Birds: General Characteristics and Evolution PDF

Aves 1. General Characteristics and Mounted skeleton of a structures – Modern birds are theropid dinosaur characterized by feathers, a beak Deinonychus antirrhopus with no teeth, the laying of hard- shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chamb...

Aves 1. General Characteristics and Mounted skeleton of a structures – Modern birds are theropid dinosaur characterized by feathers, a beak Deinonychus antirrhopus with no teeth, the laying of hard- shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight but strong skeleton. All living species of birds have wings which are evolved forelimbs, and most bird species can fly. 2. Evolutionary History – The fossil record indicates that birds emerged within theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic period, around 150 million years ago. Archaeopteryx 3. Biogeography – Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the Snow Petrel's breeding colonies in Antarctica. Confuciusornis, a Cretaceous bird from China  Archaeopteryx means “ancient Evolutionary History wing”. It is one of the earliest and most primitive birds known. It is Archaeopteryx often considered a “transitional form”. Unlike modern-day birds, it had teeth, three claws on each wing, a flat sternum (breastbone), belly ribs (gastralia), and a long, bony tail. Like modern-day birds, it had wings, feathers, a lightly-built body with hollow bones, a wishbone (furcula) and reduced fingers. Birds – General Characteristics Feathers - Feathers are made up of keratin (the same material as scales found in reptiles). Birds have six different types of feathers, each with a different function. 1.Contour Feathers – Body Covering (showing tail feather) 2.Flight Feathers – Flight 3.Down Feathers – Warmth 4.Filoplume – probably a sensory function 5.Semiplume – provide form, insulation and aerodynamics 6.Bristles – Sensory and protective function - Birds – General Characteristics Color in Birds - Pigmentation Pigments are colored substances that can be found in both plants and animals. The coloration created by pigments is independent of the structure of the feather. Pigment colorization in birds comes from three different groups: carotenoids, melanins, and porphyrines. Birds – General Characteristics Color in Birds - Carotenoids The red of the Northern Cardinal comes from a class of pigments called carotenoids. Carotenoids are produced by plants, and are acquired by eating plants or by eating something that has eaten a plant. Carotenoids are responsible for the bright yellows seen in goldfinches and Yellow Warblers as well as the brilliant orangish yellow of the male Blackburnian Warbler. Carotenoids can interact with melanins to produce colors like the olive-green of the female Scarlet Tanager. Birds – General Characteristics Color in Birds - Melanins Melanins occur as tiny granules of color in both the skin and feathers of birds. Depending on their concentration and location, melanins can produce colors ranging from the darkest black to reddish browns and pale yellows. Melanin provides more than just coloration. Feathers that contain melanin are stronger and more resistant to wear than feathers without melanin. Feathers without any pigmentation are the weakest of all. Many otherwise all white birds have black feathers on their wings or black wingtips. These flight feathers are the ones most subject to wear and tear. The melanin causing the tips to appear black also provides extra strength. Birds – General Characteristics Color in Birds - Phorphyrins Porphyrins, the third pigment group, are produced by modifying amino acids. Although the exact chemical structure of each porphyrin differs, they all share a common trait. They fluoresce a bright red when exposed to ultraviolet light, much the way certain rocks and minerals are known to do. Porphyrins produce a range of colors, including pink, browns, reds, and greens. Porphyrins are found in some owls, pigeons and gallinaceous species. They can also produce the brilliant greens and reds of turacos. Birds – General Characteristics Color in Birds – Iridescent Feathers The best known example is the gorget (throat feathers) of many hummingbird species. The iridescent colors of the gorget are the result of the refraction of incident light caused by the microscopic structure of the feather barbules. The refraction works like a prism, splitting the light into rich, component colors. As the viewing angle changes, the refracted light becomes visible in a glowing, shimmering iridescent display. Many species of birds have feathers that exhibit iridescent colors, including the Purple Gallinule and Tricolored Heron. Birds – General Characteristics Color in Birds – Non-iridescent feathers Colors also occur in feathers in which the cortex is pigment-free. In these feathers, the layer between core and cortex - called either the cloudy zone or the spongy layer due to the appearance of a dissected feather to the naked eye - produces colors through convoluted air cavities that act as tiny light- scattering prisms. Not all feathers have a cloudy zone.  General Characteristics - Bones HOLLOW BONES A bird’s bones are mostly hollow, with no marrow. Struts, called trabeculae, strengthen the bones so that they do not break in flight. In some bones, the hollow cavities contain extensions of the air sacs from the lungs. Extensive air sacs enable the bird to get the oxygen it needs to fly quickly and easily.. General Characteristics - Bones Bones are fused in three regions of the avian skeleton: 1) the throax - a fusion of the two clavicles (collar bones) called the furcula 2) the pelvis - the three lowest lumbar vertebrae of the back and the six upper vertebrae in the tail are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum 3) the outer wing - the bones, equivalent to the mammalian hand and wrist are either fused, reduced or absent to increase flexibility in how their wing is held. This area is called the carponmetacarpus. General Characteristics -Muscles The muscle responsible for lifting the wing is the supracoracoideus. The muscle responsible for lowering the wing for its downstroke is the pectoralis. Birds that fly allocate an enormous percentage of their body resources to the flight muscles, which can account for 20 - 25% of their total body mass.  General Characteristics – Bipedalism and Feet Although most tetrapods are quadrupeds, Birds are bipedal. Many people think that a bird’s knees bend backward. Birds actually walk on their toes, however, and the backwards-oriented joints that seem to be their knees are actually their ankles. Most birds have their toes oriented in a anisodactyl manner (with three toes in front, and one in the back). Other birds like owls and woodpeckers have a zygodactyl arrangement with two toes forward and two toes back. The large flightless birds like Emus and Rheas have feet that are in a Tridactyl (3 toed) arrangement. Ostriches demonstrate the Didactyl (2 toed) arrangement.  General Characteristics – Metabolism Birds have unique metabolic rates and are endothermic. If you look at the average body temperature of vertebrates you’ll find that birds have the highest average body temperature of all. They’re significantly higher than mammals and are actually right on the cusp of protein denaturation. As with metabolic rates, birds tend to have higher body temperatures than mammals. In general, body temperatures of birds range from about 38 - 42 degrees Celsius (100 – 108 degrees Fahrenheit). Birds are actually larger in temperate zones than in the tropics to limit surface area to reduce heat loss.  General Characteristics – Metabolism The avian respiratory system delivers oxygen from the air to the tissues and also removes carbon dioxide. In addition, the respiratory system plays an important role in thermoregulation (maintaining normal body temperature). The avian respiratory system is different from that of other vertebrates, with birds having relatively small lungs plus nine air sacs that play an important role in respiration (but are not directly involved in the exchange of gases). The air sacs permit a unidirectional flow of air through the lungs. Unidirectional flow means that air moving through bird lungs is largely 'fresh' air & has a higher oxygen content.  Bird Migration Permanent residents, or just "residents," are non-migrating birds such as House Sparrows who remain in their home area all year round. Summer residents are migratory birds such as Purple Martins who arrive in our Northern backyards in the spring, nest during the summer, and return south to wintering grounds in the fall. Winter residents are migratory birds who have "come south" for the winter to our backyards. White-throated Sparrows, who are summer residents in much of Canada, are winter residents in much of the U.S. Transients are migratory species who nest farther north than our neighborhoods, but who also winter farther south; thus we see them only during migration, when they are "just passing through."  Bird Migration The main advantage of migration is easy enough to guess. During northern winters, there's little food, and cold temperatures make life hard. Farther south, there's more food and less cold. Birds do not migrate because they figure out that they need to. It's been shown that, at least in some birds, changes in day length cause glands in the birds' bodies to produce hormones that produce profound changes inside the birds, changes that prepare them for the flight south. The urge to migrate (called Zugunruhe) must be very powerful. In the fall, as days grow shorter, fat accumulates under the skin. This fat contains energy needed for those coming days when the birds will be spending more energy flying than they'll be eating during their occasional rests. Weather changes sometimes trigger a migration's start, but by then the birds are already prepared. Bird Migration When migrants start moving, they form broad, diffuse waves that merge into great "rivers" of birds, and the four main North American "rivers," or "flyways," are shown on the left. The bird species in these great bird-rivers in the sky pass specific spots on the map at more or less predictable times. Our local flyway if the Pacific flyway.  General Characteristics - Reproduction Egg laying is unique in birds because birds are the only vertebrates whose eggs have a hard covering (calcium carbonate) for protection. Birds are also the only vertebrates where all the members lays eggs. The largest egg is the Ostrich and the smallest egg is the hummingbirds. Altricial birds remain in the nest and depend on their parents for food, heat, and protection. They are born with closed eyes, naked, with patches of down feathers, and are unable to move away from the nest. These include passerine birds, hummingbirds, swallows, woodpeckers, among others. Precocial birds are those that are born with open eyes, a well-developed down cover, and leave the nest within a day or two after hatching. These chicks are able to walk, run, and swim after a few hours of hatching. They can find their own food, but they are usually helped and protected by their parents. These birds include ducks, shorebirds, coots and allies, quails, and tinamous among others.  Reproductive Behavior - Monogamy Until recently, monogamy was considered the norm for birds. It has been shown that birds commonly engage in extra-pair copulations or “cheating”. Birds that raise young together are said to be Socially Monogamous. More than 90% of all species are thought to be socially monogamous. Reproductive Behavior - Polygyny Polygyny is when one male has multiple females. In red-winged black birds, males fight for territories and females choose males on their preception of the male’s fitness. Conditions that favor this reproductive system are: 1) colonial groups where there is enough resources for females to feed the young alone and 2) the young are independent early in life.  Reproductive Behavior – Lekking Sage Grouse use an extreme form of polygyny called lekking. Lekking is where males collect in a group to perform courtship displays. The area they gather in is called an arena or booming ground. The benefits for the males is they are found in areas without resources so the arena allows them to show off their genetic qualities. Females are able to choose males quickly and the young females can learn from the more experienced females.  Reproductive Behavior – Polyandry Northern Jacuna use a system called polyandry. Polyandry is where the female attracts more than one male. The sexual roles in this system are reversed. The females fight for territories, males, and resources. Polyandry evolutionary speaking is the same as polygyny where one parent does not have to worry about parental care and can concentrate on offspring number. It allows the females to reproduce quicker because the females do not have to care for the young. It is less common because females invest more into the egg than males do to their sperm.  Reproductive Behavior – Polygynandry Acorn Woodpeckers will find that females will be paired with several males and males will be paired with several females. This is called polygyandry. Acorn Woodpeckers live in groups to protect their storage of acorns. Several females will lay their eggs in a single nest and each will compete to leave the most eggs. Females will even throw out other females eggs. Once the clutch is laid, all the adults will care for the young.  Reproductive Behavior – Brood Parasitism Brood parasitism is where females lay their eggs in another species next. The parasitized species then raises the parasite’s young. Brown-headed cowbirds have successfully parasitized 140 of 220 species in whose nests its eggs have been observed. Although only 3% of cowbird eggs reach adulthood, it reduces production of young by the host species. It represents a major threat to a few very vulnerable species. The host birds seem to recognize the parasitic egg, but the parasitic species will kill all the eggs, if the host bird tries to get rid of the egg or young. This has given this bird a nickname called the “Mafia Bird” Bird Communication Birds communicate by songs and calls or other noises, like tapping and drumming. Courtship flights and dances are other ways birds communicate. The distinction between songs and calls is based upon complexity, length, and context. Songs are longer and more complex and are associated with territory and courtship and mating, while calls tend to serve such functions as alarms or keeping members of a flock in contact. Birds do not have vocal cords. To produce sounds, vibrations are sent across the syrinx (song box) of a bird. The more muscles a bird has attached to the syrinx, the more sounds it can make.  Bird Classification Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialized subgroup of theropod dinosaurs. In the Jurassic, birds evolved from small specialized coelurosaurian theropods, and are today represented by about 10,500 living species. Today, bird relationships remain difficult as a result of rapid radiations after major environmental changes that occurred 66 million years ago. Molecular clocks put the evolution of modern birds around 75-160 mya. The fossil record suggests 62-66 mya. 27  Bird Classification Only two nodes at the base of the avian tree are supported by both molecular and morphological (fossil and shape) phylogenetic studies. Neognathae The first is the division into the Paleognathae (old jaw - ratites) and the Neognathae (new jaw - all other birds). The second divides the Neognathae into two groups, the Galloanserae (chickens, ducks, and allies) and the Neonaves (all other birds). It is the Neovaves that causes all the difficulties in bird phylogeny. Paleognathae 28  Paleognathae 1. General Characteristics and structures – This clade includes birds called ratites (the sternum has no keel), an almost absent wishbone (furcula), a simplified wing skeleton and musculature, strong legs, leg bones without air chambers except in the femur, flight and tail feathers that have retrogressed or have been converted to decorative plumes, and a loss of feather vanes, which means that oiling the plumage is not necessary, and as a result there is no preen gland. 2. Evolutionary History – The longstanding story of ratite evolution was that they share a common flightless ancestor that lived in Gondwana, whose descendants were carried by continental drift to their present locations (vicariant evolution). Recent analyses of genetic variation between the ratites do not support this simple picture. The ratites may have diverged from one another too recently to share a common Gondwanan ancestor. Most recently, studies on genetic and morphological divergence and fossil distribution show that paleognaths as a whole probably had an origin in the northern hemisphere in the Early Creatceous (130 mya). The various ratite lineages were probably descended from flying ancestors that independently colonized South America and Africa from the north, probably initially in South America. Evidence suggests flightlessness evolved independently among ratites at least three times. 3. Biogeography – Today this clade is found in South America, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The old taxonomic groupings on the left suggested vicariant evolution but new molecular evidence (shown in the cladogram on the right) shows their distribution supports the second theory of convergent evolution.  Order: Struthioniformes Species: Ostrich (Struthio sp.) General characteristics – Traditionally, this order contained all the ratites. However, recent genetic analysis has found that the group is not monophyletic, as it is paraphyletic with respect to the tinamous, so the ostriches are usually classified as the only members of this order although many sites still have them all under this order separated into suborders. – As with most other ratites, struthioniformes are believed to have developed flightlessness in the wake of the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. The sudden absence of non-avian dinosaurs opened ecological niche space for large herbivorous animals and limited predatory threats, prompting these species to lose the capability for flight. Unique characteristics - There are two living species, the common ostrich and the Somali ostrich. The common ostrich is the largest living species of bird and lays the largest eggs of any living bird. They show sexual dimorphism. The male has a black plumage and the female is grayish brown. They can be up to 9 ft tall and weigh up to 346 lbs. The bird has just two toes on each first which is thought to be an adaptation for running. They have been clocked at speeds over 40 mph. Biogeography – Africa Habitat – Savannahs, semi-arid and desert areas. Diet – Herbivores but occasionally insects. When an ostrich eats, food is collected in the crop at the top of the throat until there is a large enough lump to slide down the neck. Reproduction – Polygyny, male tends the nest used by multiple 30 females  Order: Rheiformes Species: Rhea (Rhea sp.) General characteristics – Rheas are large, flightless birds with grey- brown plumage, long legs and long necks. Unique characteristics - There are two living species, the greater or American rhea (Rhea americana) and the lesser or Darwin‘s rhea (Rhea pennata). Large males of R. americana can reach 5 ½ feet tall, and can weigh up to 88 lbs. Their wings are large for a flightless bird and are spread while running, to act like sails. Unlike most birds, rheas have only three toes. Biogeography – South America Habitat – Open grasslands Diet – Herbivores Reproduction: Polygyny, male tends the nest, used by multiple females 31  Order: Casuariiformes General characteristics – They are a clade of large flightless bird. As with many running birds, casuariiforms have only three toes, the hind toe having been lost. The inner toe of cassowaries is armed with an elongated, daggerlike claw, making the foot a formidable weapon in kicking. Unique characteristics – There are four surviving members: the three species of cassowary, and the only remaining species of emu. The pattern of bones in the palate, an important diagnostic feature in the taxonomy of ratites, is of the palaeognathous type (common to all ratites), in which the vomer bones of the skull extend back to separate the palatines. The casuariiforms have the simplest form of this palate type, with large vomers and short palatines. Biogeography – Australia-New Guinea 32  Order: Casuariiformes Species: Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) General characteristics – The emu is the second- largest living bird by height. It is endemic to Australia where it is the largest native bird. Unique characteristics – Emus are soft-feathered, brown, flightless birds with long necks and legs, and can reach up to 6 ft in height and up to 132 lbs. Emus can travel great distances, and when necessary can sprint at 31 mph. Unlike most birds, they only have three toes. Biogeography – Australia Habitat – Various habitats but mostly Savannah woodlands. Diet – Omnivores: they forage for a variety of plants and insects, but have been known to go for weeks without eating. They drink infrequently, but take in copious amounts of water when the opportunity arises. Reproduction: Polyandry 33  Order: Casuariiformes Species: Cassowaries (Casuarius sp.) General characteristics – Typically, all cassowaries are shy birds that are found in the deep forest. They are ratites that are native to the tropical forests of New Guinea and northeastern Australia. Unique characteristics – All three species have a keratinous skin-covered casque on their heads that grows with age. The casque is believe to help with sound resonance. Females are larger and more brightly colored than the males. Adult southern cassowaries are 5–6 ft tall, although some females may reach 6.6 ft and weigh130 lbs. Cassowaries have three-toed feet with sharp claws. The second toe sports a dagger- like claw that may be 5 inches long. This claw is particularly fearsome since cassowaries sometimes kick humans and other animals with their powerful legs. Cassowaries can run at up to 30 mph through the dense forest and can jump up to 5 ft. Biogeography – New Guinea and northeastern Australia Habitat – Rainforests Diet – Omnivores: Eat mostly fruit Reproduction: Polyandry 34  Order: Tinamiformes Species: Tinamous (Multiple Genus's) General characteristics – There are 46 species found in Mexico, Central America, and South America. Tinamous have traditionally been regarded as the sister group of the flightless ratites, but recent work places them well within the ratite radiation, implying basal ratites could fly. Unique characteristics – They generally have cryptic plumage, with males and females similar in appearance, though the females are usually larger. They are generally sedentary, ground-dwelling and, though not flightless, when possible avoid flight in favor of hiding or running away from danger. Biogeography – Mexico, Central and South America Habitat – Semi-arid alpine grasslands to tropical rainforests. Diet – Omnivores Reproduction: Polyandry 35  Order: Apterygiformes Species: Kiwi (Apteryx sp.) General characteristics Kiwis are flightless birds native to New Zealand. There are five recognized species. Approximately the size of a domestic chicken, kiwis are by far the smallest living ratites. Unique characteristics – The kiwi's egg is one of the largest in proportion to body size (up to 20% of the female's weight) of any species of bird in the world. Other unique adaptations of kiwi, such as their hair-like feathers, short and stout legs, and using their nostrils at the end of their long beak to detect prey. Kiwi have a well-developed sense of smell which is unusual for a bird. Biogeography – New Zealand Habitat – Subtropical and temperate podocarp (conifer) and beech forests Diet – Omnivores: small invertebrates, seeds, grubs, and many varieties of worms. They also may eat fruit, small crayfish, eels and amphibians. Reproduction - Monogamous 36  Neognathae 1. General Characteristics and structures – The Neognathae include virtually all living birds; exceptions being their sister taxon (Palaeognathae), There are nearly 10,000 species of neognaths. The neognaths have fused metacarpals, an elongate third finger, and 13 or fewer vertebrae. They differ from the Palaeognathae in features like the structure of their jawbones. Their sternum also has a keel for the attachment of flight muscles. These birds are called carinates. 2. Evolutionary History – The earliest fossils are known from the very end of the Cretaceous but molecular clocks suggest that neognaths originated sometime in the first half of the Late Cretaceous about 90 million year ago. Since then, they have undergone adaptive radiation producing the diversity of form, function, and behavior that we see today. It includes the order Passeriformes (perching birds), the largest clade of land vertebrates, containing some 60% of living birds and being more than twice as many species of rodents and about five times as many species of bats, which are the largest clades of mammals. 3. Biogeography – Worldwide  Order: Anseriformes General characteristics –Anseriformes are one of only two types of modern bird to be confirmed present during the Mesozoic alongside the other dinosaurs, and in fact were among the very few birds to survive their extinction, along with their cousins the galliformes. Anseriformes is an order of birds that comprise about 180 living species in three families among them the ducks, geese, and swans. Most modern species in the order are highly adapted for an aquatic existence at the water surface. Ducks usually come in two types. Diving ducks, or "divers," are ducks that propel themselves underwater with large feet attached to short legs situated far back on the body. "Dabblers," in contrast, have smaller feet and their legs are situated farther forward. While a few dabblers may occasionally dive to feed or to escape predators, typically they skim food from the surface or feed in the shallows by tipping forward to submerge their heads and necks. Unique characteristics – With the exception of screamers, all have penises, a trait that has been lost in the Neoaves. Due to their aquatic nature, most species are web-footed. Biogeography – Worldwide 38  Order: Anseriformes Species: Mallard Duck (Anas platyrhynchos) General characteristics – The mallard is a dabbling duck. The male birds (drakes) have a glossy green head and are grey on their wings and belly with a curled center tail feather, while the females (hens or ducks) have mainly brown-speckled plumage. Both sexes have an area of white-bordered black or iridescent blue feathers called a speculum on their wings; males especially tend to have blue speculum feathers. Curly feathers on their tail. Unique characteristics – This species is the main ancestor of most breeds of domesticated ducks. Biogeography – They breed throughout the temperate and subtropical Americas, Eurosiberia, and North Africa and has been introduced to New Zealand, Australia, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, the Falkland Islands, and South Africa Habitat – Wetlands Diet – Omnivores, eat water plants and small animals, The edges of a duck's bill are fringed to strain Reproduction: Socially monogamous 39  Order: Anseriformes Species: Northern Pintail (Anus acuta) General characteristics Both sexes have blue-grey bills and grey legs and feet. The drake is more striking, having a thin white stripe running from the back of its chocolate-colored head down its neck to its mostly white undercarriage. Unique characteristics – - This is a large dabbling duck, and the male's long central tail feathers give rise to the species' name. Biogeography – A duck with wide geographic distribution that breeds in the northern areas of Europe and across the Palearctic and North America. It is migratory and winters south of its breeding range to the equator Habitat – Open Wetlands Diet – It feeds by dabbling for plant food and adds small invertebrates to its diet during the nesting season. Reproduction: Socially monogamous 40  Order: Anseriformes Species: Northern Shoveler (Spatula clypeata) General characteristics. The breeding drake has an iridescent dark green head, white breast and chestnut belly and flanks. In flight, pale blue forewing feathers are revealed, separated from the green speculum by a white border. The female is a drab mottled brown like other dabblers, with plumage much like a female mallard, but easily distinguished by the long broad bill Unique characteristics – This species is unmistakable in the northern hemisphere due to its large spatulate bill which it swings side to side to feed. Biogeography – It breeds in wide areas across Eurasia, western North America and the Great Lakes region of the United States. (Green on the map). Also located in the blue areas but doesn’t breed there.) Habitat – Open Wetlands and marshes Diet – Aquatic invertebrates Reproduction: Socially monogamous 41  Order: Anseriformes Species: Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) General characteristics – The hooded merganser is a species of small diving duck. The hooded merganser has a sawbill but is not classified as a typical merganser. Unique characteristics – The bird is striking in appearance; both sexes have dark crest with white patches they can raise or lower, and the breeding plumage of the male is handsomely patterned and colored. Biogeography –United States in regions where winter temperatures allow for ice-free conditions Habitat – Small bodies of water such as ponds and small estuaries Diet – Fish and aquatic invertebrates Reproduction: Socially Monogamous 42  Order: Anseriformes Species: Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) General characteristics - The Canada goose is a large wild goose species with a black head and neck, white cheeks, white under its chin, and a brown body. Unique characteristics – The black head and neck with a white "chinstrap" distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose species Biogeography – This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a wide range of habitats. Canada geese occur year-round in the southern part of their breeding range, including most of the eastern seaboard and the Pacific coast. Habitat – Wide range of habitats Diet – Primarily herbivores, although they sometimes eat small insects and fish. Reproduction: Monogamous 43  Order: Galliformes General characteristics – Galliformes are one of only two types of modern bird to be confirmed present during the Mesozoic alongside the other dinosaurs, and in fact were among the very few birds to survive their extinction, along with their cousins the anseriformes. Galliformes is an order of heavy-bodied ground-feeding birds that includes turkey, grouse, chicken, New World quail and Old World quail, ptarmigan, partridge, pheasant, and junglefowl. Gallinaceous birds are chicken-like in appearance, with small to large bodies and blunt-wings. Plumage coloration ranges from cryptic to dark to brightly colorful. Unique characteristics – Some gallinaceous birds have elaborate head and neck ornamentation including feathers, wattles and casques Biogeography – Worldwide (except extreme deserts and icecaps) 44  Order: Galliformes Species: Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) General characteristics – The turkey is a large bird which is native to the Americas. They are among the largest birds in their ranges and can weigh over 30 lbs. As with many galliformes, the male is larger and much more colorful than the female. Male has a large tail fan. Unique characteristics – Male turkeys have a distinctive fleshy wattle or protuberance that hangs from the top of the beak (called a snood). Biogeography – Eastern United States and California Habitat – Wild turkeys prefer hardwood and mixed conifer-hardwood forests with scattered openings such as pastures, fields, orchards and seasonal marshes. Diet - Omnivorous, foraging on the ground or climbing shrubs and small trees to feed. They prefer eating acorns, and nuts as well as various seeds, and various small animals Reproduction: Monogamous 45  Order: Galliformes Species: Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) General characteristics – The greater sage-grouse is the largest grouse in North America. It is a permanent resident in its breeding grounds but may move short distances to lower elevations during winter. Unique characteristics –. It makes use of a complex lek system in mating and nests on the ground under sagebrush or grass patches. Biogeography – Its range is sagebrush country in the western United States and Cental Canada Habitat – Sagebrush Diet - It forages on the ground, mainly eating sagebrush but also other plants and insects. Greater sage- grouse do not have a muscular crop and are not able to digest hard seeds like other grouse. Reproduction: Lekking 46  Order: Galliformes Species: Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus) General characteristics – These are chunky, medium- sized birds. Ruffed grouse have two distinct morphs: grey and brown. The ruffs are on the sides of the neck in both sexes Unique characteristics –The ruffed grouse differs from other grouse species in its courtship display. Unlike other grouse species, the ruffed grouse relies entirely on a non-vocal acoustic display, known as drumming. The drumming itself is a rapid, wing- beating display Biogeography – Northern U.S. and Canada Habitat – Mixed woodlands Diet - They are omnivores, eating buds, leaves, berries, seeds, and insects Reproduction: Social monogamy 47  Order: Galliformes Species: California Quail (Callipepla californica) General characteristics – The California quail is a small ground-dwelling bird in the New World quail family. These birds have a curving crest or plume, made of six feathers, that droops forward: black in males and brown in females; the flanks are brown with white streaks. Males have a dark brown cap and a black face with a brown back, a grey-blue chest and a light brown belly. Females and immature birds are mainly grey-brown with a light- colored belly Unique characteristics –The state bird of California Biogeography – They were originally found mainly in the southwestern United States but they have been introduced into other areas including British Columbia, Hawaii, Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Peru, South Africa, New Zealand, and to Norfolk Island and King Island in Australia Habitat – coastal sagebrush, chaparral, foothills, and high desert. Diet – Primarily herbivores, Their diet consists mainly of seeds and leaves, but they also eat some berries and insects Reproduction: Polygynandry 48  Order: Galliformes Species: Gambel’s Quail (Callipepla gambelii) General characteristics - Gambel's quail is a small ground- dwelling bird in the New World quail family. These birds are easily recognized by their top knots and scaly plumage on their undersides. Gambel's quail have bluish-gray plumage on much of their bodies, and males have copper feathers on the top of their heads, black faces, and white stripes above their eyes. Unique characteristics – They have a body temperature of 104 degrees F. but can raise it 7 or 8 degrees when temperature is high to reduce water loss. The can lose up to 50% of their body weight in water. At 10% water loss, humans begin to go into crisis. Biogeography –It inhabits southwestern United States Habitat – deserts Diet – Herbivores, mostly seeds and plant matter Reproduction: Polygynandry 49  Order: Podiciformes Species: Eared Grebes (Podiceps nigricollis) General characteristics – The eared grebe, is a member of the grebe family of water birds. Its breeding plumage features a distinctive ochre-colored plumage which extends behind its eye and over its ear coverts. Unique characteristics – Grebes are small to medium-large in size, have lobed toes, and are excellent swimmers and divers. Although they can run for a short distance, they are prone to falling over, since they have their feet placed far back on the body. Biogeography – This species breeds in Europe, Asia, Africa, northern South America and the southwest and western United States Habitat – Freshwater lakes and coastal estuaries Diet – Aquatic invertebrates, surface diver Reproduction: Social monogamy 50  Order: Phoenicopteriformes Species: Flamingo (Phoenicopterus sp.) General characteristics –. Flamingos are a type of wading bird with very long, ‘coat-hanger’ neck and very long legs. Adult is hot pink, but 1st-year birds are brown and white overall, attaining fully adult colors in 2-3 years. Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation with grebes, while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least 11 morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Unique characteristics – The pink or reddish color of flamingos comes from carotenoids in their diet of animal and plant plankton. Biogeography – There are Four flamingo species distributed throughout the Americas, including the Caribbean, and two species are native to Africa, Asia, and Europe Habitat – Shallow salt lagoons or estuaries Diet – Flamingos filter-feed on brine shrimp and blue-green algae as well as insect larvae, small insects, mollusks and crustaceans making them omnivores. Their bills are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they eat, and are uniquely used upside-down. The filtering of food items is assisted by hairy structures called lamellae, which line the mandibles, and the large, rough- surfaced tongue. Reproduction: Social monogamy 51  Order: Columbiformes General characteristics – Columbiformes includes the very widespread and successful doves and pigeons, including over 300 species, A cosmopolitan order of land birds with four unwebbed toes, short legs, small heads, and usually little visible difference between the sexes that includes the sandgrouse and the pigeons and doves together with their extinct relatives, the dodo and solitaire. Unique characteristics – Unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce "crop milk" to feed to their young, secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop. They are one of the few groups of birds that can drink water without tilting their heads back. Biogeography – Worldwide 52  Order: Columbiformes Species: Band-tailed Pigeon (Patagioenas fasciata) General characteristics –. The plumage is gray, somewhat darker above. The head and underparts have a faint pink cast, especially in the adult male; the belly is nearly white. The distal half of the tail is also pale with a terminal tail band. Unique characteristics – It is the biggest pigeon in North America Biogeography – Western coast of the United States, Southwestern U.S. Habitat – Forests Diet – Herbivore, seeds, berries and small fruit. Reproduction: Social monogamy 53  Order: Columbiformes Species: Mourning Dove (Zenaida macroura) General characteristics –. Mourning doves are light grey and brown with spots on the wings and generally muted in color. Males and females are similar in appearance. The wings make an unusual whistling sound upon take-off and landing, a form of sonation. Unique characteristics – It is one of the most abundant and widespread of all North American birds. Biogeography – North and Central America Habitat – Open woodlands Diet – Herbivore, seeds and occasionally berries Reproduction: Social monogamy 54  Order: Cuculiformes Species: Greater Roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) General characteristics –. The roadrunner is the largest cuckoo of the Americas. Roadrunners have four toes on each zygodactyl foot; two face forward, and two face backward. The upper body is mostly brown with black streaks and sometimes pink spots. The neck and upper breast are white or pale brown with dark brown streaks, and the belly is white. A crest of brown feathers sticks up on the head, and a bare patch of orange and blue skin lies behind each eye; Although capable of limited flight, it spends most of its time on the ground, and can run at speeds up to 20 mph. Unique characteristics – To conserve energy, these birds go through a torpor (They lower their metabolism over night). To raise their body temperature back to normal requires a lot of energy. To enhance their energy savings, roadrunners have black skin underneath their feathers. In the mornings, they will pull back these feathers and allow the sun to warm their bodies and help raise their body temperature back to normal. Biogeography – Southwestern United States and Mexico Habitat – Scrubland, Desert Diet – Omnivore, It feeds mainly on small animals including insects, spiders, tarantulas, scorpions, mice, small birds, and especially lizards and small snakes. Venomous serpents, including small rattlesnakes, are readily consumed. It kills prey by holding the victim in its bill and slamming it repeatedly against the ground. 55 Reproduction: Social monogamy  Order: Caprimulgiformes Species: Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor) General characteristics – Nighthawks are medium- sized birds with long wings, short legs, and very short bills. The common nighthawk is a medium- sized crepuscular or nocturnal bird of the Americas. Typically dark displaying cryptic coloration and intricate patterns, this bird is difficult to spot with the naked eye during the day. Once aerial, with its buoyant but erratic flight, this bird is most conspicuous. Unique characteristics – The most remarkable feature of this aerial insectivore is its small beak that belies the massiveness of its mouth. Biogeography – Northern, Central and South America Habitat – forests, desert, savannahs, beach and desert scrub, cities, and prairies Diet – Insectivore Reproduction: Social monogamy 56  Order: Apodiformes General characteristics – Traditionally, the bird order Apodiformes contains three living families: the swifts, the treeswifts, and the hummingbirds. With nearly 450 species identified to date, they are the most diverse order of birds after the passerines (song birds). Unique characteristics – As their name ("footless" in Greek) suggests, their legs are small and have limited function aside from perching. The feet are covered with bare skin rather than the scales (scutes) that other birds have. Another shared characteristic is long wings with short, stout humerus bones Biogeography – Worldwide 57  Order: Apodiformes Species: Anna’s Hummingbird (Calypte anna) General characteristics – It has an iridescent bronze- green back, a pale grey chest and belly, and green flanks. Its bill is long, straight, and slender. The adult male has an iridescent crimson-red derived from magenta to a reddish-pink crown and gorget, which can look dull brown or gray without direct sunlight and a dark, slightly forked tail. Females also have iridescent red gorgets, though they are usually smaller and less brilliant than the males'. Unique characteristics – Anna's is the only North American hummingbird species with a red crown. Unlike most northern temperate hummingbirds, the male Anna's hummingbird sings during courtship. Biogeography – the western coast of North America, from southern Canada to northern Baja California, and inland to southern and central Arizona, extreme southern Nevada and southeastern Utah, and western Texas Habitat – They are common in urban and suburban settings as well as wilder places such as chaparral, coastal scrub, oak savannahs, and open woodland. They are notably common around eucalyptus trees, even though eucalyptus was only introduced to the West Coast in the mid-nineteenth century. Diet – Nectar, insectivores Reproduction: Social monogamy 58  Order: Apodiformes Species: Rufous Hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) General characteristics – The rufous hummingbird is a small hummingbird with a long, straight and slender bill. The adult male has a white breast, rufous face, flanks and tail and an iridescent orange-red throat patch or gorget. Some males have some green on back and/or crown. Unique characteristics – Long-distance migrant. Rufous Hummingbirds travel nearly 4,000 miles from breeding grounds in Alaska and northwest Canada to wintering sites in Mexico. They travel north up the Pacific Coast in spring and return by the Rocky Mountains in late summer and fall Biogeography – Western United States and Mexico Habitat – They are found typically breeding in open or shrubby areas, forest openings, yards, and parks, and sometimes in forests, thickets, swamps, and meadows Diet – Nectar, insectivores Reproduction: Social monogamy 59  Order: Gruiformes Species: American Coot (Fulica americana) General characteristics – Adults are black have a short, thick, white bill and white frontal shield, which usually has a reddish-brown spot near the top of the bill between the eyes. Unique characteristics – Unlike the webbed feet of ducks, coots have broad, lobed scales on their lower legs and toes that fold back with each step in order to facilitate walking on dry land. Biogeography – Resident or medium-distance migrant. Populations in the northern half of North America migrate to the southern U.S. or Central America. Populations in the West and Florida are year-round residents. Habitat – The American Coot inhabits a wide variety of freshwater wetlands from prairie potholes to swamps and marshes to suburban park and sewage ponds to the edges of large lakes Diet – Omnivores, Eats mainly aquatic plants including algae, duckweed, eelgrass, wild rice, sedges, hydrilla, wild celery, waterlilies, cattails, water milfoil; when on land they also pick at terrestrial plants and sometimes eat grains or leaves of oak, elm, and cypress trees. They’re not exclusively vegetarian. You may also see them eating insects (beetles, dragonflies, and others), crustaceans, snails, and small vertebrates such as tadpoles and salamanders. Reproduction: Monogamy 60  Order: Charadriiformes General characteristics – Charadriiformes is a diverse order of small to medium-large birds. It includes about 350 species and has members in all parts of the world. Most charadriiform birds live near water and eat invertebrates or other small animals; however, some are pelagic (seabirds), others frequent deserts, and a few are found in dense forest. Unique characteristics – The order was formerly divided into three suborders: The waders: typical shorebirds, most of which feed by probing in the mud or picking items off the surface in both coastal and freshwater environments. The gulls and their allies, these are generally larger species which take fish from the sea. Several gulls and skuas will also take food items from beaches, or rob smaller species, and some have become adapted to inland environments. The auks are coastal species which nest on sea cliffs and "fly" underwater to catch fish. These are the northern “counterparts” to penguins in the southern hemisphere although they are not closely related. Many wading birds feed on prey buried in the sand. To reduce competition, the different type beaks allow for each species to specialize in a particular food source reducing the energy needed to fight for food. This is called resource partitioning. Two birds at our local beaches have different shaped beaks which are used slightly different. Biogeography – Worldwide 61  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Black-necked Stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) General characteristics – They have long pink legs and a long thin black bill. They are white below and have black wings and backs. The tail is white with some grey banding. A continuous area of black extends from the back along the hind neck to the head. There, it forms a cap covering the entire head from the top to just below eye-level, with the exception of the areas surrounding the bill and a small white spot above the eye. Unique characteristics – These birds will frequently use the "broken-wing act" to distract predators from their nests. This involves the bird walking away from its nesting area holding its wing in a position that simulates an injury and then flapping around on the ground emitting a distress call. The predators then think they have easy prey and are attracted to this seemingly injured bird and away from the nest. If the parent sees that a potential predator is not following them, they will move closer and get louder until they get the attention of the predator. Biogeography – It is found the from the coastal areas of California through much of the interior western United States and along the Gulf of Mexico as far east as Florida, then south through Central America and the Caribbean to Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands. Habitat – shallow wetlands with limited vegetation Diet – aquatic invertebrates, small crustaceans, amphibians, snails, and tiny fish. 62 Reproduction: Social Monogamy  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) General characteristics – The killdeer is a large plover and have the characteristic large, round head, large eye, and short bill of all plovers. They are especially slender and lanky, with a long, pointed tail and long wings. Brownish-tan on top and white below. The white chest is barred with two black bands, and the brown face is marked with black and white patches. The bright orange-buff rump is conspicuous in flight. Unique characteristics – These birds will frequently use the "broken-wing act" to distract predators from their nests. This involves the bird walking away from its nesting area holding its wing in a position that simulates an injury and then flapping around on the ground emitting a distress call. The predators then think they have easy prey and are attracted to this seemingly injured bird and away from the nest. If the parent sees that a potential predator is not following them, they will move closer and get louder until they get the attention of the predator. Biogeography – Western United States, Central America and southern South America Habitat – open areas such as sandbars, mudflats, and grazed fields. They are probably most familiar around towns, where they live on lawns, driveways, athletic fields, parking lots, airports, and golf courses Diet – Aquatic invertebrates, small crustaceans, amphibians, snails, and tiny fish. Reproduction: Social Monogamy 63  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Willet (Tringa semipalmata) General characteristics – It is a relatively large and robust sandpiper, Willets are identified on the ground by their gray legs and shortish, heavy but straight bill. The plumage is gray above with a white rump, and white below with a distinct white area above the lores and a narrow whitish eye ring giving the bird a spectacled appearance. The underparts are white. Unique characteristics – Piercing calls and distinctive wing markings make the otherwise subdued Willet one of our most conspicuous large shorebirds. Whether in mottled brown breeding plumage or gray winter colors, Willets in flight reveal a bold white and black stripe running the length of each wing Biogeography – North America Habitat – Willets inhabit open beaches, bayshores, marshes, mudflats, and rocky coastal zones Diet – Aquatic invertebrates 64 Reproduction: Social Monogamy  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Long-billed Dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus) General characteristics – A medium size shorebird. Adults have yellowish legs and a long straight dark bill. The body is dark brown on top and reddish underneath with spotted throat and breast, bars on flanks. The tail has a black and white barred pattern. The winter plumage of both an adult and a juvenile is largely grey. Unique characteristics – Long distant migrant. Breed in Tundra and migrate south to North America and Mexico Biogeography – North and Central America Habitat – Marshes Diet – Aquatic invertebrates, These birds forage by probing in shallow water or on wet mud. They mainly eat insects, mollusks, crustaceans and marine worms Reproduction: Social Monogamy 65  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Wilson Snipe (Gallinago delicata) General characteristics – They are a short, stocky shorebird. They have short greenish-grey legs and a very long straight dark bill. The body is mottled brown on top and pale underneath. They have a dark stripe through the eye, with light stripes above and below it. The wings are pointed. Unique characteristics – The male performs "winnowing" display during courtship, flying high in circles and then taking shallow dives to produce a distinctive sound. Biogeography – Medium- to long-distance migrant. Wilson’s Snipes breed across northern North America and winter from the southern U.S. through Central America to Venezuela. Some Wilson’s Snipes in the Northwest remain there year-round. Habitat – marshes, bogs, tundra and wet meadows Diet – Aquatic invertebrates, They occasionally eat small vertebrates including lizards, frogs, fish, and nestling birds. Plant materials make only a minor contribution to their diets. Reproduction: Social Monogamy 66  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Forster’s Tern (Sterna forsteri) General characteristics – A slender, long-tailed, long-winged seabird with a long, pointed bill and short legs. When perched, the long tail streamers extend past the end of the wings. Breeding adults are gray above and white below, with a black cap and orange bill with black tip. The wingtips are silvery gray and the legs are orange. Unique characteristics – Aerial plunge diver, usually from a hovering position Biogeography – Medium-distance migrant. Breeds inland but migrates to mostly coastal areas within North America for winter Habitat – Forster’s Terns inhabit freshwater, brackish, and saltwater marshes Diet – Fish Reproduction: Social Monogamy 67  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Rhinocerous Auklet (Cerorhinca monocerata) General characteristics – This bird is a medium-sized auk with a large, strong, orange/brown bill (with the 'horn' protruding from it). The plumage is dark on top and paler below; breeding adults (both male and female) possess white plumes above the eyes and behind the bill. Unique characteristics – The purpose of the Rhinoceros Auklet's horn (technically part of the bill) has always been something of a mystery. But in 2019, research revealed that it's fluorescent. Although it looks grayish to us, the horn is brightly colored for animals that can see ultraviolet (as Rhinoceros Auklets can). This feature might help Rhinoceros Auklets see each other underwater when foraging or at night at their breeding colonies. Biogeography – a North Pacific auk that breeds from California (the Channel Islands) to the Aleutian Islands in Alaska along the pacific coast of North America Habitat – Pelagic Diet – Fish Reproduction: Social Monogamy 68  Order: Charadriiformes Species: Scripp’s Murrelet (Synthliboramphus scrippsi) General characteristics – It is a small seabird that is black on top and white below found in the California Current system in the Pacific Ocean. This auk breeds on islands off California and Mexico. Unique characteristics – Parents do not feed young in nest. 1-2 nights after hatching, downy young are led from nest by parents, who then fly away; young make way to water, often jumping from cliffs more than 200’ down to surf. They are reared by their parents at sea and stay with their families for several months. Biogeography – Pacific coast Habitat – Pelagic Diet – Probably eats mostly small crustaceans and other marine invertebrates. Reproduction: Social Monogamy 69  Order: Sphenisciformes Species: King Penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) General characteristics – Penguins are a group of aquatic flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere. The king penguin is the second largest species of penguin. They have a broad cheek patch contrasting with surrounding dark feathers and yellow-orange plumage at the top of the chest. The adult king penguin is a solid bright orange. There are colorful orange markings along the side of their lower mandible Unique characteristics – King penguins do not build nests; they incubate the eggs by carrying them on top of the feet under the belly Biogeography – King penguins breed on the subantarctic islands at the northern reaches of Antarctica, South Georgia, and other temperate islands of the region. Habitat – subantarctic islands and seas Diet – Mostly Laternfish, squid, and kill Reproduction: Social Monogamy 70  Order: Procellariformes General characteristics – Procellariiformes is an order of seabirds that comprises four families: the albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters, and 2 families of storm petrels. Formerly called Tubinares but are still called tubenoses. Unique characteristics – The order has a few unifying characteristics, starting with their tubular nasal passage which is used for olfaction. This ability to smell helps to locate patchily distributed prey at sea and may also help locate their nests within nesting colonies. The structure of the bill, which contains seven to nine distinct horny plates, is another unifying feature, although there are differences within the order. Petrels have a plate called the maxillary unguis that forms a hook on the maxilla. The smaller members of the order have a comb-like mandible, made by the tomial plate, for plankton feeding. Biogeography – Worldwide. They have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world's oceans, with the highest diversity being around New Zealand 71  Order: Procellariaformes Species: Sooty Shearwater (Ardenna grisea) General characteristics – The sooty shearwater is a medium-large shearwater. This shearwater is identifiable by its dark plumage, which is responsible for its name. In poor viewing conditions, it looks all black, but in good light, it shows as dark chocolate-brown with a silvery strip along the center of the underwing. Unique characteristics – Plunge divers who can also "swim" with their wings to pursue prey underwater to a depth of 200 feet Biogeography – Sooty shearwaters breed on small islands in the south Pacific and south Atlantic Oceans Habitat – Pelagic Diet – Fish, crustaceans, shrimp, squid, jellies and cephalopods Reproduction: Monogamy 72  Order: Procellariaformes Species: Atlantic Yellow-billed Albatross (Thalassarche chlororhynchos) General characteristics – The Atlantic yellow- nosed albatross is a large seabird in the albatross family. It is a typical black and white mollymawk with a grey head and large eye patch, and its nape and hindneck are white. Its bill is black with a yellow culminicorn and a pink tip. Unique characteristics – They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a high saline solution from their nose Biogeography – At sea they range across the south Atlantic from South America to Africa Habitat – Pelagic Diet – Fish, Squid, crustaceans Reproduction: Monogamy 73  Order: Pelecaniformes General characteristics – The Pelecaniformes are an order of medium-sized and large waterbirds found worldwide. As traditionally—but erroneously—defined, they encompass all birds that have feet with all four toes webbed. Hence, they were formerly also known by such names as totipalmates. Most have a bare throat patch (gular patch), and the nostrils have evolved into dysfunctional slits, forcing them to breathe through their mouths. They also have a pectinate nail on their longest toe. Unique characteristics – The current International Ornithological Committee classification has pelicans grouped with the shoebill, hamerkop, ibises and spoonbills, and herons, egrets and bitterns. Recent research strongly suggests that the similarities between the Pelecaniformes as traditionally defined are the result of convergent evolution rather than common descent, and that the group is paraphyletic. The pelicans, shoebill and hamerkop form a clade within this order, with their next closest relatives being a clade containing the herons, ibises and spoonbills. The other species have been placed in other orders. Biogeography – Worldwide. 74  Order: Pelecaniformes Species: Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) General characteristics – Brown Pelicans are huge, stocky seabirds. They have thin necks and very long bills with a stretchy throat pouch used for capturing fish. Their wings are very long and broad and are often noticeably bowed when the birds are gliding. Adult Brown Pelicans are gray-brown birds with yellow heads and white necks. In breeding plumage, the back and sides of the neck turn a rich, dark reddish-brown. Unique characteristics – A foraging pelican spots a fish from the air and dives head-first from as high as 65 feet over the ocean, tucking and twisting to the left to protect its trachea and esophagus from the impact. As it plunges into the water, its throat pouch expands to trap the fish, filling with up to 2.6 gallons of water. Biogeography – The west and east Coasts of the Americas Habitat – estuaries and coastal marine habitats Diet – Small fish that form schools near the surface of the water Reproduction: Social Monogamy 75  Order: Pelecaniformes Species: Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias) General characteristics – It is the largest North American heron. Notable features of great blue herons include slaty (gray with a slight azure blue) flight feathers, red-brown thighs, and a paired red-brown and black stripe up the flanks; the neck is rusty-gray, with black and white streaking down the front; the head is paler, with a nearly white face, and a pair of black or slate plumes runs from just above the eye to the back of the head. The feathers on the lower neck are long and plume-like. Often mistaken for a crane, A heron is differentiated from a crane in flight. The crane's neck is straight and the heron's is always curved. Unique characteristics – The Great Blue Heron has two principal fishing techniques. The first consists of standing motionless. When a potential meal comes close enough, the heron slowly folds its neck back and moves one leg in the direction of the prey. Suddenly, its entire body unbends, its head plunges into the water, it catches the prey in its bill. Using the second technique, the heron slowly wades around in about 15 to 25 cm of water until it drives a fish out from a hiding place. Biogeography – most of North America and Central America, as well as the Caribbean and the Galápagos Islands Habitat – fresh and saltwater habitats, agricultural fields and grasslands. Diet –eat nearly anything within striking distance, including fish, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, insects, and other birds. 76 Reproduction: Monogamy  Order: Pelecaniformes Species: Scarlet Ibis (Eudocimus ruber) General characteristics – Adult plumage is virtually all scarlet, but only the tips of their wings have a rich inky black and are found only on the longest primaries. Scarlet ibises have red bills and feet however the bill is sometimes blackish, especially toward the end.They have a long, narrow, decurved bill. Sensitive feelers on the inside of their bill help the bird identify food before it even sees it. The bird's nostrils are at the base of the bill, so the ibis can breathe while sticking its bill in the water or mud. Their legs and neck are long and extended in flight Unique characteristics – Biologically the scarlet ibis is very closely related to the American white ibis and is sometimes considered conspecific with it. The two birds each have exactly the same bones, claws, beaks, feather arrangements and other features – their one marked difference lies in their pigmentation. Traditional taxonomy has regarded them as two separate species but new evidence suggests they might be one. Biogeography – South America and the Caribean Habitat – Wetlands Diet – Their distinctive long, thin bills are used to probe for food in soft mud or under plants. Popularly imagined to be eating only shrimp, a recent study found that much of their diet consists of insects, In contrast, the diet of the co-occurring American white ibis there differed, the latter consuming more bugs, fish and crustaceans Reproduction: Social Monogamy 77  Order: Pelecaniformes Species: Roseate Spoonbill (Platalea ajaja) General characteristics – The roseate spoonbill have a deep pink color to their feathers. They have a bare greenish head and a white neck, back and breast. The bill is grey. Like the American flamingo, their pink color is diet- derived, consisting of the carotenoid pigment canthaxanthin. Unlike herons, spoonbills fly with their necks outstretched. They alternate groups of stiff, shallow wingbeats with glides Unique characteristics – The Roseate Spoonbill feeds by wading through shallow water, head down, probing the bottom by sweeping its long, spoon-shaped bill back and forth in the water. Prey is detected by touch, and the bill snaps immediately shut around the small fish, crustaceans, and insects that make up the bulk of the diet. Biogeography – coastal southeastern U.S., and south to South America. Habitat – Marshes Diet – Aquatic invertebrates Reproduction: Monogamy 78  Order: Suliformes Species: Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) General characteristics – The double-crested cormorant is a large waterbird with a stocky body, long neck, medium-sized tail, webbed feet, and a medium-sized hooked bill. This species has dark-colored plumage with bare supra-loreal skin and gular skin that is yellow or orange Unique characteristics – They have impressive fishing technique: diving and chasing fish underwater with powerful propulsion from webbed feet. (The tip of a cormorant’s upper bill is shaped like a hook, which is helpful for catching prey. When cormorants happen to catch a crustacean like a crayfish, they exhibit a little flair in eating it—hammering the prey on the water to shake its legs off, then flipping it in the air and catching it headfirst for easy swallowing. Biogeography – North America, from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska down to Florida and Mexico Habitat – Rivers and lakes as well as in coastal areas. Diet – Fish Reproduction: Social Monogamy 79  Order: Accipitriformes General characteristics – The Accipitriformes are an order of birds that includes most of the diurnal birds of prey – including hawks, eagles, and kites, but not falcons. For a long time, the majority view was to include them with the falcons in the Falconiformes, but many authorities now recognize a separate Accipitriformes. A DNA study indicated that falcons are not closely related to the Accipitriformes, being instead more closely related to parrots and passerines. Unique characteristics – The Accipitriformes have a sharply hooked beak with a soft cere housing the nostrils. Their wings are long and fairly broad, suitable for soaring flight, with the outer four to six primary feathers emarginated. They have strong legs and feet with raptorial claws and opposable hind claws. Almost all Accipitriformes are carnivorous, hunting by sight during the day or at twilight. Biogeography – Worldwide. 80  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) General characteristics – Red-tailed Hawks are large hawks with typical Buteo proportions: very broad, rounded wings and a short, wide tail. Most Red- tailed Hawks are rich brown above and pale below, with a streaked belly and, on the wing underside, a dark bar between shoulder and wrist. The tail is usually pale below and cinnamon-red above, though in young birds it’s brown and banded. Unique characteristics – The most common large hawk across the United States. Often seen soaring over hilltops or perching on trees or poles. Biogeography – North America Habitat – Open country and fields Diet – Opportunistic generalist, easting Small Animals, Rodents, Rabbits, Reptiles Reproduction: Monogamy 81  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus) General characteristics – Red-shouldered Hawks are medium-sized, with broad, rounded wings and medium-length tails that they fan out when soaring. Adults are colorful hawks with dark-and-white checkered wings and warm reddish barring on the breast. The tail is black with narrow white bands. Immatures are brown above and white below streaked with brown. Unique characteristics – All ages show narrow, pale crescents near the wingtips in flight Biogeography – West Coast and Eastern half of the United States and into Central Mexico. Habitat – Forests and urban areas with trees Diet – Mammals Reproduction: Monogamy 82  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Cooper’s Hawk (Accipiter cooperii) General characteristics – A medium-sized hawk with the classic accipiter shape: broad, rounded wings and a very long tail. In Cooper’s Hawks, the head often appears large, the shoulders broad, and the tail rounded. Adults are steely blue-gray above with warm reddish bars on the underparts and thick dark bands on the tail. Unique characteristics – A Cooper's Hawk captures a bird with its feet and kills it by repeated squeezing. Falcons tend to kill their prey by biting it, but Cooper’s Hawks hold their catch away from the body until it dies. Biogeography – United States and Mexico Habitat – Forests and Urban Areas Diet – Birds Reproduction: Monogamy 83  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Northern Harrier (Circus hudsonius) General characteristics – Northern Harriers are slender, medium-sized raptors with long, fairly broad wings and a long, rounded tail. They have a flat, owl-like face and a small, sharply hooked bill. Harriers often fly with their wings held in a dihedral, or V-shape above the horizontal. Males are gray above and whitish below with black wingtips, a dark trailing edge to the wing, and a black-banded tail. Females and immatures are brown, with black bands on the tail. Adult females have whitish undersides with brown streaks, whereas immatures are buffy, with less streaking. Unique characteristics – All Northern Harriers have a white rump patch that is obvious in flight. Biogeography – Northern hemisphere in Canada, United States and into Central America Habitat – Grasslands, Marshes Diet – Mammals, small animals Reproduction: Polygyny 84  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) General characteristics – Golden Eagles are one of the largest birds in North America. The wings are broad like a Red-tailed Hawk's, but longer. At distance, the head is relatively small and the tail is long, projecting farther behind than the head sticks out in front. Adult Golden Eagles are dark brown with a golden sheen on the back of the head and neck. For their first several years of life, young birds have neatly defined white patches at the base of the tail and in the wings. Unique characteristics – Legs feathered all the way to the feet. Biogeography – Northern America mostly in the western United States Habitat – Open country, especially around mountains, hills, and cliffs. They use a variety of habitats ranging from arctic to desert, including tundra, shrublands, grasslands, coniferous forests, farmland, and areas along rivers and streams. Diet – mainly on small to medium-sized mammals, carrion Reproduction: Monogamy 85  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) General characteristics – The Bald Eagle dwarfs most other raptors, including the Turkey Vulture and Red- tailed Hawk. It has a heavy body, large head, and long, hooked bill. In flight, a Bald Eagle holds its broad wings flat like a board. Adult Bald Eagles have white heads and tails with dark brown bodies and wings. Their legs and bills are bright yellow. Immature birds have mostly dark heads and tails; their brown wings and bodies are mottled with white in varying amounts. Young birds attain adult plumage in about five years. Unique characteristics – National Bird Biogeography – North America Habitat – Forests Diet – Fish Reproduction: Monogamy 86  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) General characteristics – The harpy eagle is a neotropical species of eagle. The upper side of the harpy eagle is covered with slate-black feathers, and the underside is mostly white, except for the feathered tarsi, which are striped black. A broad black band across the upper breast separates the gray head from the white belly. The head is pale grey, and is crowned with a double crest. The upper side of the tail is black with three gray bands, while the underside of it is black with three white bands. Unique characteristics – Largest Eagle with the largest talons Biogeography – The harpy eagle is rare throughout its range, which extends from Mexico to Brazil and Argentina Habitat – Rainforest Diet – Tree dwelling mammals, monkeys and sloths Reproduction: Monogamy 87  Order: Accipitriformes Species: Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) General characteristics – Ospreys are very large, distinctively shaped hawks. Despite their size, their bodies are slender, with long, narrow wings and long legs. Ospreys are brown above and white below, and overall they are whiter than most raptors. From below, the wings are mostly white with a prominent dark patch at the wrists. The head is white with a broad brown stripe through the eye. Unique characteristics – Ospreys fly with a marked kink in their wings, making an M-shape when seen from below. Biogeography – It has a worldwide distribution and is found in temperate and tropical regions of all continents except Antarctica. In North America it breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to the Gulf Coast and Florida, wintering further south from the southern United States through to Argentina Habitat – Lakes, Rivers, Estuaries Diet – Piscivorous, Fish Reproduction: Monogamy 88  Order: Cathartiformes General characteristics - New World Vultures. There are seven species in this order. They are all found in North and South America. The birds in this family are scavengers, they eat carrion. The order Cathartiformes of raptors or birds of prey includes the New World vultures and the now-extinct Teratornithidae. These raptors are classified by most taxonomic authorities in the order Accipitriformes (which includes the eagles and hawks). Unique characteristics – They have bare heads, powerful legs and feet, and strong bills. Biogeography – North and South America 89  Order: Cathartiformes Species: Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) General characteristics –Turkey Vultures are large dark birds with long, broad wings. Bigger than other raptors except eagles and condors, they have long "fingers" at their wingtips and long tails that extend past their toe tips in flight. When soaring, Turkey Vultures appear black from a distance but up close are dark brown with a featherless red head and pale bill. While most of their body and forewing are dark, the undersides of the flight feathers (along the trailing edge and wingtips) are paler, giving a two- toned appearance. Unique characteristics – Turkey Vultures hold their wings slightly raised, making a ‘V’ when seen head- on. The Turkey Vulture's distinctive slow, teetering flight style probably helps the bird soar at low altitudes, where it is best able to use its nose to find carrion. They have a good sense of smell. Biogeography – New World Habitat – Open Woodlands Diet – Carrion Reproduction: Monogamy 90  Order: Carthitiformes Species: California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) General characteristics – California Condors are the largest wild birds in North America. The wings are exceptionally long and broad, with long primary feathers giving a fingered look to the wingtips. In flight the body is noticeably bulky, the head appears small, and the tail is short and broad. Adults are black with striking white patches under the wings. The naked head and neck are yellowish orange Unique characteristics – Population was done to only 27 living birds remaining. Biogeography – California, Arizona, Utah Habitat – Pacific beaches to mountain forests and meadows. They nest in caves on cliff faces in mountains up to 6,000 feet in elevation. Their size makes take-off difficult, leading them to use high perches for easier take-offs. Diet – Carrion Reproduction: Monogamy 91  Order: Strigiformes General characteristics – The order Strigiformes, which includes over 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance, a large, broad head, binocular vision, binaural hearing, sharp talons, and feathers adapted for silent flight. Owls hunt mostly small mammals, insects, and other birds, although a few species specialize in hunting fish. They are found in all regions of the Earth except polar ice caps and some remote islands. Owls are divided into two families: the true (or typical) owl family, Strigidae, and the barn-owl family, Tytonidae. Unique characteristics – Most owls share an innate ability to fly almost silently and also more slowly in comparison to other birds of prey. Most owls live a mainly nocturnal lifestyle and being able to fly without making any noise gives them a strong advantage over their prey that are listening for the slightest sound in the night. Their eyes don’t move in their sockets, but they can swivel their heads more than 180 degrees to look in any direction. They also have sensitive hearing, thanks in part to facial disc feathers that direct sound waves to their ears. Biogeography – Worldwide 92  Order: Strigiformes Species: Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) General characteristics – These are large, thick-bodied owls with two prominent feathered tufts on the head. The wings are broad and rounded. In flight, the rounded head and short bill combine to create a blunt-headed silhouette. Great Horned Owls are mottled gray-brown, with reddish brown faces and a neat white patch on the throat. Their overall color tone varies regionally from sooty to pale. Great Horned Owls have large eyes, pupils that open widely in the dark, and retinas containing many rod cells for excellent night vision. Unique characteristics – This species' "horns" are tufts of feathers, called plumicorns. The purpose of plumicorns is not fully understood, but the theory that they serve as a visual cue in territorial and sociosexual interactions with other owls is generally accepted. Biogeography – North America and parts of Central and South America Habitat – Forests Diet – Mammals, and other small animals Reproduction: Social monogamy 93  Order: Strigiformes Species: Barn Owl (Tyto alba) General characteristics –These medium-sized owls have long, rounded wings and short tails, which combine with a buoyant, loping flight to give them a distinctive flight style. The legs are long and the head is smoothly rounded, without ear tufts. Barn Owls are pale overall with dark eyes. They have a mix of buff and gray on the head, back, and upperwings, and are white on the face, body, and underwings. When seen at night they can appear all white. Unique characteristics – The Barn Owl has excellent low-light vision, and can easily find prey at night by sight. But its ability to locate prey by sound alone is the best of any animal that has ever been tested. It can catch mice in complete darkness in the lab, or hidden by vegetation or snow out in the real world Biogeography – The barn owl is the most widespread landbird species in the world, occurring in every continent except Antarctica. Its range includes all of Europe (except Fennoscandia and Malta), most of Africa apart from the Sahara, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Australia, many Pacific Islands, and North, Central and South America Habitat – Grasslands, open fields, neighborhoods Diet – Small Mammals 94 Reproduction: Monogamy  Order: Strigiformes Species: Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) General characteristics – Burrowing Owls are small diurnal owls with long legs and short tails. The head is rounded and does not have ear tufts. Adults are brown birds mottled with sandy- pale spots on the upperparts. The breast is spotted, grading to dark brown bars on the belly. They have a bold white throat and eyebrows, and yellow eyes. Unique characteristics – Burrowing Owls spend most of their time on the ground or on low perches such as fence posts. They hunt clos e to the ground catching insects and small animals. When alarmed they jerk their bodies quickly up and down. They are active during the day. When threatened the owl retreats to the burrow and produces rattling and hissing sounds similar to that of a rattlesnake. Biogeography – Western Unites states, central America, southern South America Habitat – open habitats with sparse vegetation such as prairie, pastures, desert or shrubsteppe, and airports. Diet – Large insects and small rodents Reproduction: Social monogamy 95  Order: Bucerotiformes Species: Black Hornbill (Anthracoceros malayanus) General characteristics – Hornbills are the only birds known with their first two cervical vertebrae fused, which most likely helps support their top-heavy beaks. The Black Hornbill is a sooty black bird with a large, heavy bill that is bone-white in males, dark in females. Some males have a bright white eyebrow, while others have an entirely black head. Females have reddish skin around the eye and a weaker, paler eyebrow stripe. The hornbill’s most distinctive feature is its horned bill. This horn, or casque, is made up of keratin, the same substance that makes up a rhino’s horn and human hair. The casque has many jobs. One of those jobs is to amplify the bird’s different calls. Black hornbills can make a range of calls from deep booms to brays, toots, or cackles. The hornbill’s long beak helps it to reach the ends of long, thin branches, getting fruit that other animals may be unable to reach. Unique characteristics – They also have very unusual nesting habits. A pair selects a tree hollow with a narrow opening, lines it with grass and feathers, and partially seals the opening with droppings, mud and fruit pulp. When ready to lay her eggs, the female enters the hollow and seals herself inside, leaving only a very narrow slit for the male to pass her food. Biogeography – It lives in Asia in Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand. Habitat – Inhabits lowland mature forests Diet – Omnivore, fruit and small insects Reproduction: Monogamy 96  Order: Piciformes General characteristics – Piciform, (order Piciformes), any member of the group of birds that includes the familiar woodpeckers and their relatives the piculets and wrynecks (that collectively make up the family Picidae) and the exotic tropical jacamars (Galbulidae), puffbirds (Bucconidae), barbets (Capitonidae), honey guides (Indicatoridae), and toucans (Ramphastidae).the Piciformes are insectivorous, although the barbets and toucans mostly eat fruit and the honeyguides are unique among birds in being able to digest beeswax (although insects make up the bulk of their diet). Nearly all Piciformes have parrot-like zygodactyl feet—two toes forward and two back, an arrangement that has obvious advantages for birds that spend much of their time on tree trunks. Unique characteristics – Piciformes do not have down feathers at any age, only true feathers Biogeography – There are over 450 species in this order found in all parts of the world, except Australia and Antarctica. 97  Order: Piciformes Species: Acorn Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus) General characteristics –Acorn Woodpeckers are medium-sized woodpeckers with straight, spike-like bills and stiff, wedge-shaped tails used for support as the birds cling to tree trunks. These striking birds are mostly black above with a red cap, creamy white face, and black patch around the bill. In flight, they show three patches of white: one in each wing and one on the rump. Females have less red on the crown than males. Unique characteristics – They use old trees to store acorns. They are known as granaries and can have upwards of 50,000 nuts stored in them. The birds drill the holes primarily in the winter, Each year they reuse old holes and add some new ones. Acorn Woodpeckers often store acorns in structures