BioPsych Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning Definition: Classical conditioning is a way of learning where a person or animal learns to associate one thing (a stimulus) with another. This was first studied by Ivan Pavlov. Original Studies Pavlov's Experiment: Ivan Pavlov studied dogs and noticed th...

Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning Definition: Classical conditioning is a way of learning where a person or animal learns to associate one thing (a stimulus) with another. This was first studied by Ivan Pavlov. Original Studies Pavlov's Experiment: Ivan Pavlov studied dogs and noticed they would salivate when they saw food. He rang a bell before giving them food. Eventually, the dogs started to salivate just at the sound of the bell, even when no food was present. This shows how they learned to associate the bell (conditioned stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus). Extinction / Desensitization Extinction: This happens when the conditioned response (like salivating at the bell) fades away. If Pavlov kept ringing the bell without giving food, the dogs would eventually stop salivating at the bell. Desensitization: This is a therapy technique where a person is gradually exposed to a fear-inducing stimulus (like a spider) without any negative consequences, helping them to reduce their fear over time. Pavlov's Proposal Learning through Association: Pavlov proposed that learning occurs when a neutral stimulus (like the bell) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (like food) to produce a conditioned response (like salivation). Engrams Physical Memory Traces: Engrams are the physical changes in the brain that represent memories. They are thought to be the actual spots in the brain where memories are stored. Lashley's Research (Localization of Engrams) Karl Lashley’s Experiments: Lashley cut parts of rats' brains to see where memories were stored. He found that memories are not located in one specific area but are spread out across the brain. This led to the idea that memory is more complex than just being in one spot. Equipotentiality Equal Contribution: This principle suggests that all parts of the brain can contribute to learning. If one part is damaged, other parts can take over its function, meaning any part of the brain can help with learning.  Mass Action Whole Brain Function: This principle states that the brain works as a whole. The more brain tissue available, the better the learning and memory. It emphasizes that learning is a collective process involving many areas of the brain. Thompson's Research Specific Brain Areas: Richard Thompson studied classical conditioning in rabbits and found that a specific area in the cerebellum, called the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP), is crucial for learning conditioned responses like eye-blinking. Modern Search for the Engram Current Research: Scientists today are still trying to find out exactly where and how memories are stored in the brain. They are looking for the physical basis of memories (engrams) and how they are formed. LIP vs Red Nucleus LIP (Lateral Interpositus Nucleus): This area is important for learning and storing memories related to classical conditioning. Red Nucleus: This area is involved in executing learned responses (like blinking). It helps carry out the action but is not where the memory is stored. Operant Conditioning Definition: Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. It involves rewards (reinforcements) and punishments to increase or decrease a behavior. Skinner Box Experimental Setup: The Skinner box is a controlled environment created by B.F. Skinner to study how animals learn through operant conditioning. Inside the box, an animal (like a rat or pigeon) can press a lever to receive food (a reward) or avoid a shock (a punishment). This setup helps researchers observe how rewards and punishments affect behavior. Positive/Negative Reinforcement/Punishment Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior. For example, giving a dog a treat when it sits on command encourages it to sit more often. Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior. For example, turning off a loud noise when a rat presses a lever encourages the rat to press the lever more often. Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior. For example, giving a child a timeout for misbehaving discourages that behavior. Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant to decrease a behavior. For example, taking away a toy when a child misbehaves discourages that behavior. Continuous Reinforcement Reinforcing Every Time: This means giving a reward every time a desired behavior occurs. For example, if you give a dog a treat every time it sits, it learns quickly that sitting results in a treat. Intermittent Reinforcement Reinforcing Sometimes: This means giving a reward only some of the time when the desired behavior occurs. For example, if you give a dog a treat only occasionally when it sits, it can lead to stronger long-term learning. This is because the unpredictability keeps the dog motivated to keep trying. Neural Basis of Positive Reinforcement Brain's Reward System: Positive reinforcement activates