The American Nation Chapter 28 PDF

The American Nation A History of the United States Fourteenth Edition Chapter 28 Colli...

The American Nation A History of the United States Fourteenth Edition Chapter 28 Collision Courses, Abroad and at Home: 1946-1960 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Collision Courses, Abroad and at Home: 1946-1960 The Postwar Economy Truman Becomes President The Containment Policy The Atom Bomb: A “Winning” Weapon? A Turning Point in Greece The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History The Election of 1948 Containing Communism Abroad Hot War in Korea The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Collision Courses, Abroad and at Home: 1946-1960 The Communist Issue at Home McCarthyism Dwight D. Eisenhower The Eisenhower-Dulles Foreign Policy McCarthy Self-Destructs Asian Policy after Korea Israel and the Middle East Eisenhower and Khrushchev The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Collision Courses, Abroad and at Home: 1946-1960 Latin America Aroused Fighting the Cold War at Home Blacks Challenge Segregation Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott The Election of 1960 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Chevy Nomad The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Postwar Economy The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Postwar Economy Economists feared the flood of millions of veterans into the job market would cause serious unemployment Widespread craving for cars fueled the postwar economic boom  1920s: American factories produced 31 million cars  1950s: 58 million  1960s: 77 million The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Levittown, New York, in 1949 epitomizes the postwar housing boom. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Postwar Economy (cont'd) Proliferation of cars contributed to the expansion of related industries, especially oil Gasoline consumption first touched 15 billion gallons in 1931  1950: 35 billion  1970: 92 billion The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Postwar Economy (cont'd) A new business, the motel industry developed to service the millions of tourists and business travelers who burned all this fuel Although the car industry was the leading postwar economic sector, Americans also bought new houses, washing machines, and countless other products  Shopping spree kept factories operating at capacity The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Postwar Economy (cont'd) In addition, the government made an unprecedented educational opportunity available to veterans  In 1944, Congress passed the GI Bill of Rights  Made subsidies available to veterans so they could continue their educations, learn new trades, or start new businesses  After the war nearly 8 million veterans took advantage of GI Bill The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  An ad in Life magazine features the Dodge Coronet, a car suitable for soldiers. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Postwar Economy (cont'd) Economic prosperity in the decades after World War II allowed the federal government to increase its military and economic commitments abroad without raising taxes The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Truman Becomes President The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Truman Becomes President In late 1945 more Americans were probably more concerned with domestic issues than with foreign issues The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Truman Becomes President (cont'd) Truman was born in 1884, served in WWI then opened a men’s clothing store in Kansas City  Store failed in the postwar depression  Became part of the Democratic machine and was elected to the Senate in 1934  Work on “watchdog” committee on defense spending earned Truman position as vice president The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Truman Becomes President (cont'd) As president, Truman sought to carry on FDR tradition Lost major battle early in his presidency when Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act  Truman vetoed, but Congress overrode it The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Truman Becomes President (cont'd) Taft-Hartley Act  A 1947 federal law that outlawed the closed shop and secondary boycotts and obliged union leaders to sign affidavits declaring that they were not communists. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Containment Policy The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Containment Policy Soviet Union  Stalin made it clear he did not intend to consult the West about his domination of Eastern Europe  Seemed intent on extending his power into central Europe  Controlled Outer Mongolia, parts of Manchuria, and northern Korea The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  A propaganda poster enshrining Stalin proclaims that he has led his people “Forward to Communism!” The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Containment Policy (cont'd) Soviet Union  Had annexed the Kurile Islands and regained the southern half of Sakhalin Island from Japan  Fomented trouble in Iran  Did not demobilize Red Army (at least twice size of U.S. army which was in the process of dwindling from 6 million to 1.5 million men) The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Containment Policy (cont'd) Averill Harriman, the U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union, warned that Soviet ideology was more dangerous than the Nazis The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Containment Policy (cont'd) George Kennan, American foreign officer, said Marxism was an ideological fig leaf for naked Soviet aggression  June 1947 Foreign Affairs “Sources of Soviet Conduct”—argued Soviet Union was outwardly aggressive due to inward pressures and that this aggression could be met by containment The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Atom Bomb: A “Winning” Weapon? The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Atom Bomb: A “Winning” Weapon? Truman had hoped the atom bomb