Human Anatomy and Physiology PDF

1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (1 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties Cellular Composition—Cells are the smallest units that carry out the functions of life Metabolism—Living organisms carry out chemical processes collectively called metabolism – “Building” processe...

1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (1 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties Cellular Composition—Cells are the smallest units that carry out the functions of life Metabolism—Living organisms carry out chemical processes collectively called metabolism – “Building” processes are known as Anabolism – “Breaking down” processes are known as Catabolism Growth—An increase in the size and/or number of cells Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (2 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued) Excretion—Elimination of potentially harmful waste products created by metabolic processes Responsiveness or Irritability—Organisms sense and react to changes or stimuli in their environment Movement—Organisms or individual cells of an organism move Reproduction—Production of new cells during growth or repair or reproduction of new organisms Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (1 of 7) The body is constructed of a series of progressively larger “building blocks” known as the Structural Levels of Organization Chemical Level—This is the smallest level; Chemicals range from tiny atoms to complex molecules Cellular Level—Groups of many different types of molecules combine in specific ways to form cellular structures Tissue Level—Two or more cell types and material outside them, called extracellular matrix, combine to perform a common function Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (2 of 7) Structural Levels of Organization (continued) Organ Level—Two or more tissue types combine to form an organ with a recognizable shape that performs a specialized task Organ System Level—Two or more organs that together carry out a broad function in the body – The human body has 11 organ systems Organism Level—The organ systems function together to make up the working human body—an organism Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (3 of 7) Figure 1.5 Six structural levels of organization of the human body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (4 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (5 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (6 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (7 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (1 of 4) Anatomical Position—Common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described regardless of position – Body is standing upright – Feet are shoulder width apart – Upper limbs at the sides of trunk – Head and palms facing forward Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (2 of 4) Directional Terms—Describe the relative locations of body parts and markings to ensure accurate communication among scientists and healthcare professionals Anterior/Posterior—Anterior refers to the front and posterior refers to the back; Can refer to body as a whole or to a body part Superior/Inferior—Superior, or cranial, means towards the head and inferior, or caudal, means towards the tail; Used to refer to positions on head, neck, and trunk only Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (3 of 4) Directional Terms (continued) Proximal/Distal—Proximal means closer to the point of origin and distal means further from the point of origin; Used to refer to positions on the limbs only Medial/Lateral—Medial refers to a position closer to the middle line of the body, called the midline, and lateral refers to a position farther away from the midline Superficial/Deep—Superficial refers to structures closer to the surface of the body and deep refers to structures farther below Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (4 of 4) Figure 1.7 Directional terms. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (1 of 7) Regional Terms—The body can be divided into two broad regions: Axial (head, neck, and trunk); and Appendicular (upper and lower limbs or appendages) Each broad region can be divided into several smaller Regions Regions may be named as nouns, such as the upper arm or brachium, or as adjective with the addition of a suffix such as -al, which is paired with the word “region” to give us the term brachial region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (2 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (3 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (1 of 2) 1. Name the Region—Cervical region 2. Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior side, Lateral to midline; Begins inferior to mental region; Ends superior to thoracic region 3. Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle; Superficial to underlying larynx 4. Put It All Together—Incision on anterior cervical region lateral to midline; Extended vertically 1 centimeter inferior to mental region to 2 centimeters superior to thoracic region; Deep to skin and muscle, but superficial to larynx Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (1 of 4) Planes of Section—Divide a Figure 1.9a Sagittal plane. body or body part for examination Sagittal Plane—Divides body into right and left sections – Midsagittal Plane: Also called a Median Plane; Sections are equal – Parasagittal Plane: Sections are unequal Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (2 of 4) Planes of Section Figure 1.9b Frontal plane. (continued) Frontal Plane—Also called a Coronal Plane; Divides body into anterior and posterior