Ancient Greece PDF

# Ancient Greece ## The First Greek State ### Mycenae: The First Greek Civilization * Mycenae is an area on the Greek mainland which was discovered by Heinrich Schliemann, a German archaeologist. * Mycenae existed and flourished during the last phase of the Bronze Age, throughout 1600 B.C. and...

# Ancient Greece ## The First Greek State ### Mycenae: The First Greek Civilization * Mycenae is an area on the Greek mainland which was discovered by Heinrich Schliemann, a German archaeologist. * Mycenae existed and flourished during the last phase of the Bronze Age, throughout 1600 B.C. and 1100 B.C. * The Mycenaean Greeks originated from one of the Indo-European families of people that spread to Europe and Asia, and they started gaining control of the Greek mainland over time. * They came to be known as the Mycenaean civilization, the first Greek civilization known to speak and write the Greek language. * The Mycenaean civilization was made of powerful monarchies that flourished and reached its peak between 1400 B.C. and 1200 B.C. * Monarchs lived in palace centers that were built on hills and were surrounded by huge stone walls. * These monarchies were considered as royal, and they were differentiated from the civilians who resided beyond the walls. * Members of the royal family were always buried in bee-hive shaped tombs. * Since Mycenaeans were warriors, their walls reflected much of their war and hunting scenes. * Their monarchies also developed a strong commercial network, and their products such as pottery were found in several areas throughout the Mediterranean such as Syria and Italy. ### Hints to Remember * About 80% of Greece is mountainous. * The mountains and the sea had a significant role in the development of the Greek culture. * Its long seacoast and many bays have provided for the existence of many harbors. * Many of the Greeks were seafarers. ## The Greek City-States ### Polis: The Center of Greek Life * By 750 B.C. the polis, also known as the city-state became the main focus of life in Greece. * The polis, which later developed into the word "politics", was a town or city that developed as a center for the surrounding areas and countryside and where people met for political, religious, and social activities. * Meetings took place at the top of a hill, which was called the acropolis. * The acropolis served as a safe place when the city was under attack. * It also served as a religious center with temples and public buildings. * Beneath the acropolis was an area which served as a market place and community meeting area for citizens known as agoras. * City-states varied in size and population: * Athens consisted of more than 300,000 people by the fifth century B.C., * but the majority of the other city-states were significantly smaller, and their population numbers varied from just a few hundreds to several thousands. * The polis stood for what was known as a community of which its civilians had common identities and interests. * Adult males were the only ones to be considered as citizens with political rights in a polis. * Women, children, agricultural laborers, and slaves were considered "noncitizens". * Citizens had both rights and responsibilities towards their city-states. ### Hints to Remember * When the Mycenaean civilization declined, Greece passed through an age known as the Dark Age. * The period was known as such since historians could not gather enough information about it, which extended from 1100 B.C. to 750 B.C. * During the Dark Age, iron was essential in the revival of agriculture, trade, economic activity, and weaponry making. * Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and simplified reading and writing. ## Spread of Greek Cultural and Political ideas ### Greek Colonies: They Came to Be * Overpopulation in Greek mainland acted as an incentive that pushed people to migrate to foreign lands between 750 B.C. and 550 B.C. * When the Greeks left to distant lands, they were in search of areas suitable for their agricultural needs and trade. * Due to the colonizing, each Greek colony became its own polis that separated completely from its original city-state. * Colonies were scattered throughout several coastlines such as those of France, Spain, and parts of Africa and Egypt. * One of the most noticeable cities which they colonized was Byzantium. * It became to be known which then became to be known as Constantinople and later as the city of Istanbul. * The Greeks did not only share and spread their agricultural methods but their culture and political ideas. * Colonization also helped in spreading trade and industry which included pottery, olive oil, and other products. * They also exported products such as grains, metal, and fish. ### Hints to Remember * Greek military leaders trained the heavily armed soldiers to fight in a massive formation called a phalanx. * Soldiers stood shoulder to shoulder so that each man was protected by his neighbor's shield. * This intimidating technique played an important role in the different wars and helped the Greeks build their empire. ## The Rise of Tyrants * The Greeks gave the word tyrant a new meaning. * Tyranny was not applied for the