districts, and have left the houses, which were not good enough for them, to a population strongly mixed with Irish blood. Here one is in an almost undisguised working-men's quarter, for even the shops and beer houses hardly take the trouble to exhibit a trifling degree of cleanliness. But all this is nothing in comparison with the courts and lanes which lie behind, to which access can be gained only through covered passages, in which no two human beings can pass at the same time. Of the irregular cramming together of dwellings in ways which defy all rational plan, of the tangle in which they are crowded literally one upon the other, it is impossible to convey an idea. And it is not the buildings surviving from the old times of Manchester which are to blame for this; the confusion has only recently reached its height when every scrap of space left by the old way of building has been filled up and patched over until not a foot of land is left to be further occupied. …… Right and left a multitude of covered passages lead from the main street into numerous courts, and he who turns in thither gets into a filth and disgusting grime, the equal of which is not to be found - especially in the courts which lead down to the Irk, and which contain unqualifiedly the most horrible dwellings which I have yet beheld. In one of these courts there stands directly at the entrance, at the end of the covered passage, a privy without a door, so dirty that the inhabitants can pass into and out of the court only by passing through foul pools of stagnant urine and excrement. …… Below it on the river there are several tanneries which fill the whole neighborhood with the stench of animal putrefaction. Below Ducie Bridge the only entrance to most of the houses is by means of narrow, dirty stairs and over heaps of refuse and filth. …… the passer-by sees several ruined walls and heaps of debris with some newer houses. The view from this bridge, mercifully concealed from mortals of small stature by a parapet as high as a man, is characteristic for the whole district. At the bottom flows, or rather stagnates, the Irk, a narrow, coal-black, foul-smelling stream, full of debris and refuse, which it deposits on the shallower right bank. ……  13 Such is the Old Town of Manchester, and on re-reading my description, I am forced to admit that instead of being exaggerated, it is far from black enough to convey a true impression of the filth, ruin, and uninhabitableness, the defiance of all considerations of cleanliness, ventilation, and health which characterize the construction of this single district, containing at least twenty to thirty thousand inhabitants. And such a district exists in the heart of the second city of England, the first manufacturing city of the world. If any one wishes to see in how little space a human being can move, how little air - and such air! - he can breathe, how little of civilization he may share and yet live, it is only necessary to travel hither. True, this is the Old Town, and the people of Manchester emphasize the fact whenever any one mentions to them the frightful condition of this Hell upon Earth; but what does that prove? Everything which here arouses horror and indignation is of recent origin, belongs to the industrial epoch. From Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844 (London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1892), pp. 45, 48-53. Reader 4 An Ottoman manager Taken from:"By an American" (J.E de Kay)(1833) Sketches of Turkey in 1831 and 1832, Harper Fine writing-paper was formerly fabricated at this place, but when we visited it they were engaged in manufacturing merely cartridge-paper for the use of the troops. The process appeared to be very rude; the materials are cotton and hemp, and from the specimens we saw, little judgment seems to be exercised in their selection. In the court in front of the building sat the director of the establishment, complacently smoking his pipe under the cool shade of a tree and evidently too magnificent and dignified a personage to attend to the details of the concern. These very great men, of whom there is always one, and sometimes more, attached to every public establishment in Turkey are a serious evil. Entirely unacquainted with the business over which they are appointed to preside, they do harm whenever they attempt to intermeddle; but this fortunately is of rare occurrence. In any case, however, they cat the bread of idleness, and consumer great part of the profits of the establishment. We were introduced to the director, and invited to partake of coffee and a pipe. To his inquiries whether we made paper in America, we replied by showing him a small piece which accidentally happened to be about us. He surveyed it in all directions, touched it with his tongue, held it up to the light, and finished by exclaiming, "Mashallah! we never shall make as good paper as this in Turkey". Putting this down to the score of national politeness, we inquired in turn some particulars respecting the manufactory under his charge. He informed us that twenty workmen were usually employed, and that they could turn out about eight reams per day. He also stated that there were several other paper-factories about. Constantinople, but could give no positive information as to their precise locality. Repeated inquiries were