sections Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (3 of 4) Planes of Section Figure 1.9c Transverse planes. (continued) Transverse Plane— Also called a Horizontal Plane or Cross Section; Divides body into superior and inferior sections or proximal and distal sections Oblique Plane—Used less frequently; Taken at an angle Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (4 of 4) Study Boost: How to Learn Anatomical Terms Flashcards are popular because research shows that they work – Make customized flashcards with Practice Anatomy LabTM Flashcards in the Study Area of Mastering® A&P – Make handwritten flashcards Don’t forget to “Bring It Back” by quizzing yourself and “Mix It Up” by randomizing the order Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Posterior Body Cavity Cavity—Any space within the Figure 1.10a Posterior body body; Protects internal organs cavity, lateral view. and allows them to move Posterior Body Cavity— Located on posterior side of body Cranial Cavity—Within the skull; Includes the brain Spinal Cavity—Within the vertebral column; Includes the spinal cord Both cavities are filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid, which bathes both organs Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (1 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity—Has Figure 1.10b Anterior body two main divisions separated cavity, anterior view. by the muscular diaphragm Thoracic Cavity is superior to the diaphragm Abdominopelvic Cavity is inferior to the diaphragm Smaller cavities exist within the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities formed by sheets of tissue termed Serous Membranes Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (2 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) Thoracic Cavity – Pleural Cavities—Surround left and right lungs – Mediastinum—Between pleural cavities; Houses heart, great vessels, trachea (windpipe), and esophagus; Not within serous membrane – Pericardial Cavity—Within mediastinum; Within serous membrane that surrounds heart Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (3 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) Abdominopelvic Cavity—Subdivided into superior Abdominal Cavity (diaphragm to bony pelvis) and inferior Pelvic Cavity (within bony pelvis) Contains organs from digestive, lymphatic, urinary, and reproductive systems Peritoneal Cavity—Abdominal subcavity found within serous membranes Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (4 of 8) Abdominopelvic Cavity can be divided into segments by drawing imaginary lines through its surface One system divides the cavity into four Quadrants – Right and left upper quadrants (RU Q and LU Q); Right and left lower quadrants (RL Q and LL Q) A second system divides the cavity into nine Regions – Right and left hypochondriac regions, Right and left lumbar regions; Right and left iliac regions; Epigastric region; Umbilical region; Hypogastric region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (5 of 8) Figure 1.11 The four quadrants and nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Abdominal Pain Abdominal pain is a common reason for people to seek health care, but the number of structures in the abdominopelvic cavity make diagnoses difficult The four-quadrant system helps to narrow down potential diagnoses For example, RL Q pain may be from the appendix, ovaries in female, the first part of the large intestine, or the last portion of the small intestine Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (6 of 8) Serous Membranes—Thin sheets of tissue that fold over to form continuous double-layered structures filled with Serous Fluid to lubricate organs in the cavity – Visceral Layer—Contacts the organ – Parietal Layer—Attaches to surrounding structures Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (7 of 8) Serous Membranes (continued) Pleural Membranes—Surround the lungs; Includes parietal and visceral pleura Pericardial Membranes—Surround the heart; Includes parietal and visceral pericardium Peritoneal Membranes—Surround some abdominal organs (Intraperitoneal); Includes parietal and visceral peritoneum Organs behind the parietal peritoneum are Retroperitoneal Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (8 of 8) Figure 1.13 The serous membranes of the anterior body cavities. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (1 of 2) Used to look inside patients without surgery; Different forms of radiation form images of internal structures often along specific planes X-Ray uses ionizing radiation; Chest image is shown (top) Computed Tomography Scan (C T) uses ionizing radiation; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of abdominopelvic and peritoneal cavities is shown (bottom) Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (2 of 2) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (M R I) involves the body being placed within a magnetic field; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of the abdominopelvic cavity is shown Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology Core Principles—Set of basic concepts of anatomy and physiology that are revisited repeatedly in the text; They are related to maintaining the body’s internal environment Feedback Loops Relationship of Structure and Function Gradients Cell-Cell Communication Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Overall Theme: Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain the Body’s Homeostasis Homeostasis—The condition in which the body develops and maintains a relatively stable internal environment – Homeostatic Imbalances—Disturbances in homeostasis can lead to disease or death if uncorrected – Regulated