Learning: Classical & Operant Conditioning PDF
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Memorial University of Newfoundland
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This document discusses various concepts of learning in psychology, including classical and operant conditioning. It explains how learning is associated with reflexes, responses and consequences, and also includes figures and examples of how these principles work. It is appropriate for a secondary school level psychology course.
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1 What is Learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning (Modelling) 2 1 What is Learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observati...
1 What is Learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning (Modelling) 2 1 What is Learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning (Modelling) 3 Reflexes and instincts are things that just happen Motor or neural reactions to stimuli in the environment typically involving a specify body part of system (e.g., pupil constriction in light) Innate behaviours that can be triggered/facilitated by our environment (e.g., physical maturation Allows for adaptation to one’s environment 4 2 http://www.atariarchives.org/deli/clever_hans.jpg 5 Performance: an organism’s activities at a particular time (just because there is performance, doesn’t mean there is learning- Clever Hans) Learning: An enduring change in the mechanisms of behaviour involving specific stimuli and/or responses that results from prior experience 6 3 Non-Associative Learning Habituation/dishabituation Sensitization Associative Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning 7 Non-Associative Learning Repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event causing a relatively permanent change in the strength of a response Considered the most basic and simplest form of learning and involves two major types 1. Habituation – repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response (learned ignoring) Dishabituation: full strength recovery of the habituated response 8 4 Non-Associative Learning Repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event causing a relatively permanent change in the strength of a response Considered the most basic and simplest form of learning and involves two major types 1. Habituation – Repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response (learned ignoring) Dishabituation: full strength recovery of the habituated response 2. Sensitization – A strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of a weaker stimuli 9 Learning to associate one stimulus with another. 10 10 5 Learning to associate a response with a consequence. 11 11 Learning to associate a response with a consequence. 12 12 6 It's a matter of instinct, It's a matter of conditioning, It's a matter of fact. You can call me Pavlov's dog Ring a bell and I'll salivate- How'd you like that? Barenaked Ladies 14 Ivan Pavlov’s research focused on the digestive system. He discovered dogs would salivate to stimuli associated with the food. 15 7 Pavlov observed that dogs would start to drool at the sight of people in lab coats Why? Answer: Classical conditioning Aka Pavlovian conditioning 16 CLASSICAL Conditioning = REFLEX CONDITIONING 17 8 Pavlov found that dogs salivated to to arrival/sight of food He then set about examining responses of dogs when food was presented with different stimuli (associative) 18 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - Previously neutral stimulus - Presented with the US (food) on many occasions à UR (salivation) 19 9 The pieces: US – food UR – salivation CS – bell (neutral) CR – salivation NOTE: The UR and CR are the same in this case. 20 John B. Watson was one of the first psychologists to argue that human behaviour is a collection of conditioned responses. He described learning in Pavlovian terms. Behaviourism 21 10 Watson demonstrated that fear can be conditioned in infants. He found that a loud sound made a good unconditioned stimulus (US) for fear in infants. Albert is first shown happily playing with the rat. 22 Then he is exposed to 6 pairings of the rat and the loud sound. The pairing of the rat with a loud noise gave Albert a condition fear (the CR) of rats (the CS). 23 11 AfterAlbert is conditioned to fear the rat, he exhibits generalization by crying at the sight of other furry creatures including a rabbit. 24 25 12 26 X CS US ? 27 13 X ? 28 Evidence that association does not ‘disappear’ 29 14 The less similar the other stimuli are the less likely or the less intense the response that is Drops of Saliva elicited 30 Opposite of stimulus generalization Learning to respond to some stimuli and not to others. Pavlovproduced discrimination by giving food to the dog only after the bell and not other sounds 31 15 Step 1 – Classically condition a response 32 Step 2 Other stimuli can become associated with the CS if presented together often (intentionally or unintentionally) 33 16 Step 3 The consequence can be the second stimulus also becomes associated with the CS (food) and produces the CR (drool) 34 Important to recognize: The second (previously neutral) stimulus (cabinet) is never directly paired with the US (food), but will eventually elicit the CR (drool), because the cabinet and the can opener have become highly associated. Also known as Second Order Conditioning 35 17 John B Watson (psychologist) believed that most human emotions and behaviours could be accounted for using the principles of Classical Conditioning John B Watson (1878-1958) 36 Many people are conditioned to avoid a food after eating it and being ill CS? US? CR? FOOD NAUSEA AVOIDANCE 37 18 Phobias? 