subsequently made of various individuals, but we never could ascertain whether they really existed except in the brain of our informant. The difficulty of procuring statistical details in Turkey is proverbial. From the Franks, one can obtain no information to be relied upon; the rajahs are either unable or unwilling to communicate; and the Turks, independent of the difficulties of the language, seem to regard such inquiries as idle and frivolous. Reader 5 Ottoman state bureaucracy Taken from: Charles Issawi (1980) The Economic History of Turkey: 1800- 1914, The University of Chicago Press, pp. 311-312. SELECTION 14, COMPLAINTS OF COTTON GINNERS, 1868TE, Box 105 The Asia Minor Cotton Company Limited 9 Orange Court Liverpool, 15 September 1868 To the Cotton Supply Association ,Manchester, Having a considerable stake in Turkey & having at the outset of the American War invested large sums for the purpose of developing the cotton growing resources of that country, we have read with special interest the portion of the report just issued by the Cotton Supply Association referring to that country, & we can cordially reciprocate the regret expressed of the "Ottoman Empire not having made such progress as a cotton growing country as there seemed reason to anticipate" (5:14). We must however join issue with the Association as to the causes which have produced this disheartening result, & instead of attributing the failure to the apathy and want of perseverance on the part of the people, we would throw the whole blame upon the Imperial Government, the sincerity of whose earnestness our experience gives us every right to question; the Central authority is sufficiently powerful in the provinces where cotton is grown to make its ordinances respected, it is therefore undignified to throw the blame upon the local officials. When the American War broke out no country was so well prepared to take advantage of the circumstances. In all the centres of trade there was a body of merchants both foreign and native with influential European connections ready and willing to invest capital to assist cultivators and to introduce machinery into the country.  14 On the faith of the great promises of special protection from the Government many merchants invested largely in various undertakings, & of such the Asia Minor Cotton Company was the most extensive & what has been our experience for the past 5 years? Instead of being allowed free scope legitimately to employ our energies and capital we find petty impediments placed in our way on every side. Once the Government offered encouragement to the introduction of cotton cleaning machinery by the remission of the import duty, we could not anticipate difficulties would be placed in our way of its erection but in many instances after we had got our machinery up the country, we were stopped putting it up for want of authority from Constantinople, much time was lost in consequence. When these obstacles had been overcome and our machinery in motion other impediments constantly crop up, one season a tax collector insists upon levying double weighing tax upon cotton brought to our factories, is supported by the local authorities, seizes our books and thrusts our manager into prison; twelve months' time and about 400 is expended in removing the attempted impositions. In two of the districts (Kirkaach & Serres) where we have ginning establishments, lignite coal found in the neighbourhood, has been used for fuel and no other fuel is procurable it was lying unknown & never used until our factories were established at Kirkaach; when we first opened the factory a charge per quintal was fixed by the local authorities and paid by us without demur for three years, But last year it was notified this tax would be increased fivefold equivalent to 20/- per ton, nearly the price of Newcastle coal delivered in Smyrna. At Serres until the spring of this year we have been using the coal with the knowledge and consent of the government, paying the owner of the soil a very handsome price; all at once when our factory is full of unpinned cotton the government stops the supply, & our operations for the remainder of the season are at an end: not only do we lose our trade in consequence but we also have to pay an indemnity to the owners of the unpinned cotton for not carrying out our engagements. …. We have for the past four months been applying for authority to supply ourselves with these coals under the usual regulations, but little progress has yet been made; should this not be granted in time (with a large prospective cotton crop) our factories will remain standing for the next season. If the Ottoman Government are really sincere in their desire to encourage & give facilities to those engaged in enterprises connected with cotton, one edict from Constantinople embodying strongly such sentiments couched in unmistakable language could put an end to these petty annoyances on the part of local officials which tend so much to dishearten & discourage further effort. Nathal Buckley,Chairman Reader 6 Foreigners in Turkish manufactures Taken from:"By an American" (J.E de Kay)(1833) Sketches of Turkey in 1831 and 1832, Harper With regard to the introduction of foreigners into his manufacturing establishments, the sultan appears to act upon a wrong principle, if he wishes, which he undoubtedly does, to instruct his subjects in the various processes requiring scientific or manual skill. He should hold out inducements to foreigners to instruct a certain number of his subjects; and it would materially advance his views if, instead of giving them salaries which undergo no change, he should bestow an additional recompense in proportion to the quantity of goods manufactured. In consequence of not having adopted some plan like this, the parties have been mutually dissatisfied with each other. Many useful projects have fallen to the ground, and even when the contract is rigidly observed, no beneficial result has accrued to the empire. As an instance in point, I may mention the case of another foreigner, a Mr. Kellie, who manages the two steamboats in the service of the sultan. He has been nearly five years in Turkey, and yet when I left Constantinople, there was not in the whole empire a single Turk who was competent to start or to stop a steam-engine. His salary is sufficiently large, no extra exertions are required, and of course it would be perhaps too much to expect of him to give such instruction as would at some future day enable the Turks to dispense with his services. This case is alluded to as illustrating the defects of the system, and has no reference to the merits of the individual in question. A part of this large building is to be used as a woollen manufactory. We understood that it was intended to fabricate coarse cloths for the use of the army; several German workmen are already employed, and many others are daily expected from France. The reader will in these slight notices distinctly perceive that nearly all the modern improvements introduced into Turkey have sole and exclusive reference to the military establishment. In a government like that of Turkey, which is supported by the sword, and borders upon a nation which is only watching a favourable moment to dismember the empire, she must of necessity be continually on her guard, and maintain necessarily a warlike attitude; and although these ameliorations have no immediate reference to the condition or the wants of the people, yet in the end they cannot fail to be extensively benefited.  15 Reader 7 England's manufactures and the turkish peasant Taken from David Urquhart (1833) Turkey and Its Resources, Saunders and Otley It is not in looking on the miracles of machinery, or the accumulation of wealth at home, that a just idea can be formed of the greatness of England, or of the influence she exercises on the fate of millions of men with whom she has no visible connection. Take some remote village of Turkey, and trace there the effects of England's machinery. This village grows corn and tobacco and cotton; it has vines and flocks; it has enough of the necessaries of life for subsistence, and cotton, and wool, and hides, for clothing; and grows no more except the portion required by government, which, if the population is Turkish, is very small. This village, then, employs one half, say, of its labour in agriculture, and one half in manufacturing its cotton into cloths, its wall into carpets, its hides into zarouchia, while fields lie uncultivated around it. It is removed from the road, not to be subject to the passage of troops, and so placed as to be hidden from the observation of travelers. Its inhabitants have no inducement to accumulate wealth, or to gain information; they are led to form no new desires, to feel no wants by intercourse or traffic with the surrounding country, because they find weaving their own cotton cheaper and less laborious than raising an additional supply of corn to exchange for the cotton cloth of their neighbours, who have no better machinery or greater expertness than themselves. But reduce prices so as to make it their interest to purchase--present the goods and the means of exchange, the whole scene instantly changes; communications are opened, connections established, desires created, energies raised, and progress commences. Commerce naturally, in every case, has this effect, but how important is that effect, where the objects of it are the clothing of the mass of the nation? The manufacture of cotton is the principal in-door occupation of the greater portion of the East--of above sixty millions of men, with whom our future commerce will probably be carried on through the scales of the Levant--of men who are applying their labour to manufacture the cotton, and wool, and silk, that clothe them, while their fields lie uncultivated--under a climate producing all those articles which at present give the highest remuneration for labour. Throughout these vast and varied regions, these resources have lain dormant, as in the Turkish village; because hitherto the first object of necessity was not furnished to them cheap enough to induce them to forego its manufacture, and turn their attention to cultivation. How important, then, is it to establish the fact, that our cottons are at a sufficiently low price to induce them to forego to home manufacture! It is superfluous to follow out the vast consequences thence to be deduced; but it may not be uninstructive to remark, that perhaps a few pence diminution of price and charges in a pound sterling, may open or close the door of the market of a village, and for the same reason of a quarter of the globe, to our manufactures. The village which