certain areas in the brain associated with pleasure and reward, such as the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA). When a behavior is rewarded, these areas release dopamine, a chemical that makes us feel good, reinforcing the behavior. Statistical Learning Definition: Statistical learning is the ability to learn patterns and regularities in the environment, such as sounds in language or visual patterns. Language Example Learning Language Patterns: Children learn language by picking up on the statistical patterns in speech. For example, they notice which sounds often occur together and which words are commonly used. This helps them understand and eventually produce language. Brain Changes During Development Neural Development: As children learn language and other skills, their brains undergo changes. New connections (synapses) are formed, and unused connections may be pruned away. This process helps the brain become more efficient at processing information. Perceptual Learning Definition: Perceptual learning is the process of learning to recognize and interpret sensory information. It involves long-lasting changes in the brain’s ability to respond to stimuli based on experience. For example, a musician learns to distinguish between different musical notes through practice. Relational Learning Definition: Relational learning involves understanding the relationships between different pieces of information. For example, if you learn that a dog is a type of animal and that animals can be pets, you are making connections between these concepts. This type of learning helps us understand complex ideas and make inferences. Summary Operant conditioning focuses on how behaviors are influenced by rewards and punishments, with key concepts like the Skinner box and types of reinforcement. Statistical learning highlights how we learn patterns in language and other areas, with brain changes supporting this process. Perceptual and relational learning further explain how we recognize sensory information and understand relationships between concepts. Subtypes of Memory Definition: Memory can be categorized into different types based on how long information is stored and how it is used. Sensory Memory Brief Storage: Sensory memory holds information from our senses (like sights and sounds) for a very short time, usually less than a second. It allows us to retain impressions of sensory information just long enough to process it. Short-Term / Working Memory Temporary Storage: Short-term memory holds information for a limited time (about 18 seconds) and has a small capacity (about 7 items). Working memory is a type of short-term memory that allows us to actively manipulate and use information, like solving a math problem in your head. Process of Consolidation Storing Long-Term Memories: Consolidation is the process of transforming short-term memories into long-term memories. This involves stabilizing and strengthening the memory traces in the brain, often occurring during sleep. Long-Term Memory Extended Storage: Long-term memory can store information for a long time, potentially for a lifetime. It is divided into two main types: Explicit Memory These are memories we can consciously recall and describe. Declarative Memory: Facts and events we can verbally express. Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events (like your last birthday). Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (like knowing that Paris is the capital of France). Implicit Memory These are memories we cannot consciously recall but that influence our behavior. Procedural Memory: Skills and tasks we perform automatically (like riding a bike or typing). Flashbulb Memories Vivid Memories: Flashbulb memories are detailed and vivid memories of significant events (like where you were during a major news event). They feel very clear and accurate, even if they may not be completely correct. Memory in the Brain (Regions + Connectivity) Definition: Different brain regions are responsible for different types of memory and how they connect with each other. Hippocampus Key Role in Memory The hippocampus is crucial for forming new long-term memories and is especially important for consolidating memories. During Consolidation It helps convert short-term memories into long-term storage. Visual Spatial Memory The hippocampus is involved in remembering locations and navigating through space. Navigation: Studies show that taxi drivers, who need to navigate complex routes, have larger hippocampi due to their extensive navigation experience. Place Cells / Time Cells: Neurons in the hippocampus that activate in response to specific locations (place cells) or specific times (time cells). Grid Cells: Neurons in the entorhinal cortex that help with spatial navigation by forming a grid-like representation of the environment. Basal Ganglia Anatomy: The basal ganglia are a group of structures in the brain that include the caudate nucleus and putamen. Role in Implicit Learning: They are important for learning habits and skills, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument. Autobiographical Memory Personal Memory: This is a type of memory that includes information about personal experiences and events