General Psychology Chapter 1 Slides PDF

Course Title: General Psychology Course Code: Psych 1011 Cr. Hr: 3(5 ECTS) Target Group: All 1st Year Students Instructor’s Name: Gezahegne Beyene (Assistant Professor) II. Course Description  This introductory course will provide students with an overview of the current body of know...

Course Title: General Psychology Course Code: Psych 1011 Cr. Hr: 3(5 ECTS) Target Group: All 1st Year Students Instructor’s Name: Gezahegne Beyene (Assistant Professor) II. Course Description  This introductory course will provide students with an overview of the current body of knowledge and the science of psychology.  This course examines the role of environmental factors and the interaction of nature and nurture in determining behaviors and mental processes. III. Course Rationale  The course General Psychology encompasses the fundamental concepts and principles of psychology which have immense application to human life problems.  Hence, this course is intended to introduce students to the basic concepts of psychology and acquaint them with how to apply psychological knowledge, principles, and theories to real life situation and problems. IV. Learning Outcomes Up on the completion of this Course, students will be able to:  Describe basic psychological concepts.  Compare and contrast the major theoretical perspectives in psychology.  Discuss about sensation and perception  Compare and contrast different learning theories  Summarize motivational and emotional processes  Discuss about basic notion of personality.  V. Course Content Chapter One: Essence of Psychology  Definition of Basic Concepts  Goals of Psychology  HistoricalBackground and major perspective in Psychology  Branches of Psychology  Research Methods in Psychology Chapter Two: Sensation and Perception o The meaning of sensation and perception o The sensory laws: o Sensory threshold and sensory adaptation o Perception o Selectivity of perception: Attention o Form perception o Depth perception Chapter Three: Learning o Definition, Principles and Characteristics of Learning  Definition of Learning  Principles of Learning  Characteristics of Learning  Factors Influencing Learning  Theories of Learning and their Applications  Behavioral Theory of Learning  Social Learning Theory  Cognitive Learning Theory Chapter Four: Memory and Forgetting  Memory  Meaning and Process Of Memory  Stages of Memory  Factors Affecting Memory  Forgetting  Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting  Theories of Forgetting  Improving Memory Chapter Five: Motivation and Emotion  Motivation  Definition and Types of Motivation  Theories of Motivation and their Applications  Conflict of Motives and Frustration  Emotion  Definition of Emotion  Components of Emotion  Theories of Emotion and their Applications Chapter Six: Personality o Meaning of Personality o Theories of Personality A. Psychoanalytic Theory B. Trait Theory C. Humanistic Theory Chapter Seven: Psychological Disorders and Treatment Techniques o Nature of Psychological Disorders o Causes of Psychological Disorders A. Biological Perspective B. Psychological Perspective o Types of Psychological Disorders o Treatment Techniques  Chapter Eight: Introduction to Life Skills o Definition and Nature of Life Skills o Components of Life Skills o Goals of Life Skills  Chapter 1. Essence of Psychology Chapter One: Essence of Psychology 1.1. Definition  Origin: Two Greek words  Psyche which represents, Spirit, Soul , Mind  logos refers to Study, Knowledge or Science Scientific Definition states that  The scientific study of Human behavior and mental processes Key words in the definition Science  is a collection of data or information  Psychology does not rely on common sense or speculation  Scientific Characteristics  is systematic  is based on research and Experiment  is based on careful observation  has developed its own theories/ Principles  employs scientific techniques to study behavior  Is objective Behavior  an activity of an organism  1.2. Goals of Psychology A. Description of Behavior  Every behaviour has its own way of occurring  In describing behaviour, a psychologist focuses on how, when and under what conditions a behaviour occurs. Examples:  How does an angry person behaves?  How do two people who are in love interact B. Explanation  In explanation of behaviour, a psychologist becomes concerned about why behaviour occurs as it does  Every behaviour has its own causes. No behaviour occurs without a cause. Examples:  why do people go to colleges/ universities?  why do people marry? C. Prediction  what will happen in the future of the Behavior  involvesforecasting the likelihood of a behaviour under certain circumstances.  Predictionof behaviours is possible through the use of  D. Control ( Modification)  How can it be changed? Control or modify or change the behavior from undesirable one (such as failing in school) to a desirable one (such as academic success)  involves changing a behaviour which is anti social or unacceptable in to social or acceptable.  In psychology, there are psychological techniques to help an individual avoid a maladaptive behaviour. 1.3. History and Major Perspectives in Psychology  Psychology has a short history as a science and began as independent science in 1879 in Germany by Wilhelm Wundt who is considered as the founder or father of Modern Psychology.  With the use of scientific methods, different schools of thought developed  Psychology as a science is embedded 1.3.1. Early Schools of Psychology  School of psychology or thought refer to a system or way of thinking about a phenomenon.  A set of ideas or opinions that a group of people share among themselves  There are five major early schools of thought A. Structuralism  views psychology as the study of structures of the mind and is founded by Wilhelm wundt and expanded his student Titchener(1867-1927).  The goal of structuralism is to find out the units or elements of the mind ( what constitutes the mind) such as sensations, feelings, thinking, perception and images which are considered as the building blocks of the mind.  The best known method of studying this elements is known as introspection:- looking inward in to our consciousness B. Functionalism  Views psychology as the study of the functions of the mind and was founded on the work of William James (1848- 1910).  W. James was the first American Psychologist and author of the first psychology book.  Focused on how the mind allows people to function in the real world; how people work, play, and the role of mind in helping people adapt to their environment. (Ex; fear and how it helps deal with emergency situations)  Believed that psychological processes are adaptive and allow humans to survive  In addition to introspection, he used tests and questionnaires and objective descriptions. c. Gestalt Psychology  The German word "gestalt" refers to form, whole, configuration or pattern.  Was founded by Max Wertheimer and his colleagues in Germany.  Emerged as a response to structuralism and functionalism and believed that the mind is not made up of combinations of elements.  They viewed the mind as greater than and different from its parts and that the mind must be seen as a result of the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationship and organization within their pattern.  Our perception (or understanding) of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our perceptions  They held that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. " Means mind is greater than its parts (images, sensations, and feelings).  Generally what is common to all the three schools of though is the fact that they all try to examine the human mind (conscious mind); which is an internal, no-visible, and hidden experience of human beings. D. Behaviorism  Is founded by J.B. Watson and his colleagues  Assumes that the mind is an internal , non visible and hidden experience and is very subjective and can not be the object of scientific study.  Believes that psychology is the study of observable and measurable behavior which is learned. E. Psychoanalyses  was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939)  Believes that psychology must be the study of the unconscious forces of the mind which explains human functioning.  based on his medical background , he believed that some physical illnesses did not have medical or bodily causes.  Such illnesses are caused by non  Such cause remain hidden or unconscious and affect behavior  The unconscious consists of hidden wishes, passions, hidden secrets, conflict between desire and duty which are not available to the conscious mind.  These hidden experience make themselves known in dreams , slip of the tongue, jokes and accidents which are indications of what a person is truly feeling  Hypnoses and dream analyses are used as a method. 1.3.2. Modern Schools of Psychology A. The Psychodynamic Perspective  It has its origin in Freud’s theory of psychoanalyses  This approaches emphasizes the  The influence of the unconscious mind on behavior  The role of childhood experiences on adult behavior  The role of intrapersonal conflict in behavior B. Behavioral Perspective  emphasizes the role learning experience play in shaping the behavior of an organism.  It is concerned with how the environment affects the person‘s actions.  is sometimes called the "black box" approach in psychology because it treats the mind as less useful in understanding human behavior.  The approach believes the field should focus on observable behavior that can be measured objectively. C. Humanistic Perspective  Emphasizes on the uniqueness of human beings.  Suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior.  Humanistic psychologists maintain that each of us has the capacity to seek and reach fulfillment.  The goal of humanistic psychology was helping people to express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential or self- actualization (developing the human potential to its fullest D. Cognitive Perspective  Is Concerned about mental processes and how people remember, reason, solve problems, explain experiences affects their actions.  In this view, thinking is information processing and is compared with a computer  focuses on how people's thoughts and explanations affect their actions, feelings, and choices. E. Biological Perspective  Focuses on studying how bodily events or functioning of the body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts  This perspective underscores that biology and behavior interact in a complex way; biology affecting behavior and behavior in turn affecting biology F. Socio Cultural Perspectives  It focuses on the social and cultural factors that affects human behavior.  