38 Systematic desensitization: Counterconditioning: replace unwanted response 39 19 What is Learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning (Modelling) 41 42 20 The pieces: US – food UR – salivation CS – bell (neutral) CR – salivation NOTE: The UR and CR are the same in this case. 43 1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events. 44 21 2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response (reflex) to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli. 45 Operant behaviours are usually more complex than reflexive responses Classical: stimulus -> response Operant: response -> consequence 46 22 Instrumental conditioning “Operant”- the organism’s response operates, or produces its effects on the environment 47 Behaviour becomes “stamped in” by a satisfying result Behaviour becomes “stamped out” when the results are annoying or unsatisfying. Edward Thorndike 48 23 Law of Effect Behaviours followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviours followed by negative consequences are weakened. Edward Thorndike 49 Cat Puzzle Box 50 24 51 Thorndike measured the time between when the cat was placed in the box and when it opened the door over many trials. 52 25 Look outside the individual and not inside. Coined “radical behaviourism” was born. (1904-1990) 53 Using Thorndike's Law of Effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning. Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 54 26 The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response. 55 Skinner Box - operant chamber Air Crib 56 27 Air Crib 57 B.F. Skinner Interview 58 28 1. Neutral consequence 2. Reinforcement 3. Punishment 59 1. Positive Reinforcement: Increases the probability of a behaviour following a pleasurable stimulus (reward) 2. Negative Reinforcement: Increases the probability of a behaviour by the removal of an aversive stimulus. 60 29 3.) Positive Punishment- Punishment that occurs when administering a stimulus that decreases the behaviour 4.) Negative Punishment: Punishment that occurs when removing a stimulus that decreases a behaviour 61 Primary Food, water, sex, shock avoidance Secondary (conditioned) Learned associations 62 30 Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior. Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc. A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. 63 The responses that you reinforce on the way to the final response are called successive approximations. 64 31 65 66 32 67 Behaviours are random Behaviours are accidentally reinforced 68 33 Extinction: occurs when the reinforcer is removed For Exercise in New York Futility, Push Button “At first there may be a spurt of responding” Spontaneous recovery 69 Generalization: Pigeon trained to peck at a circle my also peck at an oval stimuli Discrimination: Pigeon that pecks at an oval, but only receives reinforcer after circle will learn to discriminate 70 34 1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press. 2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study. 71 1. Continuous reinforcement - Reinforcement every time the behaviour occurs 2. Intermittent reinforcement - Reinforcement only part of time - 4 major “schedules” 72 35 Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. Produces a very high rate of Example: Employer will use FR responding schedules to increase productivity 73 Reinforcement occurs after some average number of responses, but the number varies from reinforcer to reinforcer. Produce extremely high, steady rates of response that are Example: Slot machines or video more resistant to lottery terminals extinction. 74 36 Reinforcement of a response occurs only if a fixed amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer. Scallop: After reinforcement occurs the animal does not respond 75 Reinforcement of a response occurs after an average amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer. Responding is relatively low but steady 76 37 Operant and classical conditioning are limited by an animal’s genetic disposition and physical characteristics Brelands: A pig was supposed to drop large wooden coins in a box. Instinctivedrift refers to this intrusion of instinctive behaviour 77 78 38 Reward behaviours that individuals already enjoy § Children drawing Extrinsic reward makes the behaviour seem like work? 79 Intrinsic Desire to perform a behaviour for its own sake (internal reward) Extrinsic Desire to perform for promised rewards or threats of punishment Ex. Weight loss TV shows 80 39 Mental representation of environment 81 Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects. 1. Results in unwanted fears. 2. Conveys no information to the organism. 3. Justifies pain to others. 4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. 5. Causes aggression towards the agent. 6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another. 82 40 Skinner was an advocate of reinforcement Spanked children (studies) Increased aggression, depression, low self-esteem Authoritative or authoritarian? SIBIS Self-injurious behaviour inhibiting system? 83 Tolman’s observation: Rat Maze Rats in baskets Unreinforced learning 84 41 85 Latent learning: Process of learning that is not exposed until there is motivation to show it Directions in a new town 86 42 88 Thesame part of the brain activates whether performing or observing an action. 89 43 9 months – Imitate play 14-months- Children can imitate behaviour seen on TV 90 Albert and Bobo Children observing model interacting with Bobo doll Group 1: observes non-violent behaviour Group 2: observes model interacting violently PREDICTIONS? 91 44 Antisocial observations Video games Gentile et al., (2004) showed that elementary school going children who were exposed to violent television, videos and video games expressed increased aggression. 92 93 45 Prosocial Positive, constructive, helpful behavior Opposite of antisocial behavior 94 46
