BPK Exam Notes PDF

Chapter 10: Fundamental Movement Patterns - Fundamental Movement Skills: fundamental movement skills are a specific set of gross motor skills. Training these skills focuses on 3 categories: (1) body management skills, like bending or twisting (2) locomotor skills, like crawling...

Chapter 10: Fundamental Movement Patterns - Fundamental Movement Skills: fundamental movement skills are a specific set of gross motor skills. Training these skills focuses on 3 categories: (1) body management skills, like bending or twisting (2) locomotor skills, like crawling or runnings and (3) object control skills, like throwing or bouncing. - People tend to learn through association. When teaching, make sure to create an optimal learning environment, optimize instructions, and give specific feedback about the performance of the movement. - The 6 fundamental movement patterns are: ➔ Squats ➔ Hip hinge ➔ Lunge ➔ Push ➔ Pull ➔ Rotation - The Valsalva manoeuvre is a forced exhalation against a closed glottis. This manoeuvre seems to be a naturally occurring reflexive response when lifting loads of high intensity. Although it increases intra-abdominal pressure, which helps stabilise the spine, it can alter blood flow which can increase health risks in those susceptible to cardiovascular disease. Chapter 11: Energy Systems, Fatigue, and Recovery - We have different ways of providing fuel for exercise, depending on the required power output. - Energy can be defined as the capacity or ability to perform work.Energy is required for muscle contraction and other biological work such as digestion. - Power is the rate of change of energy or how quickly you can perform work. Power output is the rate at which the working muscles can produce energy. - Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the major immediate energy source for muscle contraction. The phosphate bonds in ATP are high-energy bonds, and energy is released when one of these bonds is broken. As ATP is the fuel that cells use, the body must be able to rebuild ATP as quickly as it is broken down if muscle contraction and other processes are to continue. If ATP cannot be resynthesized at the required rate the work output of the muscle will reduce. - In general, complex organic fuel molecules with large amounts of energy stored in their chemical bonds - such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats - are broken down into molecules with smaller amounts of energy in their bonds - such as lactate, carbon dioxide, and water - and a portion of the excess energy is used to produce ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) nad inorganic phosphate (Pi). - Metabolic processes for producing ATP can be divided into two categories: ➔ Anaerobic processes: Chemical processes that DO NOT require the presence of oxygen delivered by the blood. ➔ Aerobic processes: Processes that DO require the presence of oxygen delivered by the blood. - The Phosphagen System: This system is often referred to as the immediate energy system; it is a key system in any activity requiring high power outputs. It is also known as the lactate energy system, because there is NO lactate by-product of this system. It is also called the ATP-creatine-phosphate system and you will sometimes see as written as the ATP-PC system. ATP is broken down into adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate and this releases energy for work. ➔ When ATP is being broken down into ADP + Pi during muscle contraction almost instantaneously ATP is being resynthesized using the energy release when the chemical bonds of creatine phosphate (CP) are broken. Enzymes are protein molecules that catalyze all chemical reactions in the body. ➔ The body has a limited amount of ATP that can be used immediately by the muscle cells. However, it has a higher amount of creatine phosphate that can be used almost as quickly to release energy that can resynthesize ADP and Pi into ATP. ➔ Both ATP and CP are stored in muscle fibers. This provides a supply of energy that is available very rapidly. However, there is only enough stored ATP and CP to perform all-out power exercises for around 10 seconds. Thus, the phosphagen system predominates in high-power, short-duration activities. - The Glycolytic System: This Energy System must use glucose as a fuel. the process of breaking down glucose is called anaerobic glycolysis. This system is commonly called the lactic acid energy system, but this term is incorrect since lactic acid does not accumulate in human tissues. It is not as rapid as the phosphagen system. ➔ Glycolysis refers to the chemical breakdown of glycogen or glucose. Glycogen is made up of glucose molecules stored in large clusters in our liver and muscles. The breakdown of 1 molecule of glucose to 2 molecules of lactate results in the formation of 2 or 3 molecules of ATP. Glycolysis produces a net of 2 molecules of ATP for 1 molecule of glucose; however, if glycogen is used there is a net production of 3 ATP molecules (5% of energy is released). ➔ Glucose is made available in the muscle cells for breakdown by two methods. (1) glucose molecules passed from the blood through the muscle cell membrane into the cell interior or (2) the glucose is split from glycogen stores in the muscle cell itself. ➔ Glycogen molecules consist of clusters of glucose molecules that are stored in liver and muscle tissues. Blood glucose comes from the digestion of carbohydrates and the breakdown of liver glycogen. Glucose accounts for 99% of all sugars circulating in the blood. ➔ Anaerobic glycolysis can produce ATP rapidly to help meet energy requirements during severe exercise when oxygen demand is greater than oxygen supply. However, high rates of ATP production by glycolysis cannot be sustained from very long (approx. 60 to 90 seconds). The classical view of this process is that the acidity in the muscle cells associated with lactate accumulation inactivates a few key enzymes in the glycolysis metabolic pathway and interferes with the process of muscle contraction. - The Oxidative System: this system is also referred to as the aerobic energy system. It is predominant in the majority of daily situations. The enzymes for aerobic ATP production are all located in the mitochondria. This system can use carbohydrates, fats, and proteins for fuel. ➔ Aerobic carbohydrate breakdown (aerobic glycolysis): The oxidative production of ATP involves three processes: glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain. In Aerobic glycolysis up to 39 molecules of ATP can be generated from 1 molecule of glycogen. ➔ Oxidation of fat (aerobic lipolysis): Stored fat represents the body's greatest source of available energy. Relative to other nutrients the quantity of fat available for energy is almost unlimited. Fat is stored in all cells, and intramuscular triglycerides are an important source of energy during exercise, but the most active supplier of fatty acid molecules is adipose tissue. Fatty acids are released from adipose tissue into the blood and carried to working muscles. ➔ Fat is a very concentrated form of energy; 1 molecule of palmitic acid produces 129 molecules of ATP. In terms of numbers of ATP molecules produced per molecule of oxygen consumed, carbohydrate is more efficient than fat. - Protein metabolism: digestion breaks protein down into amino acids which are the building blocks used to repair tissue, make enzymes, etc. If amino acids are in excess of the body's biological requirements, they are metabolized to glycogen or fat and subsequently used for energy metabolism. When carbohydrates stores are running low, protein breakdown during exercise may be significant. - We hardly ever use a single energy system during exercise. An exception to the rule that power output determines energy system is when you start exercising from a resting state. Even at moderate power outputs, you will start off working anaerobically until your cardiorespiratory system ramps up to deliver enough oxygen to the working muscles. Energy requirements for activities under 2 hours’ duration are not provided by one energy system exclusively. - The peak power output of the phosphagen system is twice that of the glycolytic system and 4 times higher than the aerobic system. The phosphagen system has only slightly more than half the stored energy of the glycolytic system. The aerobic system has theoretically unlimited capacity. - Oxygen consumption during recovery: excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC): During the first few minutes of light-to-moderate exercise, oxygen consumption increases progressively until your body reaches a steady state and oxygen supply equals oxygen demand. The difference between oxygen requirements and delivery is referred to as the oxygen deficit. EPOC is caused by the following factors: ➔ Muscle phosphagen stores (ATP and CP) are replenishing, as is the oxygen carried in blood and muscle. This results in the rapid recovery phase. ➔ Body temperature can remain elevated for a long time after the cessation of strenuous exercise. This increases the rate of chemical reactions in the cells of the body.  ➔ There is a close relationship between EPOC and return to normal body temperature. The effect of elevated temperature on metabolism accounts for the greater part of the slow recovery phase of the EPOC. ➔ The residual effects of hormones released during exercise, such as epinephrine and thyroxine, will continue to increase metabolism during recovery until they dissipate. - A major portion (approx. 75%) of the lactate produced during exercise is oxidized to provide energy during recovery and organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys, and skeletal muscle. - When blood lactate starts to increase, it signals that some glucose is being metabolized anaerobically. Although the lactate is NOT causing an increase in muscle acidity, it does signal that muscle acidity is increasing due to hydrogen ions. - The first ventilatory threshold is the intensity at which ventilation starts increase in a non-linear fashion, but you can clear the increased lactate efficiently and remove hydrogen ions and continue to exercise at this intensity for prolonged time. Once you go past the second ventilatory threshold, this level of high intensity exercise can no longer be sustained for very long due to increased muscle acidity and subsequent local muscle fatigue. - Anything below 50% VO2 max (60% MHR) is referred to as recovery work. Anything between 50% VO2 max and LT1 is referred to as moderate intensity. Once you are past LT1 and close to LT2 this zone is referred to as heavy intensity. - The faster you remove lactate, and the liver converts it to blood glucose, the longer you will likely be able to continue that exercise intensity. Research further indicates that the effect of endurance training does NOT reduce lactate production, but rather improves its clearance from the blood. - Fatigue is defined as the inability to maintain your desired exercise intensity. Below LT1, blood lactate levels will stay relatively constant, and fatigue is usually related to either mental fatigue or mechanical issues. Above LT1, the rise and blood lactate signals that the body is unable to supply enough oxygen to the working muscles for them to produce ATP exclusively from aerobic metabolism. Lactic acid production is actually beneficial, because it allows the regeneration of a coenzyme that ensures energy production is maintained and exercise can continue. Chapter 12: Cardiorespiratory Anatomy and Physiology - The cardiovascular system can be divided into two parts. ➔ In the pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart through the lungs, and oxygenated blood is returned to the heart. ➔ In the systemic circulation, oxygen blood is pumped from the heart around the rest of the body, and deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart. - Blood from the head and upper extremities and from the trunk and lower extremities returns to the heart via two large veins: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. - Blood then flows through the following heart chambers, valves, and blood vessels presented in order of flow: right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary arteries, and capillaries in the lungs. - In the lungs, the blood releases excess carbon dioxide and replenishes oxygen. - Oxygen rich blood then flows through the pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, and into the aorta. - From there, blood flows into the systemic circulation where it delivers the oxygen to the tissues and removes carbon dioxide from the tissues. - Blood flows into the ventricles via the atria during diastole (heart relaxed). The atria then contracts, pushing more blood into the ventricles; this is called the end-diastolic volume. After a very short delay, the ventricles contract (systole), pushing blood into the pulmonary and systemic circulations. The amount of blood pumped per heartbeat is called the ejection fraction (EF). - Cardiac output (Q): The amount of blood pumped in 1min by either the right or left ventricle of the heart. The units are L/min. - Stroke volume (sv): The amount of blood pumped by the left or right ventricle/beat. The units are usually milliliters per beat (ml beat -1 ). - Heart rate (HR): The number of heartbeats/min - When you exercise, your muscles contract and squeeze your veins, pushing blood back to the heart. Veins have one way valves to prevent blood flowing backwards. This rhythmic contraction and relaxation of your muscles helps with venous return and is referred to as the skeletal muscle pump. - The Respiratory (Pulmonary) System: Respiration refers to the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells of an organism and the external environment. External respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs, and internal respiration is the exchange of these gases at the cellular level. ➔ The conducting portion of the respiratory system consists of a series of highly branched, hollow tubes going from the nose and mouth to little sacs in the lungs called alveoli. The alveoli are tiny, thin-walled, hollow sacs where gas exchange takes place. ➔ Air enters through the nose and mouth, then moves through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, left and right bronchi, and bronchioles, and into the alveoli. ➔ Inspiration: The diaphragm muscle and the external intercostal muscles contract to increase the volume within the thoracic cavity, and this in turn increases the volume within the lungs. This increased volume results in decreased pressure. If your airway is open, air moves into the alveoli, as the air pressure in the alveoli is now less than the air pressure in the atmosphere. ➔ Expiration: The diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles relax, which decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity. As the lung tissue recoils, air pressure in the alveoli becomes greater than atmospheric pressure, and air is forced out of the alveoli. At rest, expiration is a passive process, as the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles are simply relaxing. - Minute ventilation (VE): Volume of air inspired or expired in 1 min - Tidal volume (VT): Volume of air ventilated per breath - Respiratory frequency (FR): Number of breaths/min - During late to moderate exercise, minute ventilation increases linearly as workload increases. At moderate to heavy workloads, minute ventilation begins to increase out of proportion to workload. - Gas Exchange and Gas Transport: Gas exchange between the alveolar-capillary membrane and the tissue-capillary membrane occurs via the process of diffusion. Diffusion is the random motion of molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concen-tration. As blood with a low concentration of oxygen and a high concentration of carbon dioxide enters the alveoli, oxygen is diffused into the blood and carbon dioxide is diffused into the lungs. The opposite process occurs in cells throughout the body, where oxygen is “delivered” and the waste gas carbon dioxide is “picked up.” Arteries continually branch until they eventually lead to arterioles and then capillaries. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place ONLY in the capillaries. ➔ Approximate average values for hemoglobin are: ★ Males: 15.5 g/100 ml blood ★ Females: 13.5 g/100 ml blood ★ This sex difference is because the male hormone testosterone stimulates production of red blood cells. - Blood Pressure: The term blood pressure refers to the pressure exerted on the walls of the arteries by the blood. It is the driving force that moves the blood through the circulatory system. It is normally reported as two numbers: systolic and diastolic blood pressure. ➔ Systolic blood pressure: The pressure against the arterial walls when the left ventricle contracts and pushes a bolus of blood through the arteries. ➔ Diastolic blood pressure: The pressure in the arteries between ventricular contractions after the bolus of blood has passed through. ➔ Hypertension: A common condition in which the long-term force of the blood against your artery walls is high enough that it may eventually lead to health problems, such as heart disease. - Blood pressure drops as the arteries branch, so the pressure in the capillaries is very low. This drop in pressure is caused by a dramatic increase in the total area of the blood vessels. This increase in the area also causes the blood velocity to slow so that gas exchange can take place. The pressure in the veins is also slow. - Exercise Blood Pressure: During rhythmic muscular activities, such as jogging, systolic blood pressure increases progressively as exercise intensity increases. Diastolic blood pressure, on the other hand, remains constant or increases only slightly as exercise intensity increases. Exercise blood pressure tends to be higher and older subjects and also in hypertensive subjects. - Oxygen Uptake and VO2 Max: When cardiac output increases during exercise, more oxygen is transported to working muscle fibers. A muscle needs a high level of capillarization for a large volume blood to be delivered to it. The maximum amount of oxygen you can use is highly correlated to your cardiac output. However, it is also correlated to how much of the oxygen delivered is actually being used by the cells of body. This value is calculated by measuring how much oxygen is in arterial blood and how much is venous blood; arterial-mixed venous oxygen difference. - The oxygen content of arterial blood is the same in all arteries of the body, as the blood pumped out by the left ventricle cannot deliver oxygen until it is flowing through capillaries. However, the oxygen content of venous blood that has just left working muscle is much lower than the oxygen content of venous blood from a non-working muscle or from the stomach. - Maximal Aerobic Power (VO2 Max): Maximum oxygen uptake is the highest oxygen use you can attain during physical work at sea level. This is a measure of how much oxygen you actually use, not how much you breathe in. The most important factors that determine VO2 max are: ➔ The ability of the heart to pump a high cardiac output ➔ The oxygen carrying capacity of the blood ➔ The ability of the working muscles to accept a large blood supply ➔ The ability of the muscle cells to extract oxygen from the capillary blood and use it to produce energy - Your view to Max is measured by determining the amount of oxygen in the air you are breathing and then measuring the amount of oxygen in the air you expire; the difference is the amount of oxygen used by the body. - Maximum oxygen uptake increases with age, on average, between 18 and 25. After age 25, VO2 max declines steadily, and current evidence supports a 10% decline per decade in VO2 max in males and females regardless of activity level. - Anaerobic or lactate threshold: The percentage of VO₂ max that can be used in significant amounts before the muscle environment becomes acidic, causing local muscle fatigue and discomfort. This is called lactate threshold 2 (LT2). In fact LT2 may be a more important variable than VO₂ max, although you can’t train to improve them independently. - Individual variation in mechanical efficiency: Mechanical efficiency is crucial, as poor mechanics will result in wasted energy. Athletes with larger VO₂ max whose opponents are more mechanically efficient may lose the race. - Belief and focus: To perform at the highest level, an athlete must be prepared to experience considerable discomfort. - Available fuel: Diet can obviously affect performance, as the working muscles need the correct balance of fuels available to produce energy. - Correct training and recovery cycles: If an athlete is underperforming, it may be due to residual fatigue. The balance between hard training and appropriate rest and recovery can be difficult to get right.  - Changes resulting from aerobic conditioning include: ➔ Heart mass and volume generally increase (at rest) ➔ Blood volume increases by up to 20% (at rest) ➔ Maximum stroke volume increases (during submaximal exercise) ➔ Heart rate decreases and stroke volume increases for a given sub maximal workload (‘’) ➔ Maximum cardiac output increases (during submaximal exercise) ➔ Endurance performance increases (during submaximal exercise) Chapter 17: Advanced Training Concepts - The overload principle: Overload is achieved by manipulating a combination of training frequency, intensity, and duration. In many ways, the overload principle is the king of the four principles; without overload, little to no training effect will occur. - The specificity principle: The relative contributions of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems differmarkedly depending on power output. The power output will also determine the predominant type of muscle fibres used and how long the exercise can be sustained. The nature of the activity (its mode) will target specific muscles and improve their ability to function in very specific ways. Energy system efficiency depends on the neuromuscular system's ability to tolerate the muscular tension generated during intense training and subsequent fatigue. This ability is the result of consistent, specific training. - Analysing the Physical Requirements of Sports: the system targeted to produce energy during an activity depends on the activity’s intensity and duration. The phosphagen system is the predominant energy system for all activities of a very short duration (up to 8-10s) in which speed and power are the primary objectives. The glycolytic system is predominant for high intensity activities of prolonged duration (20-120s). The oxidative (aerobic) system begins to contribute a significant portion of energy at about the 1 minute mark. It increases its involvement past the 3 minute mark and for many, many hours. - Which energy system is predominantly used to resupply ATP depends on 3 things: ➔ The intensity of exercise, or how hard you are working. e more in-tense the exercise, the greater the input of the anaerobic energy systems. Stored creatine phosphate (CP) and glucose are the primary fuel sources. Low- to moderate-intensity exercise, on the other hand, predominantly uses the aerobic system. ➔ The duration of exercise, or how long you are working. Intensity and duration, as you recall, have an inverse relationship, so it is simply not possible to work maximally for more than a few seconds. ➔ The fitness level of the individual: a greater aerobic fitness level means a person can exercise longer at a higher intensity compared to someone less trained in that fitness domain. If you are working above your LT2, you cannot sustain exercise for a long time. The greater your anaerobic fitness, the longer you can work anaerobically, or above your LT2. - Fitness training: There are many reasons to conduct a fitness assessment. As stated, it is es-sential for exercise prescription and can help the client set specific and targeted goals. With frequent testing, you can monitor the client’s progress and also assess the efficacy of the training program. Fitness professionals must use tests that fully cover any sport- or occupation-specific parameters. - Organization and Integration of the Training Plan: The process of formulating such a program, or in this case a long-term plan, is called periodization (governed by the GAS model). Periodization is a logical, phasic method of adjust-ing training variables (exercise, sets, reps, loads, etc.) to increase the potential for reaching specific performance goals and managing training stresses. The goal of a periodized program is to optimize the client’s level of performance at a predetermined time. The goals that must be met in a periodized program are: ➔ (1) Performance is optimized at a particular time or for a competitive season. ➔ (2) Training methods target particular components of fitness that build on one another. ➔ (3) Overall load of training is managed so the client can adapt and not become overtrained. ➔ (4) The client is developed over a longer period. - Macrocycle: A period from several months up to a year. A macrocycle typically represents an entire season of training, with a preparation phase, competition phase, and transition phase - Mesocycle: A training period of approximately 4 weeks. - Microcycle: A training period of approximately 1 week - Training day: A period of 1 day, which can consist of one or more training sessions - Preparatory phase: Ths phase of the client’s development is in the early to late off-season as well as the pre-season. During this phase, clients might do several months of general preparation and then move to specific preparation for their sport before they compete. - Competitive phase: During this phase, the client is engaged in competition. - Transition phase: This period follows a competitive phase. The client engages in recovery and might follow a less structured routine. - The General Preparation Phase: This phase serves as the foundation for the specific preparation phase and lasts anywhere from 8 weeks to several months. It typically includes higher volumes of training in all fitness components and lower intensities. It also includes a variety of training, with the objectives of learning or refiningfundamental movement patterns and building work capacity. Work capacity is the ability to sustain a training stress over time and to recover from it sufficiently. An additional benefit to GPP trading is that it reduces the possibility of developing muscle imbalances from specializing in a sport. - The Specific Preparation Phase: During the next phase of an annual plan, there are periods of high-intensity training specifically designed to translate the previously established fitnessgains into specific performance characteristics. A greater focus on sport- or occupation-specific training is included in this phase to build on the training base established from the general preparation phase. The length of this phase is determined by the time it takes for athletes to reach their peak potential and be prepared for competition. Clients might go through simulations of their sport, rehearse a route or scrimmage frequently. They will also likely engage in Anaerobic protocols that improves speed and power specific to their sport. - The Competitive Phase: The length of his face is largely dictated by the competitive schedule. The main objective of the competitive phase is to maintain or even slightly improve the fitness gain in the Preparatory phases of training. Typically, conditioning activities were done within the sport and small-sided games are skill-based conditioning sessions. Generally speaking, volume is decreased during the competitive phase, while intensity remains high enough to maintain adaptation. - The Transition Phase: This phase provides the necessary bridge between a competitive season, or a major competition or event, and the next preparation period. e primary focus is to reduce training volume and engage in more general fitness activities. The key during this time is to remain active. - Periodization Models: The application of the training stimulus must be progressive, but it must not progress too quickly. Research shows it is better if the progression to higher workloads is discontinuous. ➔ Periodization works by Progressively overloading the body in a sequential yet non-linear manner. ➔ Traditional periodization is characterized by the concurrent development of technical, cardiovascular, and strength-related abilities. TP has undulating characteristics, meaning the training loads can fluctuate and change. ➔ Weekly undulating periodization (WUP) and daily undulating periodization (DUP) are models characterized by a greater frequency of variation in volume and intensity, achieved on the weekly and daily level. The DUP model could accommodate the unpredictable nature of the job by altering endurance days, strength days, and power days. Programs based on undulating periodization are popular across all sports because of their fatigue management and their variation within the mesocycle. Like all types of training, periodization has to be adapted to the individual athlete, sport, and season structure. Some experts feel periodization is not useful for novices, because they don't train so strenuously that they need to follow a periodized program. - Tapering: Tapering is a reduction in training volume and intensity before a key competition or competitive season. Tapering reflects the need to have longer periods of reduced training volume and rest to significantly reduce the fatigue athletes experience at the end of a training block. Although a correct taper may result in a slight reduction in fitness,there is a greater reduction in fatigue, resulting in improved performance - Another important concept related to both periodization and tapering is residual training effects. Thiis refers to the retention of fitness changes, including motor abilities, after training has stopped. It is best to reduce the training volume of components that decays more slowly, while maintaining training in other components whose residual training effect decays more quickly. Exercise professionals generally reduce the volume of aerobic endurance and strength training earlier than speed and power work - Concurrent Training: Training specific energy systems, muscle groups, and intensities de-tracts from training others due to limits in time and energy. Long-distance aerobic work, such as marathons and other long endur-ance workouts, may catabolize some muscle tissues and is therefore detrimental to someone wanting to be as strong as possible. At the cellular level, concentrations of aerobic and anaerobic enzymes cannot both be maximized, and this may limit performance gains. When adding more weight (muscle), moving that weight requires more work, which will slow an endurance athlete; power-weight ratio.