purpose of oppression or hatred but rather to improve and empower the ruling the polis. * Greek tyrants were actually rulers who overthrew aristocrats and took their power by force. * Tyrants eventually gained the respect and support of the public including the rich who had gained their money from trade, the middle class, and the poor. * This eventually shifted power from the aristocrats to tyrants and led to the development of a democracy. ## The Rise of Rival City-States * Two of the most powerful city-states were Sparta and Athens. * To expand their land, the Spartans conquered new states such as Messenia and Laconia. * The people of the occupied areas worked for the Spartans and were later known as the Helots or the people captured. * The Spartans then decided to create their own military state. * Spartans were very well-disciplined and lived a military lifestyle. * All the way from childhood to the age of 60, they remained to serve as part of the army and were always loyal to their duties. * The Spartan ruling system was an oligarchy, a system in which a few selected members had the right to rule. * In the case of the Spartans, the land was headed by two kings. * To ensure their city-states were safe, Spartans decided to live a solitary life where they kept themselves distant from the outside world. * Spartans were not allowed to travel, learn philosophy and art, or welcome any foreigners into their own states. * They believed that new ideas would jeopardize the stability of their states and lead them to a revolution. ## The Athenian Empire ### The Age of Pericles * The golden age of the Athenian culture flourished under the leadership of Pericles, a famous general and politician. * He dominated Athens and defeated previous rulers and led Athens to its highest point of power and political development. * Thanks to Pericles, new educational programs were invented to improve future generations of Greece in different fields including philosophy, art, and architecture. ### Hints to Remember * During the 440s and 430s, Pericles depended on treasury to fund vast cultural projects in Athens, most notably a series of structures on the city's hilltop, the Acropolis. * Pericles was a leader of foresight and his death was disastrous for Athens. ## Think About It 1. What characterized the first Greek civilization of the Myceneans? 2. What were the differences between the governmental systems of Sparta and Athens? # China's Early Dynasties and Philosophies * Between 500 B.C. and 200 B.C., Chinese philosophers were so concerned with the physical world surrounding them and the establishment of a stable society. * Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism were three major schools of thought that emerged in China and controlled the Chinese culture. * The three schools studied human beings and the universe and each had its own views of how things should be. ## Confucianism * The longest-lived dynasty in the Chinese history was The Zhou Dynasty which survived from 1122 B.C. to 256 B.C. * Although it lasted for a long period, chaos finally led to its decline and end. * Confucius, a philosopher, rejected the violence and the moral decay prevailing at the time and started to organize trips around China in an attempt to spread his thoughts and achieve stability. * His interest in philosophy was political and ethical. * Confucius believed that humans should maintain harmony with the universe for their affairs to prosper. * Two elements were pretty essential to attain such a goal: duty and humanity. ### Hints to Remember * Confucianism is the system of political and ethical ideas; it helped to rebuild society. * Confucius said, "If there is righteousness in the heart, there will be beauty in the character. If there is beauty in the character, there will be harmony in the home. If there is harmony in the home, there will be order in the nation. If there is order in the nation, there will be peace in the world." ## Daoism * Laozi, another philosopher, believed that the will of Heaven is best followed through inaction so that nature can take its course. * He established Daoism, a special system of ideas. * His teachings strongly competed with Confucianism. * Although both philosophers did not concern themselves with the meaning of the universe and believed in the proper forms of human behavior, each of them had his own perspective. * Confucianism believed that humans should work hard to improve life through action, * whereas Daoist's believed that the universe is sacred and is better approached through staying away from the universal order. * No one should attempt to change the world or interfere in it. * The master ideas of Daoism were clearly discussed in a short work known as Tao Te Ching, or The Way of the Dao. ## Legalism * The third philosophy that had an influence on the Chinese culture was Legalism. * Opposing the beliefs of the two philosophers, Legalism believed that humans are evil by nature. * Legalists highlighted the importance of a system of impersonal laws where strict and harsh laws and severe punishment were the base for people to obey rules. * Since people were not able to be good, the ruler did not have to show any concern