Gerunds and Infinitives PDF

## Gerunds and Infinitives **verbs followed by the gerund, the infinitive, or the base form** 1. I enjoy listening to music. I couldn't help laughing. 2. I want to speak to you. They can't afford to buy a new car. 3. It might rain tonight. I'd rather eat in than go out tonight. When one verb foll...

## Gerunds and Infinitives **verbs followed by the gerund, the infinitive, or the base form** 1. I enjoy listening to music. I couldn't help laughing. 2. I want to speak to you. They can't afford to buy a new car. 3. It might rain tonight. I'd rather eat in than go out tonight. When one verb follows another, the first verb determines the form of the second. This can be the gerund (verb + -ing) or the infinitive (with to), or the base form (without to). 1. **Use the gerund after certain verbs and expressions, e.g., enjoy, can't help.** * When a phrasal verb is followed by another verb, the verb is the gerund, e.g., keep on, give up, look forward to, etc. 2. **Use the infinitive (with to) after certain verbs and expressions, e.g., want, afford.** 3. **Use the base form (without to) after modal verbs and some expressions, e.g., might, would rather, and after the verbs make and let.** * In the passive, make is followed by the infinitive. Compare My boss makes us work hard. At school we were made to wear a uniform. **verbs that can be followed by either gerund or infinitive** 1. It started to rain. It started raining. 2. Remember to lock the door. * I remember going to Lima as a child. * Sorry, I forgot to do it. * I'll never forget seeing the Taj Mahal. * I tried to open the window. * Try calling Yi Yi on her cell phone. * You need to clean the car. * The car needs cleaning. 1. Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive with no difference in meaning. The most common verbs like this are start, begin, and continue. 2. Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive with a change of meaning. * **remember + infinitive** = you remember first, then you do something. **Remember + gerund** = you do something then you remember it. * **forget + infinitive** = you didn't remember to do something. * **forget + gerund** = You did something and you won't forget it. It is more common in the negative. * **try + infinitive** = make an effort to do something. * **try + gerund** = experiment to see if something works. * **need + gerund** is a passive construction, e.g., needs cleaning = needs to be cleaned NOT needs toclean. ## Used to, Be Used To, Get Used To **used to / didn't use to + base form** 1. I used to sleep for eight hours every night, but now I only sleep for six. 2. I didn't recognize him. He didn't use to have a beard. * When I lived in Mexico as a child, we used to have pan dulce for breakfast. We would buy them every morning from the local baker. 1. We use used to / didn't use to + base form to talk about past habits or repeated actions or situations/ states that have changed. * used to doesn't exist in the present tense. For present habits, use usually + the simple present, e.g., I usually walk to work. NOT Huse to walk to work. 2. We can also use would to refer to repeated actions in the past. However, we don't use would for non-action verbs (e.g., be, have, know, like, etc.). NOT Fdidn't recognize him. He wouldn't have a beard. **be used to / get used to + gerund** 1. I'm not used to sleeping with a comforter. I've always slept with blankets. * Carlos has lived in Hong Kong for years. He's used to driving on the left. 2. A I can't get used to working at night. I feel tired all the time. * B Don't worry, you'll get used to it fast. 1. Use be used to + gerund to talk about a new situation that is now familiar or less strange. 2. Use get used to + gerund to talk about a new situation that is becoming familiar or less strange. The difference between be used to and get used to is exactly the same as the difference between be and get + adjective. ## Past Modals **must / might / may / can't / couldn't + have + past participle** 1. I must have left my phone at Anna's. I definitely remember having it there. * You must have seen something. You were there when the accident happened. 2. Somebody might have stolen your wallet when you were getting off the train. * He still hasn't arrived. I may not have given him the right directions. 3. She couldn't have gone to bed. It's only ten o'clock! * You couldn't have seen their faces very clearly. It was too dark. * We use must/may|might/couldn't/can't + have + past participle to make deductions or speculate about past actions. 1. We use must have when we are almost sure that something happened or was true. * The opposite of must have is couldn't have - see 3 below * NOT must-not-have 2. We use might/may have when we think it's possible that something happened or was true. We can also use could have with this meaning, e.g., Somebody could have stolen your wallet when you were getting off the train. 3. We use couldn't have when we are almost sure something didn't happen or that it is impossible. You can also use can't have. **should have + past participle** * We're going the wrong way. We shouldn't have turned left at the traffic light. * It's my fault. I should have told you earlier that my mother was coming. * Use should have + past participle to say that somebody didn't do the right thing, or to express regret or criticism. * You can use ought to have as an alternative to should have, e.g., I ought to have told you earlier. However should have is more common, especially in speaking. ## Verbs Of The Senses **look / feel / smell / sound / taste** 1. You look tired. * That cake smells good! * These jeans don't feel comfortable. 2. Tim looks like his father. This material feels like silk - is it? * Are you sure this is coffee? It tastes like tea. 3. She looks as if she's been crying. It smells as if something's burning. It sounds as if it's raining. 1. Use look, feel, etc. + adjective. 2. Use look, feel, etc. + like + noun. 3. Use look, feel, etc. + as if + clause. * You can use like or as though instead of as if, e.g., It sounds like | as though it's raining. **feel like** * feel like can also be used as a verb meaning "want" / "would like." It is followed by a noun or a verb in the gerund, e.g., I feel like pasta for lunch today (= I'd like pasta for lunch today). I don't feel like going to bed (= I don't want to go to bed). ## The Passive **the passive (all forms)** * Murderers are usually sentenced to life imprisonment. * The trial is being held right now. * My car has been stolen. * Jim was arrested last month. * The theater was being rebuilt when it was set on fire. * We saw that one of the windows had been broken. * The prisoner will be released next month. The verdict is going to be given tomorrow. * People used to be imprisoned for stealing bread. * You can be fined for parking at a bus stop. * He paid a fine to avoid being sent to jail. * Use the passive when you want to talk about an action, but you are not so interested in saying who or what does/did the action. **it is said that..., he is thought to..., etc.** * They say that the fire was started deliberately. * People think that the mayor will resign. * People say the man is in his 40s. * The police believe he has left the country. * This formal structure is used especially in news reports and on TV with the verbs know, tell, understand, report, expect, say, and think. It makes the information sound more impersonal. * If you also want to mention the person or thing that did the action (the agent), use by. However, in the majority of passive sentences the agent is not mentioned. **passive** * It is said that the fire was started deliberately. * It is thought that the mayor will resign. * The man is said to be in his 40s. * He is believed to have left the country. * You can use It is said, believed, etc. + that + clause. * You can use He, The man, etc. (i.e., the subject of the clause) + is said, believed, etc. + infinitive (e.g., to be) or perfect infinitive (e.g., to have been). ## Reporting Verbs **structures after reporting verbs** 1. **+ infinitive** * agree * offer * refuse * threaten * (not) to do something * promise 2. **+ person + infinitive** * advise * persuade * ask * remind * convince * tell * encourage * warn * invite * somebody (not) to do something 3. **+ -ing form** * apologize (to somebody) for * insist on * accuse somebody of * recommend * admit * regret * blame somebody for * suggest * deny * (not) doing something * Jack offered to drive me to the airport. * I promised not to tell anybody. * The doctor advised me to rest. * I persuaded my sister not to go out with Max. * I apologized for being so late. * The police accused Karl of stealing the car. * To report what other people have said, you can use say or a specific verb, e.g., "I'll drive you to the airport." * Jack said he would drive me to the airport. * Jack offered to drive me to the airport. * After specific reporting verbs, there are one to three different grammatical patterns (see chart on the right) * In negative sentences, use the negative infinitive (not to do) or the negative gerund (not doing), e.g., He reminded me not to be late. She regretted not going to the party. **Verbs that use a that clause** * With agree, admit, deny, promise, regret, you can also use that + clause. * Leo admitted stealing the watch. * Leo admitted that he had stolen the watch. ## Clauses of Contrast and Purpose **clauses of contrast** 1. Although the ad said it would last for years, mine broke after two months. * I went to work even though I wasn't feeling very well. * I like Ann, though she sometimes annoys me. 2. In spite of (Despite) * her age, she is still very active. * being 85, she is still very active. * the fact that she's 85, she is still very active. * Use although, though, even though, and in spite of or despite to express a contrast. 1. **Use although, though, even though + a clause.** Although and even though can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. * Even though is stronger than although and is used to express a big or surprising contrast. * Though is more informal than although. It can only be used in the middle of a sentence. 2. **After in spite of or despite, use a noun, a verb in the -ing form, or the fact that + subject + verb.** * Remember not to use of after despite NOT Despite of the rain... **clauses of purpose** * I went to the bank in order to | so as to talk to the bank manager. * I went to the bank for a meeting with the bank manager. * I went to the bank so that I could talk to the manager in person. * I wrote down what he said so as not to forget it. * Use to, in order to, so as to, for, and so that to express purpose. 1. After to, in order to, and so as to, use a base form. 2. Use for + a noun, e.g., for a meeting. You can also use for + gerund to describe the exact purpose of a thing, e.g., This liquid is for cleaning metal. 3. After so that, use a subject + modal verb (can, could, would, etc.). 4. To express a negative purpose, use so as not to or in order not to, e.g., I wrote down what he said in order not to forget it. NOT tonot forget it. ## Uncountable and Plural Nouns **uncountable nouns** 1. The weather is fantastic there, and there's very little traffic so you can walk everywhere. * The scenery is beautiful here, but it;s spoiled by all the trash people leave. 2. Could you give me some advice about where to stay? * One useful piece of advice is to get a metro card. 3. The new opera house is made mainly of glass. * Can I have a glass of water please? 1. The following nouns are always uncountable: behavior, traffic, weather, health, progress, scenery, trash, work, politics (and other words ending in -ics, gymnastics, economics). * They always need a singular verb, they don't have plurals, and they can't be used with a/an. 2. These nouns are also uncountable: furniture, information, advice, homework, research, news, luck, bread, toast, luggage, equipment. Use a piece of to talk about an individual item. 3. Some nouns can be either countable or uncountable, but the meaning changes, e.g., glass = the material used to make windows, a glass = the thing you drink out of. Other examples: iron, business, paper, light, time, space. **plural and collective nouns** 1. One of the best museums is on the outskirts of the city. * My clothes are filthy. I'll put on some clean pants. / I'll put on a pair of clean pants. 2. The hotel staff is very efficient. * The cabin crew is coming around with the snack cart in just a few minutes. 1. Arms (= guns, etc.), belongings, clothes, manners, outskirts, scissors, pants | shorts are plural nouns with no singular. They need a plural verb and they can't be used with a/an. * If they consist of two parts, e.g., scissors, pants, shorts, etc., they can be used with a pair of or some. 2. Crew, family, staff, etc., are collective singular nouns and refer to a group of people. They need a singular verb, except police, which needs a plural verb. ## Quantifiers **all, every, most** 1. All animals need food. All fruit contains sugar. * All (of) the animals in this zoo look sad. * The animals all look sad. 2. Everybody is here. Everything is very expensive. 3. Most people live in cities. * Most of the people in this class are women. 4. All of us work hard and most of us every week. 5. Every room has a bathroom. I work every Saturday. 1. We use all or all (of) the + a plural or uncountable noun. * All = in general, all (of) the = specific. * All can be used before a main verb (and after be). 2. We use everything | everybody (= all things, all people) + singular verb, e.g., Everything is very expensive. NOT Altis very expensive. 3. We use most to say the majority; most = general, most of = specific. 4. We often use all/most of + an object pronoun, e.g., all of us, most of them, all of you, most of it. 5. Use every + singular countable noun to mean "all of a group." **every and all + time expressions** * Note the difference between every and all + time expressions. * Every day = Monday to Sunday. All day = from morning to night * I usually go running every day. ...but today I'm sick, so I stayed in bed all day. **no, none, any** 1. A Is there any milk? * B Sorry, there's no milk. There isn't any (milk). 2. A Is there any food? * B No, none. / There's none. But none of us are hungry. 3. Come any weekend! Anyone can come. 1. We use no + a noun after a verb, or any + noun after a verb to refer to zero quantity. Any can also be used without a noun. 2. We use none in short answers or with a + verb to refer to zero quantity. You can also use none + of + pronoun/noun. 3. We use any (and anything, anyone, etc.) and a verb to mean "it doesn't matter what, who, etc." **both, neither, either** 1. Both Pierre and Marie Curie were scientists. * Neither Pierre nor Marie was (were) aware of the dangers of radiation. Marie Curie wanted to study either physics or mathematics. In the end she studied both at the Sorbonne in Paris. 2. She and her husband both won Nobel prizes. * Pierre and Marie were both interested in radium. 3. Neither of them realized how dangerous radium was. 1. We use a verb with both and neither. The verb is plural with both, and either singular or plural with neither. 2. When both refers to the subject of a clause, it can also be used before a main verb but after be. 3. We often use both/either/neither + of + object pronoun, e.g., us, them, etc., or + of the + noun. ## Articles **basic rules: a/an/the, no article** 1. My neighbor just bought a dog. The dog is an English Bulldog. * He got into the car and drove to the courthouse. 2. Men are taller than women on average. * I don't like sports or classical music. * I stayed at home last weekend. 1. Use a or an when you mention somebody or something for the first time or say who or what somebody or something is. Use the when it's clear who or what somebody or something is (e.g., it has been mentioned before or it's unique). 2. Don't use an article to speak in general with plural and uncountable nouns, or in phrases like at home/work, go home/to bed, next/last (week), etc. **institutions** * My son is in high school. * They're building a new high school in my town. * He was sent to prison for two years. * My grandmother used to work in the prison as a nurse. * With words like school, college, prison/jail, church, etc., don't use an article when you are talking about the institution and the usual purpose it is used for. If you are just talking about the building, use a or the. (exception: She's in the hospital.) **more rules: geographical names** 1. South Korea is in East Asia. 2. Macy's is one of the most famous department stores in the US. 3. Lake Maracaibo and Lake Titicaca are both in South America. 4. The Danube River flows into the Black Sea. 5. The Metropolitan Museum is located on Fifth Avenue in New York. **We don't usually use the with:** 1. most countries, continents, regions ending with the name of a country/continent, e.g., North America, South East Asia, individual islands, states, provinces, towns, and cities (exceptions: the US, the UK | United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic). 2. roads, streets, parks, bridges, stores, and restaurants (exceptions: highways and numbered roads, e.g., the Trans-Canada Highway, the 405). 3. individual mountains and lakes. **We usually use the with:** * mountain ranges, rivers, oceans, seas, canals, deserts, and island groups. * the names of theaters, hotels, museums, galleries, buildings, monuments.