was insulated before, now seeks to connect itself with the lines of communication with the principal marts; cultivation extends, wealth accumulates, instruction follows, desire for new objects increases, produce is raised, England's looms have called this prosperity into existence, but she herself imposes restrictions on the only return the Turkish peasant can make, and therefore cripples his ability to purchase. From the year 1827 to 1830, our exports have increased from 531,704 to 1,139,616 ;* but there is no corresponding increase in our returns. Reader 8 "Amerikan Bezi" Taken from:"By an American" (J.E de Kay)(1833) Sketches of Turkey in 1831 and 1832, Harper Sunday. A Jew peddler is shouting under my window, with a villainous nasal twang, and in a mongrel Turko-Hispano dialect, "Amelikani pagno," or American cotton. The reputation of our domestic manufactures, I was aware, had extended over our own vast southern continent; but I was not prepared to find that it had penetrated the regions of the grand seignior. They are in great request here; but it was difficult to ascertain the quantity annually consumed. The article termed sheetings usually sells at ten cents per yard, all charges paid. Our chief trade with Turkey consists in what are termed colonial produce; to wit, sugar, coffee, and run; but there is great room for the introduction of our home manufactures. Cheap furniture of all kinds, such as are shipped to South America, would find a ready sale here; cut-nails would also, after a certain period, be a valuable article of commerce. The credit of our cotton stuffs is much impaired by the immense quantities of a counterfeit article with which the English manufacturers have deluged the market; they are put up precisely like our own, and bear the stamp of some well-known American establishment. Our imports are opium and other drugs, raw and manufactured silks, and latterly considerable quantities of wool. The amount of opium annually raised in Turkey is estimated at 252,000 lbs.; of this, 1500 cases or bags of 140 lbs. each are purchased by government, and about 300 bags more are smuggled. It is unfortunate for the true interests of Turkey that her silk is also a government monopoly, which, of course, renders it a precarious article of commerce.* The quantity annually taken off by us we have no means of ascertaining, but we learn that it is upon the increase. Wool is becoming an article of great importance; and when more attention is paid to the sorting and cleaning, the demand will doubtless increase. Shipments of this article have become very extensive to the United States within the present year. The port of Constantinople is exceedingly safe for shipping, and the charges are very low, not exceeding forty or fifty dollars for a vessel of 200 tons. The greatest draw back upon its trade is caused by the delays incident to passing the Hellespont and Bosphorus: these might be obviated by a line of tug steamboats, managed by individuals or the government.  16 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION How the alterations in the rural areas of England might help the start of the industrial revolution. Why the enlarging of the market becomes inevitable with the industrial revolution. Why industrial revolution also provoked the revolutionizing of transports and communications. Why countries which pass their industrial revolutions at a later time become more advantageous. Why Liberalism become the dominant economic doctrine in the early phases of the industrial revolution. How you can explain the laborers conditions when you look at the index of average labor wages in England. May it help us to explain the rise of labor organizations after 1810. What kind of a correlation may exist with the number of patent obtained in England (Table) and the pace of Industrial Revolution during the 19th century. When you look at Readers 1, 2, and 3 you have a lively image of the conditions of child workers and of the working peoples living conditions in general. What kind of social and psychological alterations you might expect as a result of such working conditions. a. How can you relate this with the expansion and dominion of English goods in the world market? b. How these conditions might justify the earlier Luddite and later organized labor movements of the 19th century. In the reader “An Ottoman Manager” do you observe certain similarities with today’s administration of state enterprises? In “Ottoman State Bureaucracy” reader how the content of the letter reflects the disorganization and the lack of confidence of the Ottoman Bureaucracy? In the reader “Foreigners in Turkish manufactures” a. Why according to the author, employment of foreigners is not useful to Turkey? b. Why, the first attempts to industrialize in Turkey was operated by the state and for army needs? Referring to the reading titled “England’s manufactures and the Turkish peasant”: a. What would be the impacts of the industrial revolution on the economic life of the Turkish peasant according to the author. b. In what sense the author criticizes the trade policy of England. Refer to the reader “Amerikan Bezi” : a. Why “Amerikan Bezi” might have an appeal for the Turkish consumer? b. Why the author complains about the England’s competition? How this competition might effect the local Turkish manufactures?