to the commoners' feelings. ## The Qin Dynasty * The first Qin emperor, Qin Shihuangdi, who could restore order to China and unite the Chinese world ruled after 200 years of a bloody civil war. * Although he ruled for a short period, he could make many important changes that influenced the Chinese world for long. * At the age of thirteen, and with a courageous heart, Qin Shihuangdi defeated his rivals and united China. * He built a system of roads that reached to his capital city, Xianyang, and created a single monetary system. * The lands previously owned by aristocrats were split amongst the peasants thus reducing their power. * Accordingly, the central government gained additional tax revenues, and executive organizations were systematically recognized. ### Hints to Remember * The Qin Dynasty did not last longer than 15 years, yet it had a major influence on the dynasties that followed. * Emperor Qin made changes in politics, economy, military affairs, and culture. * Qin authority was overthrown in the year 206 B.C. in the capital of Xianyang. * The imperial house was massacred and the Qin dynasty reached its end. * Qin Shihuangdi built a strong army, and this was clear when in 1974, a group of archeologists discovered an underground pit that presented a great remarkable artistic legacy of the time. * Archeologists found around 6000 figures together with horses, chariots, and weapons in the pit. * One of his greatest achievement was the Great Wall of China as well. * It was built to keep the nomads, known as Xiongnu, away. ## Hints to Remember * Each time Qin made a new conquest, a replica of that state's ruling palace was constructed close to his own palace along the Wei River. * The new palace had covered walkways that linked it to the rest of the palaces. * Singing girls brought in from the conquered states lived in these palaces. ## The Qin Dynasty * The Qin Dynasty adopted the school of Legalism. * Qin believed in harsh punishment and was a tyrant. * To prevent his people from thinking, he burnt many books and buried scholars alive. * The ideas of Legalism led to several important political and administrative changes. * The central bureaucracy was divided into three parts: civil, military, and the censorate. * The censorate were responsible to check on government officials ensuring they were fulfilling their jobs. * The officials were appointed by the emperor. * Qin imposed heavy taxes, rigorous laws, and forced many labor projects. * Qin was heartless, and his people hated him. * In 210 B.C., the civil war ended the Qin Dynasty giving way to a new dynasty the Han. ## The Han Dynasty * Another long lasting dynasty in the Chinese history is the Han dynasty. * The founder of the Han Dynasty was Liu Pang, later known as the Gaozu emperor. * The Han followed the Qin administrative structure, dividing the country into a series of administrative structures. * Han adopted the Confucian ideology that accentuated moderation and righteousness. * Government officials remained to be chosen based on merit rather than birth. * The Han Dynasty implemented the civil service examination and established a school for training candidates. * Civil services included the administrative service of a government in which appointments were chosen by competitivity. * This system influenced the civilization for 2000 years. * During this era, emperors had the absolute and unlimited power. * The economy of the Han Dynasty faced many challenges after the rules that were implemented during the Qin Dynasty. * Peasants, at the time, paid heavy taxes. * Although the Han reduced the taxes, peasants still faced other problems. * Population in the dynasty tripled which gave the aristocrats greater power. * Some peasants were forced to sell their lands and work as tenant farmers. * Once again aristocrats owned thousands of acres. * The Han Dynasty reinforced the important role of the family, and the family was considered as a basic economic and social unit for education and training in morals. * During the Han Dynasty, a lot of prosperity and peacefulness allowed China to expand and grow as a major world power. * The 7000-mile Silk Road flourished the trade between China and India and Southeast Asia. * The Han Dynasty had many advancements. * Some of these included papermaking, iron technology (cast iron) plowshares, moldboard plows, glazed pottery, wheelbarrows, ship's rudder, and much more. * The writing history became the chief form of literature during this era. * The Chinese benefited from the development of paper; theirs works could combine political and social history with biographies of key figures. * By 220 A.D., the Han Dynasty collapsed. * With weak rulers, the power of the central government began to decline. * Nomadic raids continued in the north; the population decreased from 60 million to 20 million. * Corruption of officials, wars, and the peasant uprising brought the collapse of this dynasty. * No one was powerful enough to reunite China under a single emperor. * Three kingdoms succeeded the Han Dynasty: Wei, Shu, and Wu. ## Think About It 1. Compare between Confucianism and Legalism. 2. Why did the Han Dynasty represent the golden age of China?