Variables—Variables in the internal environment, such as temperature, blood sugar, and many others, are controlled to stay close to a particular normal value – Controlled Variables—Variables that are manipulated to maintain the regulated variables, such as the process that increases blood sugar from stored carbohydrates Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (1 of 8) Feedback Loops—A change in a regulated variable causes effects that feed back and in turn affect that same variable Made up of a series of events that lead to an output As the loops continue, this output then influences the events of the loops themselves Negative Feedback Loops—Oppose the initial change and reduce the output Positive Feedback Loops—Reinforce the initial change and increase the output Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (2 of 8) Negative Feedback Loops—Promote stability; Negating any stimulus that moves a variable away from homeostasis Each variable has a Set Point that includes a Normal Range around that set point The range differs for individual variables Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (3 of 8) Steps of a Negative Feedback Loop 1. Stimulus—Information that a regulated variable is outside the normal range 2. Receptor or Sensor—Cellular structure that registers the stimulus 3. Control Center—Stimulus is sent to the control center (brain or gland) by the nervous or endocrine systems 4. Effector—The cells or organ that will react 5. Responses—Effector causes the response that will return the variable to the normal range Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (4 of 8) Figure 1.14 Control of room temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (5 of 8) Figure 1.15 Control of body temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (6 of 8) Study Boost: Keeping Track of the Body’s Feedback Loops Feedback loops occur in all body systems so there are many to remember As you learn new feedback loops, add them to the Feedback Loops Master List page at the front of the Active-Learning Workbook Use the list to quiz yourself “Bring It Back,” review feedback loops from other chapters “Space It Out,” and have a friend quiz you from the list in a random order “Mix It Up” Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (7 of 8) Positive Feedback Loops—Less common than negative feedback loops; Increases the response to a stimulus; Reinforces the initial stimulus Will eventually shut off in response to an external stimulus or some outside event that is not part of the positive feedback loop Positive feedback loops are often found within a negative feedback loop to produce a quicker response Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (8 of 8) Figure 1.16 Control of blood clotting by a positive feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (1 of 2) Misconception 1: Negative feedback is bad for the body; Positive feedback is good – Under normal circumstances, both types of feedback loops promote homeostasis Misconception 2: Maintaining homeostasis means the body’s internal environment is static or unchanging – Maintenance of normal ranges does not mean the internal environment is unchanging; Changes are normal and are occurring constantly Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (2 of 2) Misconception 3: Regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops are either “on” or “off,” like a switch – The internal environment is dynamic so feedback loops always exhibit some degree of activity Misconception 4: Any physiological variable can be controlled – Variables can only be controlled through feedback loops if receptors exist to detect changes in the set point Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 BioFlix: Homeostasis Use the link below to view AD A compliant video: BioFlix: Homeostasis https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/loMS4qosEmL5 3haP3z1Z_eWMupIkyIFv Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive Feedback Loops Childbirth begins when a woman goes into labor, which occurs by a positive feedback loop Baby’s head stretches the cervix (stimulus); Data from nerves in the cervix (receptors) are sent to the brain (control center); Uterus (effector) produces hormone oxytocin which stimulates uterine contractions (response); This continues and is amplified until the baby is born, which stops the feedback loop Pitocin is a synthetic version of oxytocin that is used when labor needs to be artificially started, or induced Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Structure and Function are Related at All Levels of Organization Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function The form of a structure is such that it best suits its function; Applies to all levels of organization Figure 1.17 The relationship between structure and function. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Gradients Drive Many Physiological Processes Gradients are present any time more of something exists in one area than another and the two areas are connected Gradients drive many of our physiological processes Figure 1.18 Examples of gradients. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Cell-Cell Communication is Required to Coordinate Body Functions Cells communicate with each Figure 1.19 other to maintain homeostasis Communication between a Electrical Signals are nerve cell and a muscle cell. transmitted between neighboring cells Chemical Messengers released from cells may work on neighboring cells or move to other cells through body fluids Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Core Principle Icons Figure 1.20 Core principles icons. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved