CE2131 Geology for Civil Engineers Semestral Course Overview PDF

ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 1 ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 2  COURSE OVERVIEW Dear Future Civil Engineers, In this course, you will learn about geolo...

ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 1 ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 2  COURSE OVERVIEW Dear Future Civil Engineers, In this course, you will learn about geology as a core component of engineering analysis and computations. This course will enable you to understand and appreciate civil engineering by applying Your academic experience as Civil Engineering student will be utilized in this course. To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at the end of the semester, this module is divided into the following: MODULE 1: GEOLOGY – This aims to give you an overview of the concepts of General Geology and its importance in civil engineering. It will enable you to describe the general concepts on geology and understand its importance in Civil Engineering. This module includes branches of Geology, Earth structure, Elementary knowledge in continental drift and plate tectonics, Earth Processes, Weathering, earthquake and groundwater. MODULE 2: MINERALOGY – This aims to give you an overview on Mineralogy. It will enable you to Identify properties, occurrence, and formation of minerals. This module also includes crystallography, mineral families and concepts of coals and petroleum. MODULE 3: PETROLOGY – This aims to give you an overview on petrology. It will enable you to Describe the properties and occurrence of the different classification of rocks. MODULE 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS – This aims to give you an overview on physical and mechanical properties of rocks. It will enable you to Use the geologic literature to design properly heavy civil work rock projects. This module also includes wave theory and grouting. MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING – This aims to give you an overview of geological and geophysical investigation. It will enable you to Use the different geologic techniques and methods necessary for civil engineering works. Course Facilitators Engr Lovely L Rańosa Engr Joana Marie Casandra – Obfan Engr Sharon Lazo COURSE STUDY GUIDE ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 3  Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs, and mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and feedback for this course, will instill in you important qualities you will need in the future as an engineer practicing your profession. The following course guides and house rules are designed for you to practice decorum consistent with standards expected within a formal academic environment. These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence, cooperation, and clear communication among learners and instructors throughout the conduct of this course: 1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing visual cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically, online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily activities that take up your time, not to mention other courses you may be concurrently taking. Choose a time of day when you are most likely to maximize learning. Communicate your schedule to other members of your household so they could help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a dedicated space in your residence conducive for learning. 2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a face-to-face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already been answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or provided. Acts like these will reflect your poor focus and uninspired preparation for this course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in group chats, open forums, and similar electronic venues. a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling, and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid text-speak, slang, all caps, and other informal expressions in your posts. b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation. c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of the discussion. d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion and provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of other participants. e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the main speaker. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 4  3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would be worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the applications you will need to access your course materials, interact with me and your classmates, and submit course requirements. Applications of note are Google Classroom, Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also available alternatives to Microsoft Office tools you might want to explore. Certain requirements will require you to take a video on your smart phone, save it, and submit it electronically. Work on this skill as well. If you are offline, identify the most convenient means for express mail correspondence and inform me as early as possible so we can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time. 4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of thought and care you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very tangible measure of how much of the competencies you have developed and fully obtained throughout this course. 5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline modes to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of this document and will be made available and widely disseminated to enrolees of this course. 6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly for referenced statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute statements by persons other than you by using terms like according to, he said/she said, and the like. 7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your disposal and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to be your independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this course. The only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to learn as much from it as an individual. Make it count. 8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we follow in the conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally accepted norms of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal and family time. Unless of utmost importance, please refrain from any form of communication between 8:30 PM and 7:30 AM everyday and the whole day on Sundays and official holidays. You shall expect me to adhere to this guideline myself. This ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 5  will allow us all to dedicate personal time and space to other aspects of our life and maintain a healthy work-life/study-life balance. 9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your own understanding from experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based on the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate). The following icons will help you find some of the most critical areas in the units of the learning modules: Part of module unit that is designed to pique your interest in the topics to be discussed by accessing your prior knowledge and build up your curiosity to learn more. Part of the module unit that presents the main lesson through materials that will give you a general picture of the topics to be discussed, introducing you to new concepts and ideas. Part of the module unit that contains detailed discussions of topics and provide you the definition of the smaller pieces of the general picture you encountered in the previous stage. Part of the module unit that expounds on the ideas of the previous stage and allows you to extrapolate into a broader field or delve deeper into the finer details of the topics. Part of the module unit that gives us the opportunity to gauge your attainment of the learning outcomes using formative and evaluative assessment tools. Additional Guidelines for Offline Students: If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL) mode, you will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at given stages of the course through express mail correspondence to me, on or before the scheduled date. I will provide you with the feedback on your submissions at the soonest possible time through any of the available means of communication. While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue doing the tasks in the succeeding units of the module. If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available means. This module was prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and independently. Aside from meeting the content and performance standards of this course ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 6  in accomplishing the given activities, you will be able to learn other invaluable learning skills which you will be very proud of as a responsible learner. In this course, you will explore and learn to understand basic concepts on geology. You are therefore encouraged to: 1. Download any of the main references for this course: a. Singh, P. (n.d.) Engineering and General Geology. Katson Publication House. b. Varghese, P.C. (n.d.) Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. c. Legeet (1998) Geology and Engineering. McGraw Hill Book Company. 2. You are encouraged to dedicate at least six (6) hours for the lecture per week to this course throughout the second semester 3. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every part of the module. Read it over and over until you understand the point. 4. Study how you can manage to do the activities of this course in consideration of your other modules from other courses. Be very conscious with the study schedule. Post it on a conspicuous place so that you can always see. Do not ask about questions that are already answered in the guide. 5. Do not procrastinate. Remember, it is not others who will be short-changed if you will not do your work on time. It will be you. 6. Before you start doing your tasks, read and understand the assessment tools provided. Do not settle with the low standards, target the highest standards in doing your assigned tasks. I know you can. 7. You are free to browse and read the different materials even prior to doing the tasks in each unit of the module. However, you need to ensure that you will not miss any part of the module and you will not miss to accomplish every activity in every unit as scheduled. 1. Before the end of the midterms, you will be tasked to send back through correspondence the accomplished and scheduled modules for midterms to me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through text or any other media available for you. 2. While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished modules, continue doing the task in the succeeding units of the module that are scheduled for the finals. 3. If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available means. Remember, if there is a will, there is a way. 4. In answering all the assessment and evaluation activities, write legibly. It will help if you will not write your answers in the module if you are not yet sure of your answers. You must remember that all activities in the module are academic activities, which mean that the relevant academic conventions apply. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 7  5. Lastly, you are the learner; hence, you do the module on your own. Your family members and friends at home will support you but the activities must be done by you. As Louisan, we always need to demonstrate our core values of competence, creativity, social involvement and Christian spirit. STUDY SCHEDULE (1hour per day) WEEK TOPIC LEARNING UNIT LECTURE ACTIVITIES OUTCOME MODULE 1 (1 to 3) Describe the GENERAL GEOLOGY: Engage: Pre-assessment of Day concepts of Branches initial understanding and 1-2; 7-8; General Geology Earth Structure knowledge of course topic 13-14 and its importance Continental Drift and Explore: Read given in civil engineering Plate Tectonics module or downloaded EARTH PROCESSES: book/s Weathering Explain: discuss concepts of Land Formation general geology EARTHQUAKES: Elaborate: examples of Occurrences and processes with pictures Modes Evaluate: Comment on GROUNDWATER pre-assessment answer and Importance relate topic to local scenario Day 14 : PRELIM QUIZ 1 MODULE 2 (4 to 5) Identify properties, MINERALOGY: Engage: Pre-assessment of Day and formation of Physical Properties of initial understanding and 19 – 20; minerals. minerals knowledge of course topic 25 - 26 Crystallography Explore: Read given Mineral Families module or downloaded Coal and Petroleum book/s Explain: discuss concepts of general geology Elaborate: examples of processes with pictures Evaluate: Comment on pre-assessment answer and relate topic to local scenario Day 26: PRELIM QUIZ 2 22-28 February 2022 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: PRELIM EXAMINATION DEADLINE OF ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO BE GIVEN BY YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 8  MODULE 3 (7 to 9) Describe the PETROLOGY Engage: Pre-assessment of Day properties and Classification of rocks initial understanding and 37 -38; occurrence of the o Igneous knowledge of course topic 43 – 44; different o Sedimentary Explore: Read given 49 classification of o Metamorphic module or downloaded rocks. Description, occurrence, book/s properties, and Explain: discuss concepts of distribution general geology Elaborate: examples of processes with pictures Evaluate: Comment on pre-assessment answer and relate topic to local scenario Day 50: MIDTERM QUIZ 1 MODULE 4 (10 to Use the geologic STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Engage: Pre-assessment of 12) literature to design AND ROCK MECHANICS initial understanding and Day properly heavy civil Attitude of beds, knowledge of course topic 55 – 56; work rock projects Outcrops, Geological Explore: Read given maps, study of 61 – 62; module or downloaded structures, Folds, Faults 67 book/s and Joints Physical and Explain: discuss concepts of mechanical properties general geology of rocks Elaborate: examples of Types of wave theory processes with pictures Static and dynamic Evaluate: Comment on moduli of elasticity pre-assessment answer and Grouting relate topic to local scenario Day 68: MIDTERM QUIZ 2 2 - 8 April 2022: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: MIDTERM EXAMINATION DEADLINE OF ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO BE GIVEN BY YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 9  MODULE 5 (13 to Use of the different GEOLOGICAL AND Engage: Pre-assessment 16) geologic techniques GEOPHYSICAL of initial understanding Day and methods INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL and knowledge of course 73 – 74; necessary for civil ENGINEERING topic 79- 80; engineering works Explore: Read given 85 – 86; module or downloaded 91 book/s Explain: discuss concepts of general geology Elaborate: examples of processes with pictures Evaluate: Comment on pre-assessment answer and relate topic to local scenario Day 92 FINAL QUIZ 1 19 – 25 May 2022 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: FINAL EXAMINATION DEADLINE OF ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO BE GIVEN BY YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR Saint Louis University Calendar for the Second Semester AY 2021-2022 Registration: January 10-14, 2021 Start of Classes: January 17, 2021 Chinese New Year: February 1 (No classes) Preliminary Examinations: February 22-28, 2021 EDSA People Power revolution: February 25 (No classes) Midterm Examination: April 2-8, 2021 Araw ng Kagitingan: Apr 9, 2021 (No classes) Holy Week: April 11-16 (No classes) Labor Day: May 1, 2021 (No classes) Final Examination: May 19-25, 2021 EVALUATION ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 10  TO PASS THE COURSE, YOU MUST: 1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities and problem sets 2. Submit two graded quizzes for midterms and finals. 3. Take the Midterm and Final Examination. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Formative assessments such as pre-assessment forms, self-assessment activities aim to enhance and deepen your understanding of the course. The requirements will be posted upon the upload of the modules and you are expected to submit your output by the scheduled due dates. Submission may only be done once, and you are not allowed to edit and re-submit your work. You are required to complete these tasks to complete the course. All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge shall always be a part of all requirements submitted online. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Quizzes and Examination The two graded quizzes will be posted one week before its scheduled date. The two graded quizzes are 20-item multiple choice type of google quiz. You will be required to finish the quiz within the given timeframe, and you will not be allowed to edit your answers once submitted. Midterm and Final Individual assessments will be conducted as scheduled. Students will be assigned a problem/question to be answered within the given timeframe and are not allowed to edit their answers once submitted. All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge shall always be a part of all requirements submitted online. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 11  TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will be needing the following software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, Publication, and Spreadsheet. All materials and activities will be facilitated through Google Suite Applications particularly, Google Forms, Google Hangouts, Google Meet, and Google Doc. These are all available in the Google Suite package subscribed by Saint Louis University for you. Students are required to have a cellphone/laptop/personal computer capable to download the google classroom application, save pdf/word/ppt files; scan/take photos of written documents; and view YouTube videos. CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATORS ENGR. Lovely L. Rańosa, MAEHP, MSCE E-mails: [email protected] FB account/messenger: Lovely Lorenzo Rańosa Engr. Sharon Lazo E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Mobile No.: 09328838827 Engr. Joana Marie F. Casandra-Obfan, MA EHP THIS MODULE WAS PREPARED AND COMPILED BY Engr. Joana Marie F. Casandra-Obfan, Engr. Sharon Lazo ϕμ_αρδνασαχ/σκ_λαζο 12  TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents COURSE OVERVIEW 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 13 MODULE 1: GEOLOGY 14 ENGAGE 14 EXPLORE 14 EXPLAIN 15 ELABORATE 30 EVALUATE 43 MODULE 2: MINERALOGY 44 ENGAGE 44 EXPLORE 44 EXPLAIN 44 ELABORATE 57 EVALUATE 66 MODULE 3: PETROLOGY 67 ENGAGE 67 EXPLORE 67 EXPLAIN 67 ELABORATE 86 EVALUATE 92 MODULE 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS 93 ENGAGE 93 EXPLORE 93 EXPLAIN 93 ELABORATE 112 EVALUATE 113 MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 114 ENGAGE 114 EXPLORE 114 EXPLAIN 114 ELABORATE 127 EVALUATE 134 CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR 136 ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 13 | Page  MODULE 1: GEOLOGY ENGAGE What is the importance of learning Geology in the CE profession? Differentiate the theory of continental drift and plate tectonics. How do you think land formations are created? Why is weathering an important factor to consider in the CE profession? Where is water stored? What is the importance of learning basic concepts of earthquake in CE profession? EXPLORE GEOLOGY Science that deals with Earth’s physical structure and substance, history and the processes that act on it BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY 1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY ▪ Branch of geology that deals with the present physical properties of earth a) PETROLOGY ▪ Deals with the mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and types of ROCKS ▪ Most important geology in Civil Engineering point of view b) MINERALOGY ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 14 | Page  ▪ Deals with the formation, composition, occurrence, types, properties and uses of MINERALS c) STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY ▪ Also known as GEOTECTONIC or TECTONIC geology ▪ The study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformation history ▪ Deals with the internal structure of rocks which may result to the occurrence of faults, joints and folds d) GEOMORPHOLOGY ▪ The study of the physical features of the Earth’s surface and its relation to its geological structure ▪ Deals with the development / transformation of its landforms e) GEOPHYSICS ▪ The study of the physical properties of earth (e.g. Density, magnetism, texture, etc) f) GEOCHEMISTRY ▪ Deals with the occurrence, distribution, mobility and abundance of elements in the earth’s crust 2. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY ▪ branch of geology that focuses on the preserved evidence of geological events a) STRATIGRAPHY ▪ Concerned with the order and relative position of strata and their relationship to geological time scale ▪ Used for study of archaeological remains b) PALEONTOLOGY ▪ Deals with the study of life of geologic past. ▪ involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils preserved in rocks c) OCEANOGRAPHY ▪ Deals with the study of all aspects of the ocean ▪ Includes marine life and ecosystem ** ALLIED BRANCHES ▪ applies knowledge of geology in other sciences and/or field 1. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY/ GEOLOGY ENGINEERING ▪ application of geology in Civil Engineering 2. MINING GEOLOGY ▪ application of geology in Mining Engineering 3. GEOHYDROLOGY / HYDROGEOLOGY ▪ deals with groundwater movement EARTH STRUCTURE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 15 | Page ▪ The structure of the Earth consists of various spherical shells or layers that can be categorized in two manners: a) Chemical/ Elemental compositions b) Mechanical/physical properties Figure 1. Layers of the Earth COMPOSITIONAL (CHEMICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH ▪ more commonly discussed layers of earth; layers are defined based on its chemical or elemental composition Figure 2. Compositional Layers of Earth 1. CRUST ▪ Consist of several elements ▪ 3 to 5 miles thick under the ocean and approximately 25 miles thick under the continents ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 16 | Page  Figure 2. Composition of Earth Crust 2 TYPES of CRUST a. OCEANIC CRUST (Basaltic) 71% ▪ Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flow; or cools deeper down to create igneous rock gabbro ▪ Sediments coat the seafloor, thickest near the shore ▪ b. CONTINENTAL CRUST (Granitic) 29% ▪ Made up of different types of rocks ▪ Average composition is granite which is less dense than mafic igneous rocks oceanic crust ▪ Thicker part of the crust 2. MANTLE ▪ Layer under the crust, compromises 82% of Earth volume ▪ About 1, 800 miles deep ▪ Consist mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron ▪ Heat causes rocks to rise **CONDUCTION – heat transfer through rapid collision of atoms which only happens in solid – heat flows from warmer to cooler places until it reaches same temperature **CONVECTION – process of material that can move and flow and develops convection currents 3. CORE ▪ Center of the Earth made of 85% iron metal and 15% nickel a. Inner core ▪ Solid part of the core made of iron ▪ Has a radius of about 760 miles according to NASA ▪ Hottest layer of earth at 7000°C ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 17 | Page  b. Outer core ▪ Liquid part of the core composed of nickel-iron alloy ▪ About 1,355 miles thick ▪ Temperature at 5000°C MECHANICAL (PHYSICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH ▪ layers of earth defined and divided based on the behaviors of the layers; corresponds to the mechanical properties of the layers a) LITHOSPHERE ▪ the solid, outer part of the Earth; includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure ▪ bounded by the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere ▪ sometimes called the Geosphere itself b) ASTHENOSPHERE ▪ the soft upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, ▪ relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur. c) MESOSPHERE: ▪ layer below the asthenosphere but above the outer core; essentially the lower mantle. ▪ Despite high temperatures, the intense pressure in this region restricts the movements of the molecules of the silicate material despite being under high temperature, thus making it extremely rigid. d) OUTER CORE ▪ extends from the bottom of the mesosphere or the lower mantle and surrounds the inner core ▪ extreme temperature allows metals to remain in their liquid phases ▪ the only layer of the Earth that is a true liquid ▪ Strong magnetic field is caused by convection e) INNER CORE ▪ solidity is due to the intense pressure from the upper layers ▪ Spins at different speed than the rest of the planet, which is thought to cause the Earth’s magnetic field ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 18 | Page  Figure 3. Mechanical Layers of Earth CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS CONTINENTAL DRIFT ▪ developed in the early part of the 20th century, mostly by Alfred Wegener ▪ all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous, single landmass called Pangaea, existed about 240 million years ago and began breaking up about 200 million years ago Other supercontinents: Pannotia formed about 600 million years ago Rodinia existed more than a billion years ago. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 19 | Page PLATE TECTONICS Scientific theory of the large-scale motion of seven(7) large plates and movements of larger number of smaller plates Began between 3.3 to 3.5 B years ago Average tectonic plate thickness in the lithosphere is about 100 km 7 Major Tectonic Plates ❑ South American Plate (43, 600, 000 sq km) ❑ Indo-Australian Plate (58, 900,000 sq km) ❑ Antarctic Plate (60, 900, 000 sq km) ❑ African Plate (61, 300, 000sq km) ❑ Eurasian Plate (67, 800, 000 sq km) ❑ North American Plate (75, 900, 000 sq km) ❑ Pacific Plate (103, 300, 000 sq km) TYPES OF TECTONIC PLATES 1. OCEANIC PLATES Made of oceanic crust; composed mostly of magnesium and silicon minerals 2. CONTINENTAL PLATES Made of continental crust; composed mainly of aluminum and silicon materials BOUNDARIES OF TECTONIC PLATES 1. TRANSFORM BOUNDARY ▪ Occur between plates which move past each other by sliding ▪ Plates gets minimal damage ▪ Locations of these boundaries are called FAULTS 2. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY ▪ Plates slide apart from each other ▪ Moves in opposite directions ▪ Often occurs in seafloors, resulting to a new one ▪ volcanic activity produces a mid ocean ridge and small earthquakes. 3. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY ▪ Plates move against each other ▪ One plate goes underneath another plate ▪ Volcanoes and mountains are formed at these boundaries MOVEMENT OF PLATES ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 20 | Page Mantle convection drives plate tectonic 1. Hot mantle rises at the ridge axis, creating new ocean crust. 2. The top of convection cell moves horizontally away from the ridge crest ,as does the new seafloor 3. The outer limbs of the convection cells plunge down into the deeper mantle, dragging oceanic crust, at the deep-sea trenches 4. The material sinks to the core and move horizontally. 5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where It rise again. LANDFORMS AND EARTH PROCESSES EARTH PROCESS - dynamic actions that occur inside the earth or on the earth’s surface Constructive process: any process that builds earth material or landforms e.g. erosion, transportation of sediments Destructive process: any process that breaks down earth material or destroy landforms e.g. weathering, earthquakes, volcanic eruption WEATHERING - breakdown of rocks at earth’s surface under the influence of certain physical and chemical agencies FACTORS affecting Weathering: 1. nature of Rocks 2. length of time 3. climate PROCESSES OF WEATHERING 1. DISINTEGRATION ▪ the process of breaking up of rocks into small pieces by the mechanical agencies of physical agents 2. DECOMPOSITION ▪ the process of breaking up of mineral constituents to form new components by the chemical actions of the physical agents 3. DENUDATION ▪ term used when the earth surface is worn away by the chemical and mechanical actions of physical agents and the lower layers are exposed TYPES OF WEATHERING 1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING - Physical breakdown of rock masses under the attack of certain atmospheric agents ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 21 | Page  - A single rock block is broken gradually into smaller irregular fragments and then into particles smaller dimensions - most active in cold, dry, and higher areas of the earth surface - Temperature variations are responsible to a great extent of physical weathering Exfoliation - Curved plates of rock are stripped also known as onion-skin weathering - Often results in dome-shaped hills or dome rocks - Occurs along planes of parting called joints - caused by unequal expansion and contraction, since some rocks are either colder or warmer on the outer surface ** FREEZE-THAW WEATHERING - Water enters cracks on rocks and freezes when temperature drops and melts and seeps deeper in the crack. Process repeats until rock splits completely 2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING - The chemical decomposition of the rock - internal structure of mineral is altered by addition or removal of elements due to the chemical reaction between the atmosphere and the rocks - takes place in the presence of water which dissolves many active gases from the atmosphere - conditions are defined primarily by chemical composition of the rocks humidity and the environmental surrounding the rock under attack Spheroidal Weathering - a form of chemical weathering, caused by penetration of water at bounding joints/ fractures, attacking from all sides - concentric or spherical shells of decayed rock are successively loosened and separated from a block of rock 3. THERMAL STRESS WEATHERING - sometimes known as isolation weathering - Contributes to both physical and chemical weathering - Temperature change is important in arid and semi-arid regions ▪ Rocks split apart into fragments when expanding and contracting due to changes in temperature (physical) ▪ Moisture alters composition of rock minerals (chemical) 2 MAIN TYPES ▪ thermal fatigue ▪ caused by a rapid change of temperature of a certain point ▪ happen when a surface is repeatedly heated and cooled ▪ thermal shock ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 22 | Page  ▪ failure occurs immediately during a single, rapidly applied thermal load 4. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING - Plants and animals can influence rocks - Roots burrow into the rock, weakening the structure of the rock until it breaks away EARTH PROCESS BY WIND: 1. EROSION a. DEFLATION ▪ Process of wind removing loose material from flat dry areas, uncemented sediments ▪ Occurs in deserts, dry lake beds, floodplains, and glacial washout plains b. ABRASION ▪ Scraping of rock surface by friction between rocks and moving particles 2. TRANSPORTATION ▪ The total sediment load carried by a wind can be divided into two a. Bed load ▪ larger and heavier particles such as sands or gravels ▪ moved by the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm of the earth surface b. Suspended load ▪ finer clay or dust particles which are lifted by the moving winds by a distance of hundreds of meters above the earths surface 3. DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENT - sediments get dropped and deposited forming what are known as Aeolian deposits a. Sand dunes - huge heaps of sand formed by the natural deposition of wind blown sand - sometimes of characteristics and recognizable shape - often found to migrate from one place to another due to change in the direction and velocity of wind 3 Types of Sand Dunes: Barchans or Crescent-Shape dunes ▪ most common occurrence and triangular in section ▪ steep side: ▪ facing away from the direction of wind ▪ inclined at an angle of about 30°to 33° ▪ Gentle side ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 23 | Page  ▪ lies on the windward side ▪ makes an angle about 10° to15° ▪ maximum height: 335 meters; horn to horn width: 350 meters Transverse Dunes ▪ similar to a barchan in section ▪ not curved in plan like barchans ▪ its longer axis is broadly transverse to the direction of the prevailing winds Longitudinal Dunes ▪ elongated ridges of sand with their longer axis broadly parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind ▪ 3 m height and 200 m long in average b. Loess ▪ a loosely compacted yellowish-gray deposit of windblown sediment of which extensive deposits occur BY WATER (COASTAL PROCESSES): 1. EROSION - wearing away of rock along the coastline - Caused by Destructive waves on the coastline - occurs where waves have direct contact with the rock a. Hydraulic action - this is the sheer power of the waves as they smash against the cliff. Air becomes trapped and compressed into cracks in the rock with explosive force causing the rock to break apart. b. Abrasion - this is when pebbles grind along a rock platform or cliff base much like sandpaper. Over time the rock becomes smooth. c. Attrition - this is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They break apart to become smaller and more rounded. d. Solution - this is when sea water dissolves certain types of rocks. In the UK, chalk and limestone cliffs (soft rock) are prone to this type of erosion. 2. TRANSPORTATION a. Solution - when minerals in rocks like chalk and limestone are dissolved in sea water and then carried in solution. The load is not visible. b. Suspension - small particles such as silts and clays are suspended in the flow of the water. c. Saltation - where small pieces of shingle or large sand grains are bounced along the seabed. d. Traction - where pebbles and larger material are rolled along the seabed. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 24 | Page 3. MASS MOVEMENT a. Rockfall – bits of rock fall off the cliff face, usually due to freeze-thaw weathering b. Mudflow – saturated soil flows down a slope c. Landslide – large blocks of rock slide downhill d. Rotational slip – saturated soil slumps down a curved surface 4. DEPOSITION - When the sea loses energy, it drops the material it has been carrying - occur on coastlines that have constructive waves Factors leading to deposition include: waves starting to slow down and lose sheltered areas, eg bays energy little or no wind shallow water GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY the science of the occurrence, distribution, and movement of water below the surface of the earth GROUND WATER ▪ Also called subsurface water ▪ Water that occurs below the surface of Earth ▪ Occupies all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic strata ▪ an important source of water supply throughout the world ▪ 0.58% of the total water resources available in nature, 22.21% fresh water part and 2.6% of reservoirs ▪ Located at 4km depth in earth’s surface ▪ used in irrigation, industries, urban and rural home continues to increase ▪ Regulated by ▪ quantum and speed of rains ▪ dryness of air ▪ extent of vaporization during rain ▪ porosity and permeability of rocks ▪ Temperature ▪ vegetative cover ▪ slope of land ▪ water absorbing capacity of soil ORIGIN OF GROUND WATER 1. Meteoric water: ▪ Main source of groundwater ▪ Received in the form of rain and snow through infiltration of pores, fissures and joints 2. Connate Water: ▪ Exists in pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks of seas and lakes ▪ Also called sedimentary water 3. Magmatic Water: ▪ Converts water after condensation of vapor as result of volcanic action at time of entering hot rocks ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 25 | Page GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE ▪ Groundwater occurrence is controlled by geology ▪ Groundwater occurs when water recharges the subsurface through cracks and pores in soil and rock 1. Zone of Aeration (unsaturated) ▪ Consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially by air ▪ Soil Water zone ▪ Sub-soil zone ▪ Capillary zone 2. Zone of Saturation (saturated) ▪ All interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure ▪ Extends from the upper surface of saturation down to the underlying impermeable rock ▪ Water table (Phreatic surface) occurs if there is no overlying impermeable strata ▪ Forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation 4 Types of Geological Formations 1. Aquifers ▪ A saturated formation of earth material ▪ Stores water and yield sufficient quantity ▪ Transmits water relatively easily due to high permeability ▪ Sand and gravel form good aquifers TYPES OF AQUIFERS a. Unconfined Aquifer ▪ Also called water table ▪ Upper water surface is at atmospheric pressure ▪ Able to rise and fall ▪ Usually closer to earth's surface b. Confined Aquifer ▪ Also known as artesian or pressure aquifers ▪ Below the land surface saturated with water ▪ Bound by impermeable layers above and below ▪ Under pressure ▪ If penetrated by a well, water rises above the top of aquifer c. Leaky Aquifers ▪ Also called semi-confined aquifers ▪ both of Upper and lower boundaries are aquitards ▪ Or one boundary is an aquitard and the other is an aquiclude ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 26 | Page 2. Aquitard ▪ Formation through which seepage is possible ▪ Yield significant compared to an aquifer ▪ Partly permeable ▪ Appreciable quantities of water may leak to an aquifer below it 3. Aquiclude ▪ A porous but not permeable geological formation ▪ May bear water but do not yield ▪ Argillaceous rocks, clay and shale are typical examples 4. Aquifuge ▪ Neither a porous nor permeable geological formation ▪ No interconnected openings ▪ Cannot transmit or absorb water ▪ Suitable for ground water occurrence ▪ Massive granites and quartzite are typical examples EARTHQUAKE ▪ any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks; occur most often along geologic faults ▪ the release of sudden and extreme energy that is caused by shifting in the Earth's crust SEISMOLOGY - the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth FAULTS - narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one another - a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, where compression or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of the fracture - may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any angle CLASSIFICATION: 1. Normal Slip - the crust is being pulled apart, the overlying (hanging-wall) block moves down with respect to the lower (foot wall) block 2. Reverse Slip ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 27 | Page  - the crust is being compressed, the hanging-wall block moves up and over the footwall block – slip on a gently inclined plane is referred to as thrust faulting 3. Strike Slip - Crustal blocks move sideways past each other, usually along nearly-vertical faults i. Sinistral Strike Slip - far side moves to the left ii. Dextral Strike Slip - far side moves to the right b. Oblique Slip - involves various combinations of these basic movements FOCUS - exact spot underneath the earth surface at which an earthquake originates EPICENTER - the part of the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake INTENSITY ▪ severity of earthquake shaking ▪ based on actual effects produced by the quakes on the earth MAGNITUDE ▪ quantitative measure of the size of the earthquake at its source ▪ based on the total energy released MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE ▪ measures the intensity of an earthquake by observing its effect on people, the environment and the earth’s surface ▪ labels an earthquake from I to XII depending on the effects of the earthquake RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE ▪ measures the energy released by an earthquake using a seismograph ▪ assigns earthquakes a number between 1 and 10 in order of increasing intensity CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE 1. DUE TO SUPERFICIAL MOVEMENTS: - feeble earthquakes are caused due to superficial movements - dashing waves cause vibrations along the seashore - Water descending along high waterfalls, impinges the valley floor and causes vibrations along the neighboring areas - At high altitudes the snow falling is an avalanche 2. DUE TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS: - Volcanic eruptions cause feeble tremors in the surface of the earth - cause a severe vibration on the adjoining area and have really disastrous effects 3. DUE TO FOLDING OR FAULTING: - caused due to folding of the layers of the earth’s crust - are more disastrous and are known as tectonic earthquakes ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 28 | Page  - directly or indirectly change the structural features of the earth crust CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE a) BASED ON DEPTH OF FOCUS: ▪ SHALLOW ▪ Lies anywhere up to 50 km below surface ▪ INTERMEDIATE ▪ Originates 50km to 300 km below the surface ▪ DEEP SEATED b) BASED ON CAUSE OF ORIGIN ▪ TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ▪ Due to relative movements of crystal block on faulting ▪ NON-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES ▪ Due to volcanic eruptions or landslides c) BASED ON INTENSITY ▪ Initially given by Rossi and Ferel (Scale 1-10) ▪ Based on the sensation of people and damage caused Later modified by Mercalli and later by Wood and Neumann EXPLAIN Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering ✔ provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence, composition, durability, and other properties ✔ knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies helps in planning and carrying out major civil engineering works ✔ knowledge about ground water quantity and depth of occurrence is required in connection with water supply, irrigation, excavation and many other civil engineering works ✔ foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly concerned with the geology of the area where they are to be built ✔ Helps greatly in interpreting drilling data for foundation works ✔ the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary in tunneling, road construction, canals, docks and in determining stability of cuts and slopes ✔ natural formation of soil materials is necessary in soil mechanics ✔ a detailed geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and sections, is prepared prior major engineering projects ✔ stability of civil engineering structure is considerably increased if the geological feature like faults, joints, bedding planes, folding solution channels etc. in the rock beds are properly located and suitably treated ✔ Planning and design, and cost and safety depends on soil conditions PLATE TECTONICS ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 29 | Page  FORMATIONS DUE TO MOVEMENTS OF PLATE TECTONICS ❖ PACIFIC RING OF FIRE Most ocean trenches circle the Pacific in the "Ring of Fire," which also includes active volcanoes and earthquake zones. (National Geographic) ❖ MARIANA TRENCH: result of convergent boundary between the Pacific and Mariana Plates (Pacific moves underneath Mariana) ❖ PUERTO RICO TRENCH, the deepest spot in the Atlantic Ocean, is created where the oceanic crust of the North American plate (carrying the western Atlantic Ocean) is being subducted beneath the ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 30 | Page  oceanic crust of the smaller Caribbean plate ❖ HIMALAYA MOUNTAIN RANGE: result of convergent boundary between the Eurasian and Indian Plates ❖ The ALPS in New Zealand are fold mountains created as the tiny Adriatic microplate rotates clockwise against the Eurasian plate to the north. ❖ the Nazca plate is subducting beneath the South American plate, resulting in the ANDES MOUNTAINS ❖ JUAN DE FUCA RIDGE: a mid-ocean spreading center and divergent plate boundary that separates the Pacific Plate to the west and the Juan de Fuca Plate to the east. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 31 | Page  ❖ Iceland: where the MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE separates the North American and Eurasian plate ❖ The EAST PACIFIC RISE is a mid-oceanic ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean. It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from (north to south) the North American Plate, the Rivera Plate, the Cocos Plate, the Nazca Plate, and the Antarctic Plate. ❖ the Arabian, Indian, and African plates are drifting apart, forming the GREAT RIFT VALLEY in Africa. The Dead Sea fills the rift with seawater ❖ the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS along the pacific is an island arc formed by overriding of the North American plate on the Pacific plate. ❖ The Ryukyu Islands, also known as the Nansei Islands or the Ryukyu Arc. An island arc formed by the Uruma fluctuation – earth’s crust movement that ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 32 | Page  occurs along with the formation of the Ryukyu Islands. Since its formation, the islands have repeated uplifting and sinking. LANDFORMS AND EARTH PROCESSES EROSION ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 33 | Page ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 34 | Page TRANSPORTATION ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 35 | Page COASTAL PROCESSES: MASS MOVEMENT RIVER PROCESSES DEPOSITION SAND DUNES ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 36 | Page LOESS ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 37 | Page CHEMICAL WEATHERING ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 38 | Page PHYSICAL WEATHERING ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 39 | Page EXFOLIATION WEATHERING ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 40 | Page ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 41 | Page SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 42 | Page ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 43 | Page ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING ❖ selection of suitable quarry for the extraction of stones for structural and decorative purposes ❖ weathering always causes a loss in the strength of the rocks or soil ❖ For a construction engineer it is always necessary to see: ❖ the extent the area under consideration for a proposed project has been affected by weathering ❖ the possible effects of weathering processes typical of the area on the construction materials ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTH PROCESSES: ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 44 | Page  ❖ In general, no site is selected for any type of important work on the moving dunes because such dunes are always a source of trouble ❖ moving dunes damage certain important works ❖ IF compelled to select such a site, special methods should be adopted to check the motion of the moving dunes TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND AQUIFERS EARTHQUAKE FAULTS ✔ Sierra Nevada Fault in California, United Statescasued 1872 Lone Pine Earthquake of M 7.4 – 8.3 ✔ Sparta Fault in Greece caused M7.2 Sparta Earthquake in 464BC ✔ Independence Valley Fault system in Nevada United States caused 2008 Wells earthquake – M6.0 ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 45 | Page  ✔ Glarust Thrust in Switzerland exist during Cenozoic Period. ✔ Kern Canyon Fault in Sierra Nevada, California is a thrust fault ✔ Seattle Fault in Washington is an active thrust Fault ✔ San Andreas Fault, had a maximum movement of 6 metres (20 feet) during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake is a 1300km Dextral strike-slip fault ✔ North Anatolian Fault, during the İzmit earthquake of 1999, moved more than 2.5 metres (8.1 feet) is a Dextral Strike Slip Fault ✔ Palu-Koro Fault in Indonesia is a 500km Sinistral strike-slip fault caused M7.5 Sulawesi Earthquake in 2018 ✔ Septentrional-Orient Fault Zone is an active Sinistral strike-slip fault in the Caribbean. 1842 Earthquake in Cap Haitien(M8.1) ✔ Marikina Valley Fault System : Dextral Strike Slip ✔ 1855 Wairarapa Fault rupture, combination of reverse and dextral movement. MERCALLI AND RICHTER SCALE: ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 46 | Page ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTHQUAKE ▪ time and intensity of the earthquake can never be predicted ▪ Remedy is to provide additional factors in the design of structure to minimize the losses due to shocks of an earthquake ▪ collect sufficient data, regarding the previous seismic activity in the area ▪ assess the losses, which are likely to take place in furniture due to earthquake shocks ▪ provide factors of safety, to stop or minimize the loss due to sever earth shocks PRECAUTIONS to make building earthquake resilient ✔ foundation should rest on a firm rock bed ✔ Grillage foundations preferably be provided ✔ Excavation of foundation must be up to same level throughout the building ✔ concrete should be laid in rich mortar and continuous ✔ Masonry must be in max 1:4 cement mortar ratio ✔ R.C slab, cantilevers, projections, parapets, domes should be provided ✔ All parts of building must be tied firmly with each other ✔ Building should be uniform height ✔ Best materials should be used. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 47 | Page ELABORATE Watch: Plate Tectonics: https://youtu.be/RA2-Vc4PIOY Tectonic Plate Movement: https://youtu.be/f4V4amhLZdU Transform Boundaries: https://youtu.be/QE_RC6gqT3w Convergent Boundaries: https://youtu.be/L2XixysJgPs Divergent Boundaries: https://youtu.be/wfHwAeVNrzA Groundwater: https://youtu.be/zyHtkDCwQUw Wind Erosion: https://youtu.be/PQmon7Rj6ns Aquifers: https://vimeo.com/288326731 Earthquakes: https://youtu.be/T0AEtX-uPLA Answer Quiz given by course facilitator. EVALUATE Tectonic Plates: Make a research on the tectonic plates found in Asia. 1. You are required to submit a geological map identifying the different plates. 2. Include an information sheet about details of the plates. a. Location b. Area c. Evolution d. Other important information 3. Provide the references at the end of your research. 4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied. 5. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can use any appropriate font, but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s presentation. Earthquake: Make a presentation about the different fault lines in the Philippines. 1. You are required to submit a geological map identifying the different fault lines 2. Include an information sheet about details: a. Location b. Length c. Movement d. Other important information 3. Provide the references at the end of your research. 4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied. 5. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can use any appropriate font, but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s presentation. ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 48 | Page Answer Exam given by course facilitator ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 49 | Page  MODULE 2: MINERALOGY ENGAGE In your own opinion, how are minerals formed? Why is it important for CE students to understand the qualities of minerals? What are the most common minerals found in CE construction materials? Discuss fossil fuels. EXPLORE MINERALOGY Scientific study of minerals, Structure (chemical and crystalline),Properties (physical), Processes (origin, formation & occurrence), Classification and distribution, and uses MINERALS - This are naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound crystalline substance, has definite atomic structure and chemical composition - over 4000 Minerals exist in earth crust - All are composed of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium CLASSIFICATIONS AND MINERAL GROUPS ▪ ROCK FORMING MINERALS ▪ Minerals found in abundance of earth crust ▪ forms igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks ▪ ORE FORMING MINERALS ▪ Minerals that are of economic values ▪ limited mode of occurrence ▪ formed by more unusual processes ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 50 | Page  MINERAL GROUP ANIONS Exception OXIDES O2- Carbon, sulphur and silicate SULPHIDES S-2 SULPHATES SO4–2 HALIDES Halogens (F, Cl, Br, etc) CARBONATES CO3–2 complex PHOSPHATES PO4–3 complex SILICATES Si: O2 Combination of silicon and Si:O4 oxygen NATIVE Single elements MINERALS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 1. COLOR - Not constant in most of the minerals - Due to the stain or impurities in the minerals - May indicate that mineral has undergone peculiar phenomena PLAY OF COLORS: - Development of series of prismatic colors by turning about in light CHANGE OF COLORS: - Similar to play of colors but slower rotation IRIDESCENE: - Show rainbow colors either in the interior or on the surface 2. STREAK - Color of mineral powder - Nearly constant than the color - Determined by marking unglazed porcelain or simply by scratching with a knife and observing the powder color 3. LUSTRE - Description of how much a mineral reflects light a. METALLIC(SHINY) i. Classy (vitreous) – like broken glass ii. Metallic – like metal iii. Pearly – like pearls b. NONMETALLIC (DULL) ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 51 | Page 4. STRUCTURE AND FORM (HABIT) - Denote the shape and form of minerals ⮚ PRISMATIC ⮚ HOPPER – elongated in one direction like prism – edges are fully developed but ⮚ TABULAR interior spaces are not filled; hollow – tabular or plate like shape ⮚ PLUMOSE ⮚ EQUANT – fine, feathery scales resembling – possess approximately same side plumes length in exery direction ⮚ BLADED: ⮚ FOLIATED – blade like structure, elongated, flat – thin sheets, flakes, or scales crystals like knife blades ⮚ FIBROUS ⮚ RADIATED: – crystal aggregates resembling long, – fibrous diverging from central points slender needles, hair or threadlike ⮚ LAMELLAR: fibers – made of separable plates; feathery ⮚ RETICULATED or delicate aggregates – aggregate of crystals forming a ⮚ COLLOFORM – Spherical, rounded or network or lattice bulbous shape ⮚ STELLATED ⮚ BOTRYOIDAL: – composed of branches which – an aggregate-like bunch of grapes radiate star like from a central point or globular ⮚ DENDRITIC ⮚ RENIFORM: – divergent branching and treelike – kidney shaped aggregate mineral growth ⮚ MAMILLARY ⮚ COLUMNAR or STALACTITIC: – display soft, rounded curves – thick or thin column-like structure; ⮚ STRIATED: ⮚ Micaceous: - display shallow parallel grooves or - thin, flat sheets or flakes that easily lines along flat crystal faces peels or split off a larger mass ⮚ GRANULAR: ⮚ ACICULAR – contains many long , – Densely packed grains slender crystals which may radiate like ⮚ MASSIVE: needles or bristles from common base; – No definite shape for minerals; large long narrow like pine leaf and lumpy ⮚ FILIFORM – exhibits many hair like or threadlike filaments 5. HARDNESS - Resistance of minerals to abrasion or scratching - Measured relative to a scale of ten of minerals 6. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - the density of the mineral compared to the density of water - metallic minerals have high SG, non-metallic minerals have lower SG ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 52 | Page  Mohs Hardness Scale Specific Gravity of Common Minerals 7. CLEAVAGE - tendency of a crystallized mineral to break along certain definite planes yielding more or less smooth surfaces - cubic : 3 cleavages - Dodecahedral: 6 cleavage - octahedral: 4 cleavages - Basal: 1 cleavage 8. FRACTURE - defined as the appearance of its broken surface a. CONCHOIDAL: concentric rings or curved surface b. EVEN: smooth and flat c. UNEVEN: irregular surface d. SPLINTERY: breaks with a rough 9. TENACITY - Behavior of mineral when deformed or broken SECTILITY: Minerals may be cut with a knife MALLEABILITY: The mineral may be pounded out into thin sheets BRITTLENESS: The mineral breaks or powders easily ELASTICITY: Regains former shape as pressure is released DUCTILITY: Mineral may be drawn into a wire; tough as well PLASTICITY: Mineral will not go back to original position when released CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTALLINE SYSTEMS CRYSTALLOGRAPHY - the science concerned with the formation, properties, and structure of crystals - deals with the geometric forms of crystals MINERAL CRYSTAL SYSTEM - also called Mineral Habits - refers to the way crystals form within a specific mineral ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 53 | Page  e.g. Diamond: two pyramids attached at their bases Quartz: has six sides CRYSTAL FORMS: ▪ internal atomic arrangement of mineral manifested outwardly by development of geometrical shapes or crystal characters 3 TYPES OF CRYSTAL FORM Crystallized ▪ mineral occurs in the form of well-defined crystals Amorphous ▪ shows absolutely no signs or evidence of crystallization Crystalline ▪ well-defined crystals are absent but a tendency towards crystallization is present SYMMETRY AND LATTICES SYMMETRY ▪ Describes the repetition of structural features 2 GENERAL TYPES: Translational ▪ Periodic repetition of structural feature across a length or through an area or volume Point ▪ Periodic repetition of structural feature at a point ▪ Reflection, rotation, and inversion are examples of point symmetry LATTICES ▪ Directly related to translational symmetry ▪ A network or array composed of single motif that has been translated and repeated at fixed intervals throughout the space ▪ Bravais Lattice ▪ There are only fourteen (14) different lattices that may be formed in a 3D space ▪ Divided into six (6) crystal systems ▪ Has three (3) types: ▪ Primitive ▪ Face centered ▪ Body-centered CRYSTAL SYSTEMS - All minerals form crystals in one of the systems and are defined by a combination of three factors: 1. Number of axis 2. Length of axis 3. Angles the axes meet - Axis A is usually the shortest, while C is the longest axis ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 54 | Page CRYSTAL FORMS ▪ Set of faces that are geometrically equivalent and whose spatial positions are related to one another according to symmetry ▪ Each crystal systems may obtain different crystal forms ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 55 | Page ▪ Types of Crystal forms: ▪ Monohedron ▪ Prism ▪ Scalenohedron ▪ Parallelohedron ▪ Pyramid ▪ Rhombhohedron ▪ Dihedron ▪ Dipyramid ▪ Tetrahedron ▪ Disphenoid ▪ Trapezohedron MINERAL FAMILIES QUARTZ FAMILY ▪ German “quarz” meaning uncertain origin ▪ Word crystal was originally used only for quartz ▪ An important rock forming mineral next to feldspar ▪ A non – metallic refractory mineral – have high melting points ▪ Member of the SILICATE mineral group CHEMISTRY: COMPOSITION: ▪ Chemical Formula: SiO2 ▪ Silicon: 46.74% ▪ Molecular Weight: 60.08 g ▪ Oxygen: 53.26% FORMATION: ▪ Formed by crystallization of silica-rich molten rock (magma) ▪ Formed in pegmatites during and after pneumatolytic processes (metamorphic process due to hot vapors) ▪ Grow in hot watery solutions ( hydrothermal environments) between 100C to 450C, often at very high pressure PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Hexagonal ▪ HARDNESS: 7 ▪ HABIT: Crystalline or Armophous ▪ TENACITY: Brittle ▪ CLEAVAGE: indistinct ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.6 – 2.7 ▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal ▪ STREAK: White ▪ COLOR: Pure - Colorless, Colored - ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Transparent/ indicate impurities Semi-transparent/Opaque ▪ LUSTER: vitreous POLYMORPHIC TRANSFORMATION: Quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, moganite, coesite, keatite OCCURRENCE: Mostly found in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks USE: used in the glassmaking industry FELDSPAR FAMILY ▪ Came from German word “feldspat” meaning a rock that does not contain a core ▪ Most abundant of all minerals ▪ Composes more than 50% of the earth’s crust by weight ▪ Non- metallic and silicate ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 56 | Page ▪ Chemical Formula: ▪ Plagioclase: Na Al Si3O8 ▪ Potassium Feldspar (Alkali Feldspar): K Al Si3O8 (or Soda-lime Feldspar) Ca Al2 Si2O8 OCCURRENCE: crystallize from magma as both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock; also found in many types of sedimentary rocks USE: a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber; alumina from feldspar improves product hardness, durability, and resistance to chemical corrosion. In ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. consumed in glassmaking, including glass containers and glass fiber PLAGIOCLASE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: ▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Triclinic ▪ LUSTER: ▪ HABIT: Tabular (Crystalline) Vitreous usually pearly ▪ CLEAVAGE: ▪ HARDNESS: 6 - 6.5 Perfect – 2Directional ▪ TENACITY: brittle ▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.6 – 2.8 ▪ COLOR: white to dark gray ▪ TRANSPARENCY: ▪ STREAK: white translucent to transparent ORTHOCLASE: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Monoclinic LUSTER: Vitreous, pearly CRYSTAL HABIT: HARDNESS: 6 CLEAVAGE: perfect Tenacity: Brittle FRACTURE: SPECIFIC GRAVITY: Uneven, Conchoidal 2.55–2.63 COLOR: Colourless, greenish, TRANSPARENCY: greyish yellow, white, pink Translucent to member of the alkali STREAK: White transparent feldspar series PYROXENE GROUP ▪ An important group of rock forming minerals ▪ occur in dark colored igneous and metamorphic rocks ▪ Rich in calcium, magnesium, iron and silicates ▪ Show a single chain structure of silicate ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 57 | Page ▪ Classified into ▪ ORTHOPYROXENE CLINOPYROXENE ▪ Enstatite: Mg SiO3 ▪ Augite: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6 ▪ Hyperthene: (Mg, Fe) SiO3 ▪ Diopside: Ca Mg Si2O6 ▪ Hedenbergite: Ca Fe Si2O6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: PYROXENE - AUGITE ▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Monoclinic ▪ LUSTER: Vitreous (cleavage and crystal ▪ HABIT: Crystalline surface); dull (on other surface) ▪ CLEAVAGE: Good (prismatic) ▪ HARDNESS: 5.5 – 6.0 ▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal ▪ TENACITY: brittle ▪ COLOR: Greyish green and black ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.2 – 3.6 (Medium) ▪ STREAK: white ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Translucent/Opaque OCCURRENCE: Occurs in ferro magnesium mineral of igneous rock For AUGITE: commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous rocks such as basalt, `gabbro, andesite, and diorite HORNBLENDE Principal component A Complex inosilicate series of minerals of amphibole The general formula: (Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Monoclinic ▪ HARDNESS: 5 - 6 ▪ HABIT: Hexagonal, granular ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.9 ▪ CLEAVAGE: imperfect ▪ STREAK: colorless, white to pale gray ▪ FRACTURE: uneven ▪ TRANSPARENCY: ▪ COLOR: black, Dark Green to Brown Translucent/ Opaque ▪ LUSTER: Vitreous to dull OCCURRENCE: common constituent of many igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, basalt, andesite, gneiss, and schist USE: crushed hornblende is used for highway construction and as railroad ballast; cut hornblende is use as dimension stone MICA GROUP ▪ Form sheet like structure ▪ Can be split into very thin sheets along one direction ▪ Rich in Aluminum and magnesium ▪ Occupy 4% of earth’s crust MICA – BIOTITE ▪ Group of black mica