would serve as a counterweight to the much larger Red Army  Stalin refused to be intimidated  Also knew that U.S. had only about a dozen bombs in 1947 Many Americans had become uneasy about the use of the atomic bomb in the wake of the devastation in Japan The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Atom Bomb: A “Winning” Weapon? (cont'd) November 1945: U.S. suggested UN supervise all nuclear energy production  General Assembly created Atomic Energy Commission headed by Bernard Baruch The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Atom Bomb: A “Winning” Weapon? (cont'd) November 1945: U.S. suggested UN supervise all nuclear energy production  June 1946: Plan for eventual outlawing of atomic weapons - UN inspectors operating without restriction anywhere in the world would ensure that no country made bombs - Once system was successfully established, U.S. would destroy its stockpile The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Atom Bomb: A “Winning” Weapon? (cont'd) Most Americans considered the Baruch Plan magnanimous, and many thought it to be foolhardy Soviets rejected  Would not allow inspectors  Would not surrender Soviet Security Council veto over matters dealing with atomic energy  Demanded U.S. destroy its bombs at once U.S. refused The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  A Turning Point in Greece The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  A Turning Point in Greece Greek communists, waging a guerilla war against the monarchy, were receiving aid from communist Yugoslavia and Bulgaria Great Britain had been assisting the monarchists but could no longer afford to do so and informed Truman in February that they would be discontinuing aid The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. A Turning Point in Greece (cont'd) U.S. afraid communist “iron curtain” was about to engulf another country  Soviet Union was actually discouraging the rebels but U.S. did not pay attention  U.S. was afraid that if Greece “fell” there might be a ripple effect The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. A Turning Point in Greece (cont'd) Truman asked Congress to approve what became known as the Truman Doctrine  If Greece or Turkey fell to communists, all of Middle East might be lost  Asked for $400 million in military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey  “It must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures” The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. A Turning Point in Greece (cont'd) Result was establishment of right-wing military-dominated government in Greece Since Truman did not limit the request specifically to Greece, caused concern in many countries U.S. concerned war-torn Western Europe might fall to communism The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. A Turning Point in Greece (cont'd) Truman Doctrine  A foreign policy, articulated by President Harry Truman in 1947, that provided financial aid to Greek and Turkish governments then under threat by communists rebels. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History In 1946 speech, “The Lesson of History,” George C. Marshall, army chief of staff during WWII, reminded Americans that their pre-war isolationism contributed to the rise of Hitler  Must be prepared to act against foreign aggressors  1947: Appointed secretary of state The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) Marshall Plan: Provide for the economic recovery of Europe  Everyone, even eastern bloc countries, eligible  Europeans established 16 nation Committee for European Economic Cooperation which submitted plans calling for up to $22.4 billion in American assistance The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Recipients of Marshall Plan Aid, 1948–1952 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) Soviet Union and Eastern satellites tempted but Stalin afraid American money would draw satellite states into American orbit  Recalled his delegates and demanded that the Eastern Europeans do likewise The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) February 1948: Communist coup overthrew government of Czechoslovakia  Jan Masaryk, Foreign Minister, fell (or was pushed) from a window to his death  Helped persuade Congress to appropriate over $13 billion for the Marshall aid program  By 1951 Western Europe booming The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) Europe divided in two  Western Europe: American influenced governments were elected, private property was respected—if often taxed heavily—and corporations gained influence and power  Eastern Europe: Soviet Union imposed its will and political system on client states, fostering deep-seated resentment among its peoples The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) March 1948: Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed an alliance aimed at social, cultural and economic collaboration  Abandoned concept of economically crushing Germany  Announced plans for creating a single West German Republic with a large degree of autonomy The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) June 1948: Stalin retaliated by closing off surface access to Berlin from the west  Truman launched air drops of supplies flown from western German cities 24 hours a day— Berlin Airlift  May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Air Relief to Berlin, 1948–1949 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) Marshall Plan  A proposal, propounded in 1947 by Secretary of State George Marshall, to use American aid to rebuild the war-torn economies of European nations. Adopted by Congress in 1948 as the European Recovery Program, it pumped some $13 billion into Europe during the next five years. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Marshall Plan and the Lesson of History (cont'd) Berlin airlift  U.S. effort to deliver supplies including 2 million tons of food and coal by air to West Berlin in 1948–1949 in response to the Soviet blockade of the city. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 Spring 1948: President Truman’s fortunes at low ebb  Public opinion polls showed most people considered him incompetent  Many Democrats considered nominating someone else  Two of FDR’s sons came out for General Eisenhower as the Democratic candidate Republicans nominated Dewey again The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Truman had alienated southern conservatives  1946: Established the Committee on Civil Rights which had recommended anti-lynching and anti-poll tax legislation and the creation of a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission  Southern delegates walked out when the Democratic Convention adopted a strong civil rights plank The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Truman had alienated southern conservatives  Southerners formed the States’ Rights (Dixiecrat) party and nominated J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for president The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Northern liberals:  Saw the containment policy as a threat to world peace  Organized a new Progressive party and nominated former Vice President Henry A. Wallace The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Truman launched an aggressive whistle- stop campaign  Excoriated “do nothing” Republican Congress  Warned that Dewey would do away with gains of New Deal years if he was elected  Millions moved by his speeches and by Berlin airlift which occurred during the campaign  Disaffection among normally Republican midwestern farmers also helped The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Truman launched an aggressive whistle- stop campaign  Progressive party moved increasingly left and appeared to be in the hands of communists which scared away many liberals  Dewey presented lackluster speeches—failed to attract independents The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Truman defeated Dewey with 24.1 million votes to 21.9 million (minor candidates only garnered 2.3 million) and 303 electoral votes to 189 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Chicago Daily Tribune printed its postelection headlines The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Truman’s victory encouraged him to press ahead with his Fair Deal program, urging Congress to:  Increase minimum wage  Fund public housing program  Develop a national health insurance system  Repeal the Taft-Hartley Act Little of this program was enacted into law The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1948 (cont'd) Fair Deal  President Harry Truman’s 1949 program for expanded economic opportunity and civil rights. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Containing Communism Abroad The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad April 1949: North Atlantic Treaty signed  U.S., Great Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, and Iceland agreed that an attack against any of them constituted an attack against them all and would lead them to take whatever actions were deemed necessary, including the use of armed force  Established North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) September 1949: Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb  Truman called for a rapid expansion of American nuclear arsenal  Asked advisors whether U.S. should pursue development of more powerful hydrogen bomb The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) September 1949: Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb  Atomic Energy Commission argued against their development - Too destructive to use in battle - Would precipitate arms race with Soviet Union  Joint Chiefs of Staff disagreed - Mere existence would intimidate enemies - Soviets would build hydrogen bomb regardless of what U.S. did The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) January 31, 1950: Truman announced U.S. to build a hydrogen bomb By end of 1949, Chinese communists had defeated the Nationalists  Nationalists fled to island of Formosa, now called Taiwan The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) By end of 1949, Chinese communists had defeated the Nationalists  “Loss” of China strengthened right-wing elements of Republican party - Charged Truman had not sufficiently backed Chiang - Said had also underestimated Mao  Unlikely Americans would have supported use of force and there was, really, little U.S. could have done The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) Early 1950, Truman proposed paring down budget by reducing American forces Dean Acheson, new secretary of state, was put in charge of a review of containment policy  Report was submitted to the National Security Council in March and designated NSC-68 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) NSC-68 called for an enormous military expansion  Declared Soviet Union was bent on expansion and a worldwide assault on freedom  U.S. must develop military power to prevent communism from spreading anywhere in the world The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) NSC-68 called for an enormous military expansion  Increase military spending 350 percent to nearly $50 billion - Would ensure U.S. superiority - Would force less prosperous Soviet economy to try to keep up and might cause it to collapse The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)  A military mutual-defense pact, formed in 1948, by the United States, Canada, and ten European nations, including Great Britain, France, and West Germany; the Soviet Union countered with the formation of the Warsaw Pact among communist regimes in Eastern Europe. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Containing Communism Abroad (cont'd) NSC-68  A secret policy statement, proposed by the National Security Council in 1950, calling for a large, ongoing military commitment to contain Soviet communism; it was accepted by President Harry Truman after the North Korean invasion of South Korea. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea After WWII, Korea was divided at 38 degrees north latitude  Democratic People’s Republic in the north, backed by the Soviet Union  Republic of Korea in the south, backed by the United States and the UN The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) Both powers withdrew troops from the peninsula  Soviets left behind well-armed force  Republic of Korea’s army small and ill-trained U.S. strategists had decided American military involvement in Asian mainland was impracticable The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) America’s first line of defense was to be its island bases in Japan and the Philippines  In a speech in January 1950, Acheson deliberately excluded Korea from the “defensive” perimeter  It was up to South Koreans, backed by UN, to protect themselves  This encouraged North Korea to attack The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) June 1950: North Korea attacked South Korea, whose troops crumbled Truman, with the backing of the UN Security Council, but without Congressional approval, sent troops to Korea  Also ordered the adoption of NSC-68 as soon as feasible The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Korean War, 1950– 1953 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) General MacArthur was placed in command of troops from 16 nations  Despite claim that it was a UN event, 90 percent of troops were Americans The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) By September 1950, the front stabilized around Pusan  MacArthur executed amphibious landing at Inchon, about 50 miles south of the 38th parallel  By October the battlefront had moved north of 1945 boundary The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) MacArthur proposed the conquest of North Korea, even if meant bombing in China  Other military advisors urged occupying North Korea  Several civilian advisors, including George Kennan, opposed advancing beyond the 38th parallel, concerned about the involvement by the Red Chinese and the Soviets The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) Truman authorized MacArthur to advance as far as the Yalu River  Chinese Foreign Minister warned the Chinese would not tolerate their neighbors being invaded by “imperialists”  Truman flew to Wake Island to confer with MacArthur who assured him the Chinese would not intervene and if they did they would be easily crushed The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) On November 26, 33 Chinese divisions attacked MacArthur’s lines as they advanced toward the Yalu River  MacArthur’s troops retreated The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  A U.S. Marine rests during the retreat that winter. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) UN Army rallied south of the 38th Parallel  MacArthur urged that he be permitted to bomb Chinese installations north of the Yalu  He suggested a naval blockade of the coast of China and the use of Chinese Nationalist troops  Truman rejected these proposes on the grounds it would lead to a third world war The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) MacArthur attempted to rouse the Congress and the American people by openly criticizing the administration’s policy When MacArthur persisted, despite being ordered to be silent, Truman removed him from command The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) As Korean “police action” continued, Americans became disillusioned and angry  Military men backed the president almost unanimously The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) June 1951: Communists agreed to discuss an armistice in Korea  Did not end until 1953 as Truman left office  157,000 American casualties, including 54,200 dead The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Hot War in Korea (cont'd) NSC-68, by conceiving of communism as a monolithic force, tended to make it so The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Communist Issue at Home The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Communist Issue at Home Korean War highlighted paradox that at pinnacle of power, influence of U.S. in world affairs was declining  Monopoly on nuclear weapons gone  China was communist  New nations in Africa and Asia, former colonial possessions adopting a “neutralist” stance in the Cold War The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Communist Issue at Home Korean War highlighted paradox that at pinnacle of power, influence of U.S. in world affairs was declining  Despite billions poured into armaments and foreign aid, national security seemed less secure The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. The Communist Issue at Home (cont'd) Alarming examples of communist espionage in Canada, Great Britain and the U.S. convinced many citizens that clever conspirators were at work undermining American security  Truman accused of being “soft” on communism  There were never more than 100,000 communists in the U.S. and the number plummeted at the start of the Cold War The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. The Communist Issue at Home (cont'd) 1947: Truman established the Loyalty Review Board to check up on government employees  Sympathy for a long list of vaguely defined “totalitarian” or “subversive” organizations was grounds for dismissal  Over the next 10 years, 2700 government workers were discharged  A larger number resigned The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. The Communist Issue at Home (cont'd) 1948: Whittaker Chambers  A former communist, accused Alger Hiss, president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and a former State Department official, of being a communist in the 1930s  Hiss denied the charge and sued Chambers for libel The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. The Communist Issue at Home (cont'd) 1948: Whittaker Chambers  Chambers produced microfilms purporting to show that Hiss had copied classified documents for dispatch to Moscow  Statute of limitations meant Hiss could not be charged for espionage but he was charged for perjury The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. The Communist Issue at Home (cont'd) The first trial ended in a hung jury, but the second trial in January 1950 led to a conviction and a five year jail term