As a fish cannot leave without water, human behavior cannot be understood without sociocultural context (the social and cultural environment) that people "Swim" in every day.  For instance, social psychologists examine how group membership affects attitudes and behaviors, why authority and other people affect each of us.  Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural rules and values affect people's development, behavior, and feelings. This perspective holds that humans are both the products and the producers of culture,  1.4. Branches (Subfields) in Psychology  Psychology is a broad field, there are many specialization under its umbrella A. Developmental Psychology  Studies how people develop overtime thorough the process of maturation and learning.  studies age related changes through the life span  Aspects of Development( Physical, Cognitive, Social, etc)  Stages of Development( Infancy, Babyhood, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age) B. Counselling Psychology  deals with providing counselling service to people who are troubled by a problem in their life.  assists people on issues of personal adjustment, vocational and career planning, family life and may work in schools, hospitals, clinics or offices  having the same concern as clinical psychology but helps individuals with less severe problems than those treated by clinical psychologists. C. Clinical Psychology  is a field that applies psychological principles to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. D. Educational Psychology  deals with the general process of education in general. It tries to make use of psychological knowledge in improving the teaching learning process including curriculum, teaching, and administration of academic programs  Learning is a central focal area E. Industrial( Organizational) Psychology  Studies human behaviour in the workplace and how behaviour affects production  applies psychological principles in industries and organizations to increase the productivity of that organization. F. Social Psychology  deals with people‘s social interactions, relationships, social perception, and attitudes.  Itstudies the role of social forces in governing individual behaviour.  Examines the ways in which the pattern of a person’s feeling, thinking and acting is affected by others G. Cross Cultural Psychology  Studies the ways in which context and culture affects behavior, thought and emotion. It is interested in determining whether or not psychological processes are universal or culture specific  The study of variability and invariance under different cultural conditions EX: Individualism Vs collectivism Eye contact in Europe Vs native American H. Forensic Psychology  Is a branch of psychology that applies principle in the legal system. It is concerned with the study of such issues as o Is someone emotionally and mentally capable to stand trial? o How should a minor’s testimony be handled in court? I. Health Psychology  Is the study of psychological factors that cause physical disease. It is concerned with exploring the ways in which behavior affects health. J. Personality Psychology  Studies the ways in which people develop a characteristic that makes them unique  studies individual differences in personality and their effects on behaviour. 1.5. Research Methods in Psychology Definition of terms Scientific method - a process of testing ideas through systematic observations, experimentations, and statistical analysis. Theory - is an integrated set of principles about observed facts that is intended to describe and explain some aspects of experience. Hypotheses - is a tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more variables or phenomena. E.g. Males have high self - confidence in making decisions than females. B. Major types of research methods  The research method that psychologists use to study human behaviour can be classified in to several categories based on the nature and purpose of the research.  The major classifications include:- Descriptive, Correlational and Experimental  1.4.1. Descriptive Methods  Involves the systematic recording of an observation of an event A. Naturalistic Observation  is a descriptive research method in which subjects are observed in their natural environment to get a real (not artificial) picture of how behavior occurs. Limitation  Observer effect and observer bias are major limitations of this method  hard to notice  Time consuming Instrument/tool Observation checklist B. The Survey Method  Survey: is used to collect data from a very large group of people. It is useful to get information on private (covert) behaviors and it addresses hundreds of people with the same questions at the same time  Interviews or questionnaires are utilized to collect data Is useful to collect data from a large group of people  Its disadvantage is that it needs a careful selection of a representative sample of the actual population.  Limitation  May cost much  Exposed to Deception C Case Study.  is a descriptive technique in which an individual is studied in great detail. Examples  why Abebe hates Geography Advantage  advantage is that it provides tremendous amount of data about a single case or individual. Disadvantage  less Generalization  Researcher bias  Demands time 1.4.2. Correlational Research  Involves studying the relationship between two variables without manipulating any conditions  correlation tells researchers if there is a  relationship between variables,  how strong the relationship is,  and in what direction the relationship goes, However  it doesn‘t prove causation (it doesn‘t show the cause and effect relationship). Ex: Interest and Academic achievement Smoking and Lung cancer  Cause and effect relationship is not determined since variables are not manipulated 1.4.3. Experimental Method  is used when a researcher wants to determine cause and effect relationships between events or variables  Variables  Variables in the experimental method are attributes or characteristics of a situation, person or a phenomenon which may differ or fluctuate across situations, persons or phenomena 1. Independent Variable  Is a variable that produces effects on the other variable  is the manipulated, influential, experimental factor 2. Dependent variable  Is a variable that is affected by the independent variable  the variable to be studied (behavior)  Groups in the Experimental Group 1. The experimental Group  is the group to which the experimental treatment or independent variable is given  Cont… 2. The control ( comparison ) Group  The group which is formed for comparison purpose and receive no treatment  A control group is a comparison that is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor  Although experimental research is useful to discover causes of behaviors, such research must be done cautiously because expectations and biases on the part of both the researcher and participants can affect the results. Limitation  subject bias (placebo effect)  Experimenter bias C. Steps of scientific research  Step one - Defining the Problem - noticing something attention catching in the surrounding for which one would like to have an explanation.  Step two - Formulating the Hypothesis - after having an observation on surroundings (perceiving the problem), you might form an educated guess about the explanation for your observations, putting it into the form of a statement that can be tested in some way.  Cont…  Step three - Testing the Hypothesis - at this step, the researcher employs appropriate research methods and collects ample data (information) to accept or reject the proposed statement.  Step four - Drawing Conclusions - this is the step in which the researcher attempts to make generalizations or draw implications from tested relationship  Step five - Reporting Results - at this point, the researcher would want to write up exactly what you did, why you did, and what you found. So that, others can learn from what she/he has already accomplished, or failed to accomplish.  Chapter 2: Sensation and Perception 2.1. Sensation  Definition  Sensation is the process whereby stimulation of receptor cells in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and surface of the skin sends nerve impulses to the brain.  The starting of point of sensations is a stimulus.  stimulus is a form of energy (such as light waves or sound waves) that can affect sensory organs (such as the eye How different is sensation from perception?  Perception is the process that organizes sensations into meaningful patterns.  It is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving them order and meaning.  Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is largely a sensory process, but forming a melody and detecting patterns and shapes is largely a perceptual process.  Transduction  It is a process of converting incoming energy into neural activity.  Just as a radio receives energy and changes it in to sounds, the ears receives sound energy and convert it into neural activity that people recognize as voices, music and other auditory experiences.  The sensory Law: Sensory thresholds and sensory adaption  Sensory thresholds A. Absolute Threshold  The minimum amount of stimulation a person can detect  The smallest intensity of a stimulus to be detected  The lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50 percent of the time. E.G A cup of coffee would require a certain amount of sugar before one could sense an increase in sweetness  Detectionof a stimulus depends not only on the intensity of a stimulus but also such psychological factors like response bias.  Response bias is the readiness of a person to detect and report the presence of a particular stimulus. Ex: You are more likely to detect a sound in a dangerous neighborhood walking at night than a neighborhood which you think is safe | Difference Threshold (Just noticeable difference)  The minimum amount of change that can be detected  The minimum change in stimulation  Ex. When the moon is seen in the late afternoon, it appears relatively dim. When it is seen in the dark , it seems quite bright  B. Sensory Adaptation ( Habituation)  Sensory adaptation lets you detect potentially important change in your environment while ignoring unchanging aspects of it.  For example, when vibrations repeatedly stimulate your skin, you stop noticing them.  A process through which responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus decreases overtime.  Is an automatic built-in process that make people focus on changes than constants and the obvious.  C. Sensory Deprivation and Sensory Overload  Human brain requires a minimum amount of sensory stimulation in order to function normally.  why people who live alone often keep the radio or television set running continuously and  why prolonged solitary confinement is used as a form of punishment or even torture ?  too little stimulation (sensory deprivation) can be bad for you and  so can too much stimulation (sensory overload) as it can lead to fatigue and mental confusion, are inconvenient. 2.2. Perception  Is the process through which sensations are interpreted using knowledge and understanding of the world so that they become meaningful experiences.  Is the process of making meaning out of sensation.  The moment we sense, we automatically perceive  Hearing sounds and seeing are largely sensory processes but forming a melody is a perceptual process as in the picture below.  Basic Features of Perception 1. Selectivity of perception ( Attention) So Perception is selective  Perception usually occurs in selective attention. Our surrounding holds a lot of information that seek our attention.  Unless we are able to filter out these information and focus on those which are important to us, 3. Movement  Stimuli that make movement grab our attention much more than a stable, stationary and non moving stimuli 4. Repetition  Repetition of a stimulus involves the frequency of a stimulus. Whether or not we are attracted to a stimulus is also determined by the number of times the stimulus  External Factors that Affect Attention (Stimulus factor ) 1. Intensity  Intensity or magnitude refers to the degree or the force with which a stimulus is presented.  Stimuli that occur in high intensity capture our attention. E.G colour ( bright or dull colour), Volume (High or low) 2. size  The bigger the size the better it get attention 3. Novelty  A novel stimulus (a stimulus that is different or unusual) attracts people attention than an ordinary stimulus. E.G If you are walking on a street, you would be more fascinated by a new model car ( a hammer, for example) passing by than a Vitz Car. 5. Contrast (colour)  Stimuli that are different in colour attract our attention.  When a stimulus deviates in its appearance from other surrounding stimuli, it captures our attention.  Internal( Psychological ) Factors that affect Attention 1.Motivation (motive or need) What we choose to hear o see is determined largely by your need or current level of satisfaction or deprivation. 2. Emotion feelings affects our perception as well 3. personality and interest Characteristic and interest also affects our perception 4. Set or expectancy  2. Perception has organization and structure  Everythingwe perceive has its own structure and form. To make sense out of what we perceive, we must know where one thing begins and another ends  Thisprocess of dividing up the world occurs effortlessly (naturally) and makes our perception more meaningful (Form Perception)  Form Perception  Principles (laws) of perceptual organization  The brain uses structures in order to give pattern, shape and form to our visual perception.  It is based on these principles that perceptual organization becomes possible.  1. The figure ground Principle  This is a principle by which we organize the perceptual field in to stimuli that stand out (the figure) and those that are left over ( the ground).  This principle states that certain aspects of our visual world become figure and others ground o The figure  Has its own shape and substance  Takes up a space  Stands out as compared with the ground  The thing being looked at o The ground  Has no shape and does not take up space  Refers to the surrounding space  The background against the figure stands This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY 2. The principle of Closure  This is a principle that states the brain tends to fill in gaps in order to perceive complete forms.  People need to decipher less than perfect images to make perceptions. To help us do so, the brain tends to finish what is unfinished, complete what is incomplete.  A tendency to group elements to create a sense of completeness 3. The principle of Proximity  The principle of proximity is another principle of giving form to visual perception.  This principle states that things that are near each other tend to be grouped together. The closer objects or events are to one another, the more likely they are to be perceived as belonging together. 4. The principle of Similarity  The principle of similarity states that things that are alike in some way (for example, in colour, shape or size) tend to be perceived as belonging together. 3. Perception is Constant under Changing Sensory Information  Perception does not change when sensory information about stimuli changes.  Our perceptual hypothesis remains the same when information we receive about stimuli through the visual sense organ change in colour, size or shape.  Categories of Perceptual Constancy 1. Size Constancy  refers to the perception that the size of objects remains constant even though visual information change with variations in distance.  2. Shape Constancy  states that we continue to perceive objects as having a constant shape even though the shape of the retinal image changes when our point of view changes.  Viewing angle or position superficially changes the shape of an object 3. Colour (Brightness) Constancy  This principle states that the colour or brightness of an object remains the same even though the amount of light reflected on the objects change.  Sometimes objects may take different colour or brightness because of variations in light reflected on them. 4. Location Constancy  Location constancy states that the location or position of stationary objects is always the same even when our eyes tell us it is moving.  We perceive stationary objects as remaining in the same place even though the retinal image moves about as we move our eyes, heads, and bodies. 4. Depth perception  If we live in a two-dimensional world, form perception would be sufficient.  But because we live in a three- dimensional world, we have evolved depth perception-the ability to judge the distance of objects and space.  Depth perception depends on the use binocular cues and monocular cues.  Cont…  there are two kinds of binocular cues: retinal disparity and convergence.  The closer the object, the greater is the retinal disparity  Binocular cues require the interaction of both eyes where as monocular cues Require use of one eye Types of monocular cues Relative size  This monocular cue gives you the ability to measure how far away something is. It works by judging how big or small the object is and what that means in relation to other objects you’ve interacted with in the past. Interposition  Interposition refers to what happens when two objects on a flat surface, like a drawing of two circles, look like they have some relation to each other in terms of distance, even when they’re not actually in 3-D space. Linear perspective  Linear perspective happens when the angles of two adjacent objects and the distance between them look smaller and smaller. This causes your eye to interpret those objects as increasingly farther away from you.  Cont… Aerial perspective  Aerial perspective is what makes far away objects look a bit blurrier, lighter in color, and less detailed than those closer to you. motion parallax  This one’s a mindblower. The monocular motion parallax happens when you move your head and objects that are farther away appear to move at a different speed than those closer to you 5. Movement perception: There are two kinds of movements. These are:-  i) Real movement: the perception of real movement is the result of an actual change in the object’s position in space. Basically, there are two ways in which we perceive real movement. These are; a) an image moves across the retina, and b) the eyes move in the head, to follow the path of the moving object.  Moving ii) Apparent movement: occurs when 6. Perceptual illusion ( Visual illusion)  it occurs when two objects produce the same retinal image but are perceived as different images. It is an inappropriate interpretation of the physical reality. Some of the most common types of illusions include:-  Ponzo illusion-  Horizontal-vertical illusion-  Muller-Lyer illusion-  Moon Illusion Chapter 3 : Learning  Learning 3.1. Definition  Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of previous practice and experience 3.1.1. The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning: Involves a change in behaviour  Is a relatively permanent  Changes due to maturation, illness or use of drugs are not considered learning  Cannot be observed directly but manifests in the activities of the individual  Is based on practice  characteristics of learning:  Learning is continuous modification of behavior throughout life  Learning is pervasive; it reaches into all aspects of human life.  Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually.  Learning is often a change in the organization of experiences.  Learning is responsive to incentives  Learning is an active process  Learning is purposeful  Learning depends on maturation, motivation and practice.  3.1.2. Principles of Learning  Learning occurs effectively under certain conditions:- o People learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn o Learning occurs best when there is meaningful practice and exercise o Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. o Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. o Things most recently learned are best remembered o Individuals must have some abilities and skills to learn o Things freely learned are best learned - the greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals, the higher the intellectual and moral advancement.  3.2. Factors that affect learning  Motivation The learner‘s motivation matters the effectiveness of learning. The stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the greater are the effort to learn. When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes enthusiastic.  Maturation Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given task. Example, The child has to be mature before she/he is able to learn.  Health condition  The learner should be in a good health status to learn. Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the body, loss of sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning.  Cont…  Psychological wellbeing of the learner individual‘s psychological states like worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning. Whereas self-respect, self- reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective learning.  Good working conditions( comfortable surroundings, distracting sounds,) absence or presence of fresh air, light, comfortable surroundings, moderate temperature, absence of distractions like noise and learning aids determine learning effectiveness.  Cont …  Background experiences having background experiences affect effectiveness of learning. All related facts and understandings from a previously learned course should be brought to new learning.  Massed/ distributed practice Learning that spreads across time with reasonable time gaps brings better results compared with crammed learning that occurs at once or within short span of time  3.3. Theories of Learning 3.3.1. Behavioral Theories of Learning o Focuses on the stimulus response associations A. Classical conditioning ( Ivan Pavlov)  Classical conditioning is a process of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with Unconditioned stimulus until it alone can produce a similar response.  Pavlov’s Experiment  Basic Terms  Neutral Stimulus  Is a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.  Unconditioned (Natural) Stimulus  This is a stimulus which automatically produces a response without learning.  Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)  A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.  Conditioned stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.  Conditioned response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell) Principles of Classical Conditioning 1. Extinction  A gradual disappearance of the conditioned response  when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone without an unconditioned stimulus, (meat) the conditioned response will eventually cease.  2. Spontaneous Recovery  is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. 3. Stimulus generalization  occurs when a previously associated or new stimulus that has similar characteristics to the previously associated stimulus elicits a response that is the same or similar to the previously associated response. 4. Stimulus Discrimination  is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. B. Operant ( Instrumental) Conditioning ( B.F. Skinner)  Is a process of learning in which the probability of a behaviour is strengthened or decreased based the kind of consequences that occurs after the behaviour.  learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences  leaning from action/response  Principles of Operant conditioning  Reinforcement (Reinforcer)  Is a consequence or stimulus which usually increases the probability of a behaviour.  Types of Reinforcer A. Positive reinforcement  refers to a pleasant stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior.  is further divided in to two types  Primary Positive reinforcer  refers to a stimulus which is vital for biological survival. Examples: food, water, sleep, air etc.  Secondary Positive reinforcer  refers to a stimulus which is pleasant but not essential for survival. Example : a university degree B. Negative Reinforcement  Is a painful or aversive stimulus which increases a behaviour when it is avoided.  A response or behaviour is strengthened by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative or aversive stimulus.  Or is the removal of the unpleasant stimulus to increase a Behavior.  For example, if someone nags you all the time to study, but stops nagging when you comply, your studying is likely to increase- because you will then avoid the nagging.  Cont… escape learning.  In escape learning animals learn to make a response that terminates/stops a noxious, painful or unpleasant stimulus. Avoidance Learning  Another kind of learning, which is similar, but not the same as escape learning is Avoidance Learning, which refers to learning to avoid a painful, noxious stimulus prior to exposure.  Punishment ( Punisher)  is the process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows.  Itinvolves the presentation of aversive stimulus or the removal of a pleasant one in order to decrease the probability that an operant behaviour will occur again.  Types of Punisher 1. Positive punishment  involves presentation of unpleasant stimulus to decrease a bad behaviour. 2. Negative Punishment  Involves the removal or withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus after a bad behaviour  Like reinforcers, punishment can also be primary or secondary. 1. Primary Punishers  Arestimuli or conditions which are naturally or inherently unpleasant like pain, extreme cold, or heat 2. Secondary Punishers  Are stimuli or conditions which happen to be unpleasant as a result of learning like demerits, demotion, criticism, etc.   Pros and cons in punishment  Factors in Punishment  Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are important for effectiveness of punishment.  Immediacy – When punishment follows immediately after the behavior to be punished.  Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior being punished is intermittently reinforced and therefore becomes resistant to extinction. Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are more effective than mild ones. However, there are studies that indicate that even less intense punishments are effective provided that they are applied immediately and consistently.  This refers to the strength of the punishment in light of the misbehavior. The punishment generally is assumed to be proportional with the misbehavior Love oriented Punishment  Punishment must focus on the behavior not on the person  Cont…  when punishment fails:  Application of the theory of operant conditioning:  Shaping  The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding successive (closer and closer) approximations of the desired behavior.  In operant conditioning, behaviors are rewarded when they occur.  But when behaviors are less likely to occur in the first place we start by reinforcing any behavior that is similar with the behavior you want them to learn  Schedules of Reinforcement  Involves the program or arrangement of providing a positive reinforcement.  Basically involves two categories A.Continuous reinforcement schedule  When a response is first acquired, learning is usually most rapid if the response is reinforced each time it occurs. This procedure is called continuous reinforcement  Cont…. B. Partial ( intermittent) schedule  once a response has become reliable, it will be more resistant to extinction if it is rewarded on an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement, which involves reinforcing only some responses, not all of them. There are four types of intermittent schedules  There are four types of intermittent schedules.  Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules 1. Fixed Interval schedule  is an intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for a response after constant and fixed period of time. EX: Salary 2. Variable Interval Schedule  is an intermittent schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for a response after a variable period of time 3. Fixed Ratio Schedule  is an intermittent schedule in which reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses.  In order to receive a reward, it is necessary for the organism to produce a certain fixed amount of behaviour  A salesperson who must sell a specific number of items before getting a commission  and a factory worker who must produce a specific number of products before earning a given wage are both on fixed ratio schedules. 4. Variable Ratio Schedule  isan intermittent schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses. C. Social (observational ) learning/ (ALBERT BANDURA)  A major part of human learning consists of observational learning, which is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model.  is a process of learning in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another rather than through direct experience.  Learning can occur not only by doing and association but also by observing or watching  Principles (concepts) in social learning  Model  refers to a person who demonstrates to the learner how a behaviour is performed.  Vicarious reinforcement( conditioning)  is an indirect reinforcement that the learner observes the model receiving and which encourages the learner to imitate the behaviour of the model in order to receive a similar reinforcement on future occasions.  Steps (elements) of social learning 1. Attention  the person must first pay attention to the model. 2. Retention  the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal. 3. Motor reproduction:  is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.  This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. 4. Motivation or expectation of reinforcement.  The learner keeps on imitating the behaviour of the model only when he is motivated or expects to receive reinforcement sometime in the future. Cognitive learning  Cognitive learning may take two forms: 1. Latent learning  Latent‘ means hidden and thus latent learning is learning that occurs but is not evident in behavior until later, when conditions for its appearance are favorable.  learning that is not immediately expressed.  It is said to occur without reinforcement of particular responses and seems to involve changes in the way information is processed  Cont… 2. Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual learning)  It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a problem. It doesn‘t depend on conditioning of particular behaviors for its occurrence.  In a typical insight situation where a problem is posed, a period follows during which no apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly Chapter 4: Memory and Forgetting  Memory  Memory is the retention of information/what is learned earlier over time.  Capacity to retain information and retain later  Cont…  Itis the way in which we record the past for later use in the present.  To learn about the nature of memory, it is useful to separate the process from the structure.  Memory Processes  arethe mental activities we perform to put information into memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later. This involves three basic steps: 1. Encoding  Convertingsensory input into a form that can be processed and deposited in the memory 2. Storage  To be remembered the encoded experience must leave some record in the nervous system (the memory trace)  It is the location in memory system in which material is saved. Storage is the persistence of information in memory. 3.Retrieval  is the point at which one tries to remember a particular memory trace from among all the others we have stored.  In retrieval, material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness and used.  Stage/ Structures of Memory 1. Sensory Register  Is an initial /entry way of storage  It can hold virtually all the information reaching our senses for a brief time.  information is lost without attention within seconds  visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual system for one second.  Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory system for a slightly longer time, 2. Short term Memory (STM)  Has a limited capacity to store information  Information is lost without Rehearsal  Rehearsal  is the process of repeating, activating, renewing or refreshing information to keep it in memory. Types of Rehearsal A. Maintenance rehearsal  This kind of rehearsal involves the rote repetition of a material in order to maintain it.  B. Elaborative rehearsal  It involves making associations or connections between the new information we want to remember with familiar already existing information in memory.  STM Is also known as working memory, immediate memory, active memory and primary memory  Chunking  Characteristic of STM  It is active- information remains in STM only so long as the person is consciously processing,  Rapid accessibility - Information in STM is readily available for use. In this respect, the difference between STM and LTM is the difference between pulling a file from the top of a desk versus searching for it in a file drawer,  Preserves the temporal sequence of information- STM usually helps us to maintain the information in sequential manner for a temporary period of time.  Limited capacity- Years ago, George Miller (1956) estimated the capacity of STM to be ―the magic number seven plus or minus 2. That is, on the average, people can hold about seven pieces of 3. The Long term Memory( LTM)  Has unlimited capacity to store information  Stores Information permanently( Indefinite time)  The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub systems:  Types of Memory in the LTM 1. Declarative/ Explicit Memory  the conscious recollection of information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.  Itis further subdivided into semantic and episodic memories.  A. Semantic memory  This is a memory of general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts and propositions and conceptual knowledge B. Episodic Memory  is internal representation of personally experienced events.  Is Autobiographical in nature  Have historical and emotional  Semanticand episodic memory are known as declarative or explicit memory since they can be communicated verbally 2. Non-declarative/ Implicit memory-  refers to type of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously recollected.  One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural A. Procedural memory  is a memory of knowing how.  This memory is about the performance of activities,  Serial Position Effect  Is a theory that explains an individual remembers information differently depending on the order the information is presented.  If you are shown a list of items and are then asked immediately to recall them, your recall will be best for items at the beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and at the end of the list (the recency effect).  Factors that Affect Memory  A number of factors determine the degree of memory. 1. Age of the person ( Maturation)  Youngsters can remember better than the aged. 2. Good health A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a person with poor health 3.Will to remember( Interest)  Willingness to remember helps for better retention. 4. Over learning  Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to better memory. 5. Meaningfulness of the Material  Meaningful materials remain in our memory for longer period than for nonsense material 6. Sleep or Rest  Sleepor rest immediately after learning strengthens connections in the brain and helps for clear memory.  Forgetting  refers to the loss of information from memory or inability to retrieve or remember information.  Theories ( Causes) of Forgetting 1. Decay ( Disuse) theory  states that information which is not used gradually disintegrates 2. Interference theory  According to this theory, people forget not because memories are actually lost from memory, but because other information gets in the way of what we want to remember.  proactive and retroactive Interference.  Proactive , information learned earlier interferes with recall of newer material.  Retroactive is when new information interferes with the ability to remember old information 3. Displacement (New for old) theory  Newinformation entering memory can wipe out old information  Short term memory has a limited capacity and can only hold a small amount of information at one time.  Once the memory is full, new information will replace the old one 4. Motivated Forgetting ( Repression)  According to this theory, We forget because we want to forget 5. Cue dependent Forgetting ( Retrieval Failure)  Is the failure to recall information without memory cues.  Information stored in the memory is retrieved by way of association with other memories. Improving Memory  Pay Attention:  Encode information in more than one way  Add meaning:  Take your time:  Over learn:  Monitor your learning:  PQ4R Chapter 5: Motivation and Emotion 5.1. Motivation  is an internal process in an individual that arouses, maintains and directs behaviour towards a goal.  It is what moves people to do what they do  Types of motives  Biological Motives( Unlearned Motives) Is a primary motives.  are also called survival motives for they need to be satisfied to continue to live. Ex: Hunger, thirst, need for air, etc  social motives (Learned Motives )  Are also called social motives because they develop from social or environmental interactions. They develop as a result of societal rewards and punishment.  Same motive but d/f activities  D/f motive but the same activities THEORIES( Approaches to ) OF MOTIVATION  There are many causes of behaviour. People perform behaviour for a number of reasons.  Psychologists have been studying the causes of behaviours and have developed various theories that explain the why( sources) of these behaviours.  1. The instinct Theory  According to the instinct theory, behaviour is a result of a natural tendency.  An instinct is an innate or unlearned biological pattern of behaviour that occurs uniformly across a species.  For example, human infants come in to the world equipped with some unlearned instincts such as crying, sucking that helps them get what they want.  Are caused by biologically determined and innate patterns. 2/ Drive reduction Theory( Push theory)  The drive reduction theory of motivation states that behaviours are a result of a biological deficiency that must be reduced for biological survival.  This theory is sometimes described as the push theory of motivation since behaviour is pushed towards goals by driving states within the person or animal. 3. Incentive Theory( Pull theory)  The incentive theory of motivation focuses on external factors to explain why behaviour occurs  The incentive theory is also sometimes known as the pull theories of motivation. 4. Cognitive theory of Motivation  Suggest that motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs ,expectations and goals.  Draw a key difference between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation  Extrinsic Motivation  An extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment.  When a person becomes extrinsically motivated he performs behaviour for sake of getting what he wants.  Intrinsic Motivation  Involves engaging in behaviours for their own sake. A person with intrinsic motivation performs behaviour out of interest.  theact itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner 5. Humanistic Theory of Motivation ( Abraham Maslow)  Abraham Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, suggested that human behaviour is influenced by a hierarchy of five classes of needs or motives.  Needs or motives at the lowest level of the hierarchy, he argues, must be at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by higher needs.  These motives or needs are ranked and arranged according to their importance to survival.  From the bottom to the top of Maslow’s hierarchy, these five motives are as follows:  Conflict of motives and frustration  Conflict of motives  refers to negative emotional state (depression, anger, anxiety, etc) that develop when a person is unable to make a choice between two or more alternatives.  Types of Motivational Conflict 1. Approach –Approach Conflict  is a conflict between two positive goals—goals that are equally attractive at the same time.  An individual may be torn between the idea of going to a political rally or a movie which he likes to do equally. 2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict  This kind of conflict arises when a person must select one of two undesirable alternatives.  In this type of motivational conflict, people are required to choose between two negative goals which they both dislike.  Such conflicts are capsuled in the saying ‘’ caught between the devil and the deep blue sea ‘’ 3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict  This is a type of conflict in which a person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object.  Because of the positive valence of the goal, the person approaches it, but as it is approached, the negative valence becomes stronger.  In this type of conflict, a single decision involves a positive and negative aspect.  The closer you are to something appealing, the stronger your desire to approach it, the closer you are to something unpleasant, the stronger your desire to flee. 4. Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts  exist when two or more alternatives each have both positive and negative features.  Suppose you must choose between two jobs. One offers a high salary with a well-known company but requires long working hours and relocation to a miserable climate. The other boasts advancement opportunities, fringe benefits, and a better climate, but it doesn‘t pay as much and involves an unpredictable work schedule.  Frustration  refers to a negative mental state caused by the blocking of behaviour directed toward a goal. If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and behaviour often result.  Sources of Frustration 1. Environmental Frustration  By making it difficult or impossible for a person to attain a goal, environmental obstacles can frustrate the satisfaction of motives.  Cont... 2. Personal Frustration  Unattainable goals can be important sources of frustration.  These are largely learned goals that cannot be achieved because they are beyond a person’s abilities 3. Conflict of motives produces frustration  This occurs when the expression of one motive interferes with the expression of other motives. When people are caught between a need to express different conflicting motives, they experience frustration.  5.2. Emotions  Refer simply to feelings  A state of arousal involving biological changes (brain activation), expressive behaviour and mental experience. Basic Emotions  Defining characteristics (features) of Emotion 1. Emotion has three levels or components. These aspects of emotion are the biological, behavioural and cognitive. A. The physiology of emotion (The biological Component)  refers to the bodily and physical changes that accompany certain emotions B. The behavior of emotion (The Behavioral Component)  emotion refers to all the things we do or the activities we perform under the influence of a certain emotion.  The mechanisms of expressing emotion like facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, vocal qualities, etc are behavioural components of emotions. C. Subjective experience (Cognitive Component)  itinvolves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label 2. Emotional experience elicits an action tendency; a motivation to behave in certain ways.  An individual who is under a certain emotion is more likely to take action. 3. Emotion is usually transitory. It tends to have a relatively clear beginning and end and a relatively short duration.  4. Emotions differ in their magnitude and pleasantness. Different emotions can be felt in different magnitudes from time to time.  Similarly, the same person may feel the same emotion in different degrees of strength in different situations. 5. Emotional experience is elicited partly by the cognitive evaluation of a situation and how that relates to our goals.  The same event may elicit different emotions in different people depending on their interpretation of the event.  6. Emotions and their expressions facilitate communication between and among people.  We are capable of understanding the feelings of others and how we should interact through the use of non verbal cues like facial expressions, body movements, etc.  Theories of Emotion 1. The James Lange theory of Emotion  States that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation  Simply put, ―I am afraid because I am aroused,  ―I am embarrassed because my face is red, ― I am nervous because my stomach is 2. The Canon Bard theory of Emotion  State that emotion and physiological arousal occur more or less at the same time.  fear and the bodily reactions are experienced at the same time-not one after the other I am afraid and running and aroused.  Schechter-Singer and Theory  For example, if a person comes across a snarling dog while taking a walk, the physical arousal (heart racing) is accompanied by the thought (cognition) that this must be fear. Then and only then will the person experience the fear of emotion.  In other words, ―I am aroused in the presence of a scary dog; therefore, I must be afraid. Chapter 6: Personality  6.1. Meaning of Personality  Personality is a distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling and acting that characterize a person’s responses to life situations.  The pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person ( Feldman, R.S.,2011)  Enduring attributes that are representative of an individual’s behaviour.(Wittig,A.F.,2001)  6.2.1. The psychoanalytic theory of personality ( Sigmund Freud)  Major features of psychoanalyses  Psychoanalyses has the following major defining characteristics as a theory of personality. 1. It focuses on the unconscious intrapsychic dynamics- the movement of psychological energy within the mind.  2. It focuses in the importance and primacy of the first five years of life.  The theory assumes that adult personality and ongoing problems are formed primarily by experiences in early childhood.  The child is the father of the man, as the saying goes. 3. Personality is a result of conflict between different personality systems or structures.  Personality Structures  In Freud’s theory, personality consists of three major systems: the Id, the Superego and the Ego.  Any actions we take or problems we have results from t he interactions or degree of balance among these systems.  The Id  As one major component of personality the id involves a number of characteristics. 1. It is a reservoir of unconscious psychological and physical needs and urges. It contains all our instinctual and biological needs and behaviour. 2. It is a system of personality that begins to operate at birth. Unlike the other structures, the id is born with the individual. 3. The major focus of the id is to get as much pleasure as possible. If it feels good, do it. 4. It does not tolerate delay of gratifications of needs  The super ego( The Moral Watchdog) o Major Features 1. The super ego contains all the moral codes that we obtain from society 2. The super ego gradually develops after birth as the individual gains knowledge and experience from the environment. 3.The focus of the super ego is to gain perfection in every activity of the individual. It aspires for and expects the individual to be perfect.  There are two parts to the superego: the ego ideal and the conscience.  Theego-ideal is a kind of measuring device. It is the sum of all the ideal or correct and acceptable behavior that the child has learned about from parents and others in the society.  The conscience is part of the personality that makes people pride when they do the right thing and guilt, or moral anxiety when they do the wrong thing.  The Ego ( The Executive Director) o Major Features 1. The ego serves as a referee or mediator between the needs of the id and the super ego ( the demands of society). 2. The ego is not ignorant or blind to the objective reality in its attempt to satisfy the divergent needs of the id and the super ego.  It operates on the reality principle.  It resorts to defense mechanisms when it fails to reconcile the two  Defence Mechanisms  refer to methods used by the ego to prevent anxiety or threatening thoughts.  Features of Defence Mechanisms 1. Are useful to reduce anxiety and make us feel normal again. They only become harmful if or when they are used excessively. 2. Are misrepresentations or distortions of reality. In order to justify one’s action which is wrong in the eyes of the superego, the ego has to deny, distort or twist the reality.  Types of Defence Mechanism 1. Repression Or Motivated Forgetting  Isthe rejection of unpleasant feelings and experiences from conscious awareness.  Itinvolves pushing or blocking threatening memories, urges or ideas from consciousness. 2. Rationalization  Isjustifying wrong actions by producing acceptable reasons and explanations. 3. Reaction Formation  Involves repressing a negative feeling by exaggerating the opposite feeling. It occurs when a feeling that produces anxiety is transformed in to its opposites.  It is a reversal of motives. A woman who is afraid to admit to herself that she fears her husband may instead cling to the belief that she loves him deeply. 4. Projection  Is the process of shifting or attributing one’s own undesirable feelings to others.  By accepting that others also have the same problems like us , we tend to be ok.  It involves blaming others for the same mistakes or problems we have. 5.Displacement  Occurs when people direct their emotions (especially anger) toward things, animals or other people that are not the real object of their feelings.  Itinvolves using a substitute outlet for an emotion.  6. sublimation 6.2.2. The Trait Theory Major Assumptions 1. Personality exists along a continuum. It is different in the relative strength 2. Personality is relatively enduring 3. People differ in how much of a particular train they possess.  Traits  Are consistent personality characteristics and behaviors displayed in different situations.  2. The Big five Theory of Personality  Are measure of characteristics of personality  is associated with the work of Raymond Cattell  is also known as the five factor model  is known as OCEAN for short 1. Openness A person’s willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences.  curiosity , flexibility and imaginative tendency 2. Consciousness  refers to a person‘s organization and motivation  are careful about being in places on time and careful with belongings as well. 3. Extraversion  all people could be divided into two personality types: extraverts and introverts ( Carl Jung)  Extraverts are outgoing and sociable, fun- loving whereas introverts are more solitary and dislike being the center of attention. 4. Agreeableness  refers to the basic emotional style of a person, who may be easygoing, friendly, helpful, cooperative and pleasant (at the high end of the scale) or hostile, self centered and hard to get along with (at the low end). 5. Neuroticism / Emotional stability  refers to emotional instability or stability. People who are excessively worried, overanxious and moody would score high on this dimension, whereas those who are more even- tempered and calm could score low.  6.2.3. Humanistic theory of personality ( Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)  Emphasize people‘s inherent goodness and their tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning instead of seeing people as controlled by the unconscious.  Assume people have conscious, self- motivated ability to change and improve.  The self concept is an important element in this theory  The real self  One‘s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and abilities  The ideal self  The perception of what one should be or would like to be  Rogers believed that when the real self and the ideal self are very close or similar to each other, people feel competent and capable. Otherwise anxiety develops   Group Assignment  Project Title: Cultural Diversity  Guidelines of the Project 1. What is cultural Diversity? 2. What are the uses of cultural diversity? 3. What is culture shock and give practical examples in the Ethiopian context 4. Discuss ways of appreciating or promoting cultural diversity  Notes  Dateof Submission: 2 weeks from the date of submission of the assignment  Page limit: Not more than 6 pages  Presentation: Any group member may be selected for the presentation by the instructor and members should actively take part in the presentation.  Presentation Date: To be decided later Chapter 7: Psychological Disorders and Treatment Techniques 7.1. Definition  Is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.  Is also known as abnormal behavior, maladaptive behavior, mental illness  Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment  Defining criteria 1. It deviates from the typical behavior in society ( (Deviation from normality) 2. It disrupts the personal and social life of an individual ( mal adaptiveness or adjustment problems) 3.A personal feelings of stress, anxiety, tension and other unpleasant emotions ( personal distress)  7.2. Causes of Psychological Disorders 1. The biological Perspective  abnormalities in the function of chemicals in the brain, called neurotransmitters, may contribute to many psychological disorders.  Over activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine, perhaps caused by an overabundance of certain dopamine receptors in the brain, has been linked to the bizarre symptoms of schizophrenia.  