K(Mg, Fe)3(Al Si3)O10(F, OH)2 minerals PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: ▪ Chemical Composition: ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 58 | Page  CRYSTAL SYSTEM: dark brown to black, white STREAK: Monoclinic LUSTER: Vitreous to pearly white to grey, flakes HABIT: HARDNESS: 2.5 – 3.0 produced Prismatic, massive to platy SPECIFIC GRAVITY: TRANSPARENCY: CLEAVAGE: Basal, Perfect 2.7 – 3.4 Transparent/ Translucent FRACTURE: micaceous TENACITY: COLOR: brittle to flexible, elastic OCCURRENCE: Found mostly in igneous and metamorphic rocks USE: used extensively to constrain ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or argon–argon dating; useful in assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks MICA – MUSCOVITE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: ▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: ▪ LUSTER: Pearly to Vitreous Monoclinic ▪ HARDNESS: 2.5 – 3.0 ▪ HABIT: Massive, Platy ▪ TENACITY: Elastic ▪ CLEAVAGE: Perfect ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: ▪ FRACTURE: Micaceous ▪ 2.8 – 2.9 ▪ COLOR: ▪ STREAK: black or brown (thick) ▪ white, often sheds flakes ▪ most common mineral of colorless with tint of ▪ TRANSPARENCY: the mica family yellow, brown or rose Transparent/ Translucent ▪ chemical composition: (thin) ▪ KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2 OCCURRENCE: present in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks ▪ Formed during regional metamorphosis o argillaceous rocks USES: Used chiefly as an insulating material in the manufacture of electrical apparatus Used as a transparent material, isinglass, for stove doors, lanterns, etc. CALCITE ▪ A rock forming mineral ▪ Considered an “ubiquitous mineral” – found everywhere ▪ A principal constituent of limestone and marble ▪ Serves as one of the largest carbon repositories on Earth ▪ Chemical Formula: CaCO3 ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 59 | Page PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: ▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Hexagonal ▪ LUSTER: Vitreous ▪ HABIT: Rhombohedral 3D ▪ HARDNESS: 3.0 ▪ CLEAVAGE: Perfect ▪ TENACITY: brittle ▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.7 ▪ COLOR: ▪ STREAK: white usually white, colorless, grey, red, ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Transparent to green, blue, yellow, brown, orange Translucent OCCURRENCE: occurs in major rock-forming minerals such as limestones, marbles, and chalks USES: as a construction material, abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical and more GARNET FAMILY ▪ A rock forming mineral under the Silicate Group ▪ Share common crystal structure and generalized chemical composition ▪ Chemical Formula: X3Y2(SiO4)3 ▪ X may be Calcium, Magnesium, iron or Magnesium ▪ Y may be aluminum, Iron, Manganese, vanadium or Chromium PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: ▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Isometric ▪ LUSTER: Vitreous to subadamantine ▪ HABIT: Rhombic dodecahedron or ▪ HARDNESS: 6.5 – 7.5 cubic ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.1 – 4.3 ▪ CLEAVAGE: None ▪ STREAK: white to colorless ▪ FRACTURE: conchoidal to uneven ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Transparent to ▪ COLOR: virtual all colors, rarely blue Translucent OCCURRENCE and FORMATION: most common in metamorphic rocks. A few occur in igneous rocks, especially granites and granitic pegmatites USES: widely used as a gemstone; crushed garnet is used to make abrasives COAL AND PETROLEUM COAL – a combustible sedimentary rock formed through the process “coalification” – formed from ancient vegetation which has been consolidated between other rock strata and transformed by the combined effects of microbial action, pressure and heat over considerable time period ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 60 | Page – occurs as layers or seams, ranging in thickness; composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and smaller amounts of nitrogen, Sulphur and other elements; also contains water and particles of other inorganic matter – broadly separated into brown and black which have different thermal properties and uses BROWN COAL (lignite) – has low energy and high ash content – Unsuitable for export and us used to generate electricity in power stations located at or near the mine BLACK COAL – Harder than brown coal and has higher energy content ▪ Thermal (steaming) coal ▪ Used mainly for generating electricity in power stations where it is pulverized and burnt to heat steam generating boilers ▪ Metallurgical (coking) coal ▪ Suitable for making coke used in production of pig iron ▪ Have low Sulphur and phosphorous contents and relatively scarce ▪ Attract higher price than thermal coals ▪ Coal reserves are discovered through explorations which involves extensive use of geophysical surveys ▪ Mined by both surface or ‘open cut’ (opencast) and underground (deep) mining methods depending on the local geology of deposit ▪ Underground mining – accounts 60% of world coal production ▪ Open cut mining – economic when coal seam(s) is near the surface PETROLEUM – called mineral oil, obtained from sedimentary rocks of earth – an inflammable liquid composed of hydrocarbons which constitute to 90 – 95% of petroleum, remaining are organic compounds consisting of oxygen, nitrogen, Sulphur and races of organo-metallic compounds CRUDE PETROLEUM – consists of mixture of hydrocarbons (solid, liquid and gaseous) – includes compounds belonging to paraffin and some unsaturated hydrocarbons and small proportion of benzene group UTILIZATION OF PETROLEUM: - Mainly used as motive power and Utilized in transportation - easily transported from the producing areas to the consuming areas with the help of tankers and more conveniently, efficiently, and economically by pipelines - emits very little smoke and leaves no ash and used up to the last drop - provides the most important lubricating agents and is used as an important raw material for various Petro-chemical products Origin and Occurrence ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 61 | Page – has an organic origin and is found in sedimentary basins, shallow depressions and in the seas (past and present) – Most of the oil reserves in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the sedimentary rock formations of tertiary times, about 3 million years ago – Oil and natural gas originated from animal or vegetable matter contained in shallow marine sediments, such as sands, silts and clays deposited during the periods when land and aquatic life was abundant in various forms, especially the minor microscopic forms of flora and fauna – Conditions for oil formation were favourable especially in the lower and middle Tertiary period – Dense forests and sea organisms flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas, and the land surrounding them during this period – decomposition of organic matter in the sedimentary rocks has led to the formation of oil – Note: Though oil is mainly found in sedimentary rocks, all sedimentary rocks do not contain oil PRE-REQUISITE CONDITIONS OF OIL RESERVOIR (i) porosity to accommodate sufficiently large amounts of oil (ii) permeability to discharge oil and/or gas when well has been drilled. (iii) the porous sand beds sandstone, conglomerates of fissured limestone containing oil should be capped by impervious beds so that oil does not dissipate by percolation in the surrounding rocks Reserves: - Indian Mineral Yearbook 1982 estimated a reserve of 468 million tons of which 328 million tons was available in Mumbai High - In 1984, the reserves were estimated at 500 million tons - The Indian Petroleum and Natural Gas Statistics put the total reserves of crude oil at 581.43 million tons in 1986-87 - prognosticated hydrocarbon resource base in Indian sedimentary basins including deep water has been estimated at about 28 billion tons - only about one-fourth of hydrocarbon reserves have been established as on 1 April 2002 - About 70 per cent of the established hydrocarbon reserves is oil and rest are gas - recoverable hydrocarbon reserves are of the order of 2.6 billion tons Production: - India was a very insignificant producer of petroleum at the time of Independence and remained so till Mumbai High started production on a large scale - off-shore production did not start till the mid-1970s and the entire production was received from on-shore oil fields - In 1980-81 about half of the production of crude oil came from on-shore fields while the remaining half was received from the off-shore resources - off-shore production increased at a much faster rate than the on-shore production - about two-thirds of production of crude oil is provided by the off-shore fields for more than two decades Petroleum Refining: ϕμ_αρδνασαχ / σκνλαζο 62 | Page - Oil extracted from the oil wells is in its crude form and contains many impurities - It is refined in oil refineries before use - after refining, various products such as kerosene, diesel, petrol, lubricants, bitumen, etc. are obtained - India’s first oil refinery started working way back in