The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. The Communist Issue at Home (cont'd) February 1950: It was disclosed that British scientist Klaus Fuchs had betrayed atomic secrets to the Soviets  American associates Harry Gold and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were arrested and convicted  The Rosenbergs were executed The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  McCarthyism The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  McCarthyism February 1950: Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin  Claimed that the State Department was infested with communists and that he had a list of names of people whom the secretary of state knew to be communist  Had no evidence The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  McCarthyism February 1950: Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin  Never exposed a single spy or secret American communist  Yet thousands of people eager to believe accusations The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  McCarthyism (cont'd) McCarthy accused a wide variety of people  When accused denied charges, McCarthy made even more wild accusations  Even General Marshall accused Fear of communism was behind the public willingness to believe the accusations The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Dwight D. Eisenhower The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Dwight D. Eisenhower As the 1952 election approached, Truman’s popularity was at a low ebb  Senator McCarthy attacked him relentlessly for his handling of Korean conflict and his “mistreatment” of MacArthur The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Dwight D. Eisenhower The Republicans nominated General Dwight D. Eisenhower  Genial  Could run army, so could run country  Promised to go to Korea and end war The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Dwight D. Eisenhower (cont'd) The Democrats nominated Governor Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois  Unpretentious, witty and urbane Eisenhower won with 34 million to 27 million popular votes and 442 to 89 margin in electoral votes  Planned to run country on sound business principles  Called for more local control of government affairs The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Eisenhower’s passion for golf The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Dwight D. Eisenhower (cont'd) Eisenhower won with 34 million to 27 million popular votes and 442 to 89 margin in electoral votes  Promised to reduce federal spending, balance budget and cut taxes  Tried to avoid being caught up in narrow partisan conflicts  Unwilling to cut back on existing social and economic legislation or cut back on military expenditures The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Dwight D. Eisenhower (cont'd) Extended social security to an additional 10 million persons The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Eisenhower-Dulles Foreign Policy The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Eisenhower-Dulles Foreign Policy Eisenhower chose John Foster Dulles as secretary of state  Felt global military containment was expensive and ineffective  U.S. needed to put more emphasis on nuclear bombs, less on conventional weapons  This “new look” would be less expensive, prevent U.S. from being caught in local conflicts The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  An eleven-megaton hyrdrogen bomb is detonated over Bikini Atoll The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Eisenhower-Dulles Foreign Policy (cont'd) When Eisenhower’s trip to Korea failed to stop the war, Dulles signaled American willingness to use nuclear weapons  July 1953: Chinese signed an armistice that ended hostilities but left country divided at the 38th parallel  Recent years, Chinese officials said they were unaware at the time of the nuclear threat The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Eisenhower-Dulles Foreign Policy (cont'd) Chiang Kai-Shek had stationed 90,000 soldiers (1/3 of his army) on Quemoy and Matsu, two tiny islands a few miles off the coast of the Chinese mainland  1954: Chinese began shelling the islands  Chiang appealed for American protection  1955: Eisenhower announced his willingness to use nuclear weapons to defend the islands  The communists backed down The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Eisenhower-Dulles Foreign Policy (cont'd) Massive retaliation allowed Eisenhower to pare half a million men from the armed forces, saving $4 billion annually The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Eisenhower-Dulles Foreign Policy (cont'd) Massive retaliation  The “New Look” military policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles relying on nuclear weapons to inhibit communist aggression during the 1950s. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  McCarthy Self-Destructs The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  McCarthy Self-Destructs 1954: McCarthy attacked the army  Hearings were televised before the country and they showed Americans just who McCarthy was December 1954: The Senate censured him  The country no longer listened to his accusations  1957: He died The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Senator Joe McCarthy and his aide Roy Cohn (left) listen to testimony The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Asian Policy after Korea The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Asian Policy after Korea Nationalist rebels led by Ho Chi Minh had been harassing the French in Vietnam (which along with Laos and Cambodia composed French Indochina)  When communist China recognized the rebels (Vietminh) and provided arms, Truman countered with economic and military assistance to the French  Eisenhower continued and expanded this assistance The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Asian Policy after Korea (cont'd) Early 1954: Vietminh trapped and besieged French at remote stronghold of Dien Bien Phu  Faced with loss of 20,000 troops, the French asked for American assistance  U.S. was already