2. Psychological Perspectives  Three approaches are usually examined in this perspective 2.1. The Psychoanalytic Approach  Abnormal behavior is caused by the ego's inability to manage the conflict between the opposing demands of the id and the superego 2.2. The Learning Approach  Most mental and emotional disorders arise from inadequate or inappropriate learning.  People acquire abnormal behaviors through the various kinds of learning 2.3. The Cognitive Approach  Self-defeating thoughts lead to the development of negative emotions and self-destructive behaviors.  Thinking patterns in one way or another affects our emotional and behavioral wellbeing in either positive or negative ways.  7.3. Types of Psychological Disorders 1. Mood Disorder  arecharacterized by a series of changes in mood from depressed to elevated feelings causing disruption to life activities.  general emotional state or mood is distorted or inconsistent with your circumstances and interferes with your ability to function  Types of Mood Disorder 1. Major(Clinical) Depression  is characterized by diminished interest in activities , difficulty concentrating, feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of suicide 22. 2. Dysthymia  often considered a lesser, but more persistent form of depression 3. Bipolar Disorder ( Manic- Depression)  ischaracterized by periods of extreme highs (called mania) and extreme lows as in Major Depression. 2. Anxiety Disorder  Is a disorder that involves excessive, irrational fear or anxiety.  The occurrence of anxiety without an obvious external cause that affect daily functioning.  arethe most common of mental disorders and affect nearly 30 percent of adults  Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and can be beneficial in some situations  People with this disorder may respond to the anxiety by avoiding situations( Job performance, School work and personal relationship)  Types of Anxiety Disorder 1. Panic Disorder  is a type of anxiety disorder characterized by a series of panic attacks where the person feels he/she is going to be attacked by something or someone and feels an imminent sense of death. It is accompanied by Severe physical reactions( heart beat, sweating, shortness of breath, etc. 2. Agoraphobia  Is fear of crowded or unfamiliar spaces where the person feels escape or help might not be available. The person usually becomes housebound. It may result from phobic disorder 3. Specific(Simple) Phobia  refersto an intense and irrational fear of an object, person or place.  Ex: Zoophobia; hydrophobia, autophobia, acrophobia 4. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)  Characterized by obsessions (thoughts which seem uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviors which act to reduce the obsession)  These obsessions and compulsions are disruptive to the person's everyday life, with sometimes hours being spent each day repeating things, such as checking, counting, cleaning, or bathing. 5. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)  Occurs only after a person is exposed to a traumatic event where their life or someone else's life is threatened. The most common examples are war, natural disasters, major accidents, and severe child abuse  The disorder develops into an intense fear of related situations, avoidance of these situations, 3. Personality Disorder  Isa rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving.  characterized by an enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving which is significantly different from the person's culture and results in negative consequences.  maladaptive or inflexible ways of dealing with others and one's environment  Some Examples of Personality Disorder  Antisocial Personality  Is characterized by a persistent disregard for and violation of others’ rights and lack of empathy.  Paranoid  Is characterized by distrusting others; perceiving others as having evil motives , high degree of suspicion or being mistrustful  Schizotypal  is characterized by intense discomfort in close relationships , distorted thinking and eccentric behavior  Narcissitic Personality Disorder  Refers to an exaggerated feelings of self, need for excessive attention and admiration and pattern of grandiosity( unrealistic sense of superiority)  7.4 Treatment Techniques  Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms. They can include  Medication,  Talk- therapy,  a combination of both,  and can last only one session or take many years to complete.  Treatment Approaches Psychotherapy  Involves Providing psychological treatment to individuals with some kind of psychological problems.  Goal of Psychotherapy  to help the client reduce negative symptoms,  gain insight into why these symptoms occurred  work through those issues,  and reduce the emergence of the symptoms in the future.  Issues to be considered in Psychotherapy o Empathy  Involves being able to understand his or her client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors o Being Neutral  The therapist must be non judgmental in his approach.  If the therapist is judgmental, the client does not feel safe talking about similar issues again.  Treatment Modalities A therapist and a client  Therapy is most often thought of as a one-on-one relationship between a client or patient and a therapist.  Group Therapy  individuals suffering from similar illnesses or having similar issues meet together with one or two therapists.  Is helpful in making clients develop the feeling to belong, understood, and know that there is hope  Family/ Couple therapy  Inthis type of treatment, the issues to be worked on center around the relationship.  There is often an educational component such as communication training, and couples and families are encouraged to work together as a team rather than against each other.  The therapist's job is to facilitate healthy interaction, encourage the couple or family to gain insight into their own behaviors, and to teach the members to listen to and respect each other. CHAPTER 8: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SKILLS  Life Skills 8.1. Definition  abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life  refer to those skills needed by an individual to operate effectively in society.  Involve those personal and social skills that help a person to function competently and confidently with oneself and others.  Types of life skills include 1.Livelihood or vocational skills 2. Practical health related skills 3. Physical skills 4. Skills related to behavior and interaction (psychosocial skills) 8.2. Components of Life Skills 1. Critical thinking 2. Self- confidence 3. Self- esteem 4. Decision making 5. Interpersonal relationship 6. Reflective communication 7. Peer Resistance 8. Knowing rights and duties 9. Problem solving  8.3. Goals of life skills  Tolead a smooth and successful life at home, work place and in social relationship Chapter 9: Intra personal and Interpersonal Skills  1. Self Concept  It refers to a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the self  It is the concept the individual has of himself/herself as a physical, social, and spiritual or moral being  is how an individual views himself based on their habits, skills and temperament.  A mental picture of who you are as a person. For example, beliefs such as "I am a good friend" or "I am a kind person" are part of an overall self-concept  Features of self Concept 1. Permanence  Itis relatively permanent and may change with life experiences. 2. Multidimensionality  Itrefers to perception of the self in a number of aspects such as academics, gender roles, ethnicity, etc  3. Bases for Actions  Itguides our actions, motivations, expectations and goals for future  The self is made of three components: A. The natural self  refers to the biological qualities that can not be changed. One’s height ,color and other inborn qualities are part of the natural self.  B. The learned self  refersto the activities, behaviors and qualities one has developed through practice and interaction with the outside world. C. The choosing self  refersto the choices or aspirations one would like to achieve or become  2. Self- Awareness  Is the knowledge or understanding of oneself.  Itrefers to the ability to have a clear picture of one’s strengths and weaknesses, values and attitudes towards life.  Areas of Self Awareness o Personality  refers to a unique and distinct pattern of thinking, feeling or acting o Values  refer to the things that matter to us in life. What we consider to be good, desirable or proper is our values. o Body Image  It refers to the person’s perception of his/her body internally and externally.  Some Ways of Building Self Awareness 1. Take feedback from others 2. Look at yourself objectively 3. Know your strengths and weaknesses 3. Self-Confidence a belief in one personal worth and likelihood of succeeding. a belief in one’s own judgment, ability , power, decisions ,etc.  itis a combination of self esteem and genera self efficacy.  General Points  Though successful experience contributes to overall confidence, confidence varies across situations  Confidence and courage are different in that confidence operates in the realm of the known whereas courage operates in the unknown  Factors that cause lack of self confidence A. Experience  We often develop feelings of inferiority and hopelessness through various negative life experiences at home, school, at the job, etc. lack of a healthy and supportive environment at home may cause the development of lack of confidence. B. Dwelling unnecessarily on negative events C. Setting unrealistic goals in life  Attributes of self confidence  Assertiveness, √ Pride  optimism, √ Independence  eagerness, √ Trust  affection, √ Emotional maturity  The ability to handle criticism,  Attributes of lack of self confidence √ Self doubt, √ Submissiveness, √ Isolation, √ Over conformity, √ Sensitivity to criticism, √ Feelings of inferiority, √ Depression 5. Self Control  Isbeing in charge of your emotions, thoughts, words and actions in the face of temptations  Isthe ability to take control of one’s emotions and desires or the expressions of them in one’s behavior especially in difficult situations  Isa cognitive process that is necessary for regulating one's behavior in order to achieve specific goals.  Is also known as self discipline  Examples  cookie but you use your willpower to avoid eating it because you know it isn't good for you.  General Techniques of Self Control 1. A can do Attitude  Viewing ourselves as free and responsible for our actions is the foundation for self-discipline. 2. Goal Setting  One has to have a goal. Goals basically guide our choices. The more specific the goal, the better able people are to reach it.  