paying three-fourths of French expenses but Eisenhower refused to send planes  The French garrison surrendered in May The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Asian Policy after Korea (cont'd) Conservative Ngo Dinh Diem replaced emperor Bao Dai as head of the southern section of Vietnam and the nationwide elections were never held  Vietnam remained divided Dulles established the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) but it only had three Asian members—Philippines, Pakistan and Thailand The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Israel and the Middle East The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Israel and the Middle East The Nazi extermination of 6 million Jews strengthened Jewish claims to a homeland and intensified pressure to allow hundreds of thousands of refugees to immigrate to British controlled Palestine Immigration, combined with Jewish calls for creation of a Jewish state, provoked Palestinian and Arab leaders and led to fighting The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) 1947: UN voted to partition Palestine into Israel and a Palestinian state May 14, 1948: Israel was established and recognized almost immediately by the United States The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) Arab armies from Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon attacked Israel  Israelis were outnumbered but better organized and better armed than the Arabs  Drove them off with relative ease  Nearly a million local Arabs left, creating a major refugee problem in nearby countries The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) Truman was a strong supporter of Israel  Belief that survivors of holocaust were entitled to a country of their own  Political importance of Jewish vote in U.S. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) Eisenhower and Dulles tried to restore balance by deemphasizing U.S. support of Israel  Hoped to mollify the Arabs  Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia sat upon nearly 60% of the world’s known oil reserves The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) 1952: The revolution in Egypt had brought Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser to power  U.S. agreed to loan him money to build a dam on the Nile for irrigation purposes and as a source of electrical power  U.S. would not sell Nasser arms, the communists would The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) When Eisenhower pulled his funding for the dam, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal British (who had evacuated their Suez base in 1954 at Nasser’s request) and France were deeply concerned The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) 1956: Israeli armored columns crushed the Egyptian armies in the Sinai Penninsula in a matter of days  France and Britain occupied Port Said  Nasser sank ships to block the canal  U.S. and Soviet Security Council proposals for a cease fire were vetoed by Britain and France The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) Soviet Union threatened to send “volunteers” to Egypt and launch atomic missiles against France and Britain Eisenhower also demanded France and Britain pull out of the area The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Israel and the Middle East (cont'd) November 9: Prime Minister Anthony Eden announced a cease fire  Israel withdrew its troops Eisenhower Doctrine 1957: United States was “prepared to use armed force” anywhere in the Middle East against “aggression from any country controlled by international communism” The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Eisenhower and Khrushchev The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Eisenhower and Khrushchev 1956: Eisenhower reelected after an easy defeat of Adlai Stevenson United States detonated first hydrogen bomb in November 1952  Soviets detonated their version 6 months later The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Eisenhower and Khrushchev (cont'd) Stalin died in March, 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev emerged, after a period of internal conflict, as new leader of Soviet Union  Appealed to anti-Western prejudices of newly emerging countries and offered them economic aid while pointing to Soviet scientific and technological achievements The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Eisenhower and Khrushchev (cont'd) Stalin died in March, 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev emerged, after a period of internal conflict, as new leader of Soviet Union  Sought to purge system of Stalinism and released thousands of political prisoners while telling party functionaries that Stalin had committed monstrous crimes The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Eisenhower and Khrushchev (cont'd) Eisenhower understood that Khruschev’s antics were meant to conceal the Soviet Union’s many weaknesses:  Opposition to Soviet rule in Eastern Europe  Deficiencies of over centralized Soviet economy, especially agriculture  Bureaucratic ossification of armed forces  Had nuclear weapons but not nuclear parity The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Eisenhower and Khrushchev (cont'd) Eisenhower understood that Khruschev’s antics were meant to conceal the Soviet Union’s many weaknesses:  U.S. planes, based in Europe, Northern Africa and Turkey, were within easy reach of Soviet Union while Soviet bombers had thousands of miles to travel to reach U.S. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Eisenhower and Khrushchev (cont'd) October 4, 1957: Soviets launched Sputnik, the first satellite to orbit the earth  Presaged development of rocket delivery systems and made bomber defenses obsolete  Massive retaliation also obsolete The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Eisenhower and Khrushchev (cont'd) Eisenhower authorized U.S. planes to spy on key Soviet military installations America U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union on May 1, 1960 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Table 28.1 The Cold War Escalates The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Richard M. Nixon and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Latin America Aroused The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Latin America Aroused During WWII, because the U.S. needed raw materials, it had supplied Latin America liberally with economic aid After the war:  September 1947: Hemispheric defense pact was signed in Rio de Janeiro  1948: Organization of American States (OAS) was formed and run by two-thirds vote The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Latin America Aroused (cont'd) As the Cold War progressed, U.S. neglected Latin American questions  Economic problems plagued the region  Reactionary governments controlled most countries  Eisenhower increased economic assistance though resistance to communism remained the first priority The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Latin America Aroused (cont'd) 1954: Guatemalan government of Jacobo Arbenz Guzman began to import Soviet weapons  U.S. sent arms to neighboring Honduras  Within a month, Arbenz was overthrown  Eisenhower continued to support regimes kept in power by the local military The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Latin America Aroused (cont'd) Depth of Latin American resentment became clear in spring 1958 when Nixon’s goodwill tour of the region was met with hostility nearly everywhere  Mobbed in Lima, Peru  Pelted with eggs and stones in Caracas, Venezuela  Had to abandon the remainder of the trip The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Latin America Aroused (cont'd) Cuba  1959: Fidel Castro overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista in Cuba - Eisenhower recognized the Castro government at once - Castro quickly began to criticize the United States - Cuba confiscated American property without providing adequate compensation, suppressed civil liberties, and entered into close relations with the Soviet Union The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Latin America Aroused (cont'd) Cuba  After Castro negotiated a trade deal with the Soviets in February 1960, the U.S. prohibited the importation of Cuban sugar  Khrushchev announced the Soviets would use nuclear weapons to protect the Cubans  1961: Eisenhower broke diplomatic relations with Cuba The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Fighting the Cold War at Home The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Fighting the Cold War at Home The Soviet threat brought the Cold War closer to the American people than ever before Fears fueled public support for increased defense spending The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Fighting the Cold War at Home (cont'd) In 1955, Eisenhower worried that a Soviet nuclear attack would plunge American cities into chaos  Backed federally-funded highway system to facilitate evacuation of cities and allow the army to mobilize more rapidly  National Interstate and Defense Highway Act of 1956 became the largest public works project in U.S. history The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  This interchange near Seattle was part of the interstate highway system The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Fighting the Cold War at Home (cont'd) Soviet success in building nuclear bombs and satellite technology prompted Eisenhower to initiate reform of U.S. schools  1958: National Defense Education Act provided federal aid to promote study of science, mathematics and foreign languages “Godless” communism posed an ideological as well as military threat The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Fighting the Cold War at Home (cont'd) Eisenhower signed law that added “one nation under God” to Pledge of Allegiance Congress added “In God We Trust” to currency The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Blacks Challenge Segregation The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Blacks Challenge Segregation During and after WW II, slowly but with massive force, demand for change developed in the South Its roots lay in:  Southern industrialization  The shift from small sharecropping holdings to large commercial farms The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) Its roots lay in:  Vast wartime expenditures of the federal government on aircraft factories and army bases in the region  The impact of the GI Bill on southern colleges and universities  The gradual development of a southern black middle class The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) Black soldiers demanded that they be treated with respect when they returned home 1947: The Brooklyn Dodgers’ Jackie Robinson integrated major league baseball The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Phillies manager Ben Chapman refused to shake Jackie Robinson’s hand The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) Ordinary blacks also demanded fairer treatment  Voter registration increased in the South from 2 to 12 percent—but white resistance remained formidable The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) NAACP (the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) began to challenge segregation in the courts  Thurgood Marshall initiated state challenges to Plessy v. Ferguson  Supreme Court rulings in 1938 and 1940 had undermined the standing of “separate but equal” and laid the groundwork for later decisions The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) In 1953 Earl Warren became chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court  Convinced that the Court must take the offensive in the cause of civil rights, Warren unified the Court in pursuing change The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) In 1954, an NAACP-sponsored case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, came up for decision  Supreme Court reversed Plessy decision, ruling that “Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” - Court ordered the states to end segregation “with all deliberate speed” The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Angry jeers from whites rain down on Elizabeth Eckford The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) Flouting the Court’s decision, few districts in the southern and border states integrated their schools as all-out opposition—including riots—sprang up throughout the South The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) Eisenhower thought equality for blacks could not be obtained by government edict  Said the Court’s ruling must be obeyed, but did little to discourage southern resistance to desegregation The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) 1957: Events in Little Rock, Arkansas compelled Eisenhower to act When Little Rock school board opened high school to a handful of black students, Arkansas governor Faubus called out the National Guard to prevent them from entering the school The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) Eisenhower could not ignore direct flouting of federal authority  Dispatched 1,000 paratroopers to Little Rock and summoned 10,000 National Guardsmen to federal duty, removing them from Faubus’s control The black students began to attend class The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved. Blacks Challenge Segregation (cont'd) Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka  The 1954 Supreme Court decision that held that racially segregated education, which prevailed in much of the South, was unconstitutional. The ruling overturned the doctrine of “separate but equal” that had provided the legal justification for racial segregation ever since the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott Blacks increasingly took action to overcome segregation in society’s institutions The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (cont'd) 1955: In Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to yield her seat on bus to a white passenger and was arrested—black leaders organized boycott  Black-owned taxis reduced their rates sharply, and when the city declared this illegal, car pools were quickly organized  Few African Americans owned cars, and there were never more than 350 cars available to the more than 10,000 people The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (cont'd) Despite difficulties, the boycott proceeded Montgomery authorities obtained indictments of 115 leaders of the boycott— yet the move backfired as it focused national attention on the story Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., was emerging as the leader of the boycott  A gifted speaker, he became an overnight celebrity The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., Coretta Scott King, and their children The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (cont'd) Money poured in from all over the country to support the movement The boycott lasted for over 1 year Finally, Supreme Court declared local law enforcing racial separation unconstitutional: Montgomery had to desegregate public transportation system The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (cont'd) Success encouraged blacks elsewhere in the South to band together against segregation New organization founded in 1957, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), headed by King, moved to forefront of the civil rights movement The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (cont'd) Other organizations included the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Direct action movement was becoming broad-based nationwide civil rights movement The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Direct Action Protests: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (cont'd) Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)  A civil rights organization, founded in 1957 by Martin Luther King, Jr. and his followers, that espoused Christian nonviolence but organized mass protests to challenge segregation and discrimination; it played a major role in support of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1960 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1960 Eisenhower endorsed Vice President Richard Nixon for the Republican nomination  Nixon had used anti-communist hysteria to make a reputation The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1960 (cont'd) The Democrats nominated Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy  Chief rival, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, became his running mate  Kennedy had written a book, rescued his men during WWII, and served three terms in the House and then moved to the Senate in 1952  Besides wealth, intelligence, good looks, and charm, Kennedy also had the advantage of his Irish-Catholic ancestry The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1960 (cont'd) Kennedy showed little interest in civil rights, accused Eisenhower of falling behind the Soviets in missile production, and backed the Cold War During the campaign, he tried to appear forward-looking and stressed his youth and vigor while promising a “New Frontier” Televised debates gave Kennedy an edge The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1960 (cont'd) Kennedy defeated Nixon by 303 to 219 electoral votes but only 34,227,000 popular votes to 34,109,000 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Election of 1960 The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  John F. Kennedy, comfortable and assured, was more telegenic than Richard M. Nixon in the 1960 debates. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1960 (cont'd) New Frontier  President John F. Kennedy’s term for a revitalized national agenda, particularly in relation to foreign policy and space exploration. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  The Election of 1960 (cont'd) Military-industrial complex  A term, popularized by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his 1961 farewell address, for the concert of interests among the U.S. military and its chief corporate contractors. The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.  Chapter Review The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Mark C. Carnes John A. Garraty All rights reserved.