For example, instead of pursuing the goal of “being healthy,” a person may adopt the goal of “walking at least 30 minutes every day,” which is more concrete and easier to monitor 3. Pre commit  Being able to commit yourself to your goals will help a lot when you actually attempt to reach them.  If you can commit to a decision before making it, it should be much easier to make. 4. Use rewards  Using rewards can really help with your self- control. If we know that there is something at the end of your goal to reward you, we are normally more likely to do it. 6. Anger Management  Anger is a state of emotion where a person is irritated by block of interests, loss of possession or threats to personality.  Techniques for Anger Management 1.Recognize anger as a signal of vulnerability 2. When angry, think or do something that will make you feel more valuable, i.e., worthy of appreciation. 3. Do not trust your judgment when angry. 4. Strive to understand other people’s perspectives. 5. Know your physical and mental resources. Anger is more likely to occur when tired, hungry, sick, confused, anxious, preoccupied, distracted, or overwhelmed. 7. Stress and Coping with Stress  Stressis a negative emotional and physiological process that occurs as individuals try to adjust or deal with stressors.  Stressors are environmental circumstances that disrupt or threaten to disrupt individuals’ daily functioning and cause people to make adjustments.  Common causes or sources of Stress A. Daily life events  Regular and common events that occur in life such as marriage, divorce, death, pregnancy, job change, sex difficulties, detention, retirement, being fired from work, etc. B. Catastrophic events  Catastrophic events are sudden, unexpected, potentially life-threatening experiences or traumas. Accidents, natural disasters, war, physical or sexual assault are examples of catastrophic events that could cause stress. C. Biological causes or conditions  Biological causes of stress are usually related to physical and health related stressors that cause stress. Such factors involve illness, sleep disturbance, etc.  Coping with Stress  There are two ways of dealing with stress: 1. Problem Focused Strategies A problem focused strategy deals with facing one’s problems and trying to solve them (Richard Lazarus (1993)  Going to a study skill centre to take part in a training programme or visiting a counsellor when you have a problem studying 2. Emotion Focused Strategies  Involvesresponding to stress in an emotional manner especially using defence mechanisms.  In this strategy, we might avoid something, rationalize what has happened to us, deny it is occurring, laugh it off, or call on our religious faith for support.  Avoiding going to class believing the class does not matter, deny that you are having a problem when you have a problem studying 9. Resilience  Is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress.  Is the ability to mentally or emotionally cope with a crisis or to return to pre-crisis status quickly.  Resilience Strategies  Optimism  The ability to regulate emotions,  The ability to see failure as a form of helpful feedback 10. Critical and Creative Thinking  Critical Thinking  Is the ability to think clearly and rationally.  Is making reasoned judgments that are logical and well-thought out  Is also regarded as intellectually engaged  Areas of Critical Thinking Skills 1. Analytical  Is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. 2. Communication  sharing your conclusions with your employers or with a group of colleagues... 3. Creativity.  Is a personal, imaginative thinking which produces a new, novel and useful solution 9.8. Problem solving and Decision Making  Problem Solving A problem a gap between a present situation and a desired goal  Nature of a Problem  Isa central part of human life and can not be avoided  Can be clearly or ill defined  Problem Solving  is a process in which we perceive and resolve a gap between a present situation and a desired goal,  Steps in Problem solving 1. Recognize or identify the problem. 2. Define and represent the problem mentally. 3. Develop a solution strategy alternatives and select the best one. 4. Organize knowledge about the problem and avail the necessary resources. 5. Allocate mental and physical resources for solving the problem. 6. Monitor his or her progress toward the goal. 7. Evaluate the solution for accuracy.  Decision Making  is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions.  Is choosing a course of action Chapter 10. Academic Skills  Success in campus life depends on a number of skills The most important skills involve  Time Management Skills  Note taking Skills  Test Taking Skills  Goal Setting  Career Development 10.1. Time Management  is the ability to plan and control how someone spends the hours in a day to accomplish one’s goals effectively.  Features of Time Management  Is non renewable communal resource  Requires assigning time to domains of life; work, home, social life, hobbies  Must be considered as an asset like other resources  Create difference in people.   Time Management Strategies ( Chapman) 1. Know how you spend time 2. Set priorities 3. Use a planning tool 4. Get organized 5. Schedule your time appropriately 6. Delegate – get help from others 7. Stop procrastinating 8. Manage external time wasters 9. Avoid multi-tasking 10. Stay healthy 10.2. Note Taking and Study Skills  Succeeding in learning depends in part on taking note skills  General Strategies 1. Be organized  Before Class  have the necessary materials before class  Determine the topic, review past notes, readings  Prepare questions from the readings  During Class  Make your notes brief and focus on the pain points  It is better to listen and get the information later.  After Class  Review notes as soon as possible to make connections  Discuss the notes with another class mate  Common Note Taking Skills 1. The Cornell Method  breaks the pages in to three sections( Cue column, note taking column and Summary) 2. Outlining  Putting lecture notes to the left margin of the page and specific information underneath 3. Charting  is for courses that require comparisons/contrasts of specific dates, places, people, events, 10.3. Test Taking Skills  There are no agreed up on test taking skills among scholars  General Suggestions 1. Practice predicting and answering test questions 2. Examine previous tests to identify strengths and weaknesses 3. Find out what kind of test it will be (objective, essay, or a combination of both 4. Be organized in advance  Be sure of the time and place  What you are expected to bring with you  Get to the test site early 5. Get plenty of sleep the night before the exam. 6. Tell yourself you will do well - and you will!  Chapter 11. Social Skills 11.1. Cultural Diversity  Itinvolves a condition in which a range of people form different background live and interact together  Is also known as multiculturalism  Ways of Managing Diversity 1. Increasing understanding by interaction 2. Avoid imposing inconsistent values 3. Understand limitations in language. Language is not sign of intellectual capacity 4. Advocate materials that are representative of various cultures in different contexts 5. Intervene appropriately in situations of cultural insensitivity 6. Being proactive in listening, accepting and welcoming people and ideas that are different 11.2. Gender and Social Inclusion  Sex  Refers to a biological state of being a man or a women  Gender  refers to all the behaviors, responsibilities and expectations of society based on sex  Gender Inclusion  refers to the practice of enabling both sexes benefit from education, economy, leadership, development programs.  11.3. Interpersonal Communication Skills  is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages  It is face-to-face communication  11.4. Social Influence  is a process in which the behavior of an individual influences the way another person  Examples of social influence  Persuasion, Compliance  11.5. Peer Pressure  is the influence to go along with the beliefs and actions of one‘s peers.  may be positive or negative depending on the behavior of the person under pressure  Positive Peer Pressure  results in good behaviors in school, sports, helping those in need  uses encouraging words and expressions  Negative Peer Pressure  Results in behaviors that are harmful(using drugs, misbehaving in class, stealing, making fun of someone, bullying)  Itmay involve threats, bribes, teasing, and name-calling  How to Handle Peer Pressure 1. Avoid people or situations that don't feel right 2. Spend time with people who respect your decisions and won't put unfair pressure 3. Evaluate the pros and cons of engaging in a behavior 4. Remember that you can't (and don't have to) please everyone or be liked by everyone 5. When a situation appears to be unavoidable, use the ‘’delay tactic’’ 6. It's OK to use an excuse if the truth is too challenging( saying no to a drink) 7. Take a friend who supports you along if you are going to be in a pressure-filled situation 8. Stand up for others when you see them being pressured. "Bystander intervention"  11.6.Conflict and Conflict Resolution  Conflict  is incompatibility of goals or values between two or more people resulting in antagonistic feelings.  is common( inevitable)  is neither good nor bad  may be realistic or perceived by the parties involved.  Sources of Conflict ( Daniel Katz)  Three sources 1. Economic conflict  involves competing motives to attain scarce resources 2. Value conflict  Involves differences in ways of life, ideologies, preferences, principles and practices that people believe in. 3. Power conflict  occurs when each party wishes to maintain or maximize the amount of influence that it exerts in the relationship and the social setting.  Levels of Conflict 1. Intrapersonal Conflict  conflict between opposing motives or ideas within a person 2. Interpersonal conflict  occurs when two people have incompatible needs, goals, or approaches in their relationship.. Intergroup conflict 3  occurs between collections of people such as ethnic or racial groups, departments. 4. Multi-party Conflict  occurs between more groups in society. 5. International conflict  occurs between states at the global level.  Conflict Resolution  Three general Outcomes(Blake, Shepard & Mouton, 1964). 1. Win-lose approach  Is a situation in which one party wins and the other loses.  Is less likely to be accepted voluntarily 2. Lose-lose strategy  Is a situation in which one party wins and the other loses 3. Win-win approach  is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the goals of both parties through collaborative problem solving.