that shape our identity. Connectivity: The medial temporal lobe connects to other brain regions differently for semantic (general knowledge) and episodic (personal experiences) memories. Disorders of Memory Definition: Various conditions can affect memory, leading to different types of memory loss. Amnesia Memory Loss: Amnesia is a condition where a person loses the ability to form or recall memories. Retrograde Amnesia Inability to recall past memories (events before the injury). Anterograde Amnesia Inability to form new memories (events after the injury). Example of H.M.: H.M. was a famous patient who had his hippocampus removed to treat epilepsy, resulting in severe anterograde amnesia. Infantile Amnesia Early Memory Loss: This is the inability to remember events from early childhood (usually before age 3). Explanations: It may be due to the immaturity of the hippocampus and the brain's development during early years. Severely Deficient Autobiographical Memory (SDAM) Memory Impairment: Individuals with SDAM have difficulty recalling personal experiences but can remember factual information. Aphantasia Inability to Visualize: Aphantasia is the inability to create mental images in the mind, affecting how one recalls memories. Korsakoff's Syndrome Memory Disorder: This is caused by thiamine deficiency, often related to alcoholism, leading to severe memory problems and confabulation (filling in memory gaps with false information). Dementia Cognitive Decline: Dementia is a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss. Types include: Semantic Dementia Loss of semantic memory (general knowledge). Frontotemporal Dementia Affects personality and behavior. Alzheimer's Disease A common form of dementia characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline. Asymmetry of the Human Brain Definition: The human brain is not symmetrical; each hemisphere has specialized functions. Lateralization Specialization of Hemispheres: The left and right hemispheres of the brain have different roles. For example, the left hemisphere is typically associated with language, while the right hemisphere is linked to spatial abilities. How Hemispheres Exchange Information Corpus Callosum A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres, allowing them to communicate. If Damaged? If the corpus callosum is damaged, the two hemispheres cannot share information, leading to split-brain symptoms where each hemisphere operates independently. Other Commissures Anterior Commissure: Another pathway for communication between the hemispheres. Hippocampal Commissure: Connects the hippocampi of both hemispheres. How Hemispheres Communicate with the Rest of the Body Visual Connections Each hemisphere processes visual information from the opposite side of the visual field. Auditory Connections Each ear sends information to both hemispheres, but each hemisphere pays more attention to the ear on its opposite side. Language Specialization in Left Hemisphere Areas like Broca's area (speech production) and Wernicke's area (language comprehension) are primarily located in the left hemisphere. Split Brain Patients Competition and Cooperation: In split-brain patients, the two hemispheres can sometimes compete for control over actions, leading to unique behaviors and responses. Summary Memory is categorized into sensory, short-term, long-term, explicit, and implicit types, each with specific functions and brain regions involved. Disorders like amnesia and dementia illustrate how memory can be affected by brain damage or disease. The asymmetry of the brain shows how different hemispheres specialize in various functions, particularly in language and spatial abilities. Evolution of Language Definition: The evolution of language refers to how human language developed over time and the factors that influenced its growth. Theories Language Development Theories: There are various theories about how language evolved. Some suggest it developed from simple gestures and sounds used by early humans, while others propose that it emerged as a specialized skill that set humans apart from other species. Sensitive Period Best Time to Learn Language: The sensitive period is a critical time in early childhood when learning language is easiest. Children who are exposed to language during this time (usually before age 7) are more likely to become fluent speakers. If they miss this period, they may struggle to learn language later in life. Bilingualism Speaking Two Languages**: Bilingualism is the ability to speak and understand two languages fluently. Learning two languages from a young age can enhance cognitive abilities and improve skills in both languages. Children who grow up bilingual often show greater flexibility in thinking and problem-solving. Aphasia Definition: Aphasia is a language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate. It can result from brain damage, often due to a stroke. Broca's Aphasia Nonfluent Aphasia: Broca's aphasia is characterized by difficulty in producing speech. People with this type can understand language but struggle to form complete sentences. They often speak in short phrases and omit small words. A famous case is that of "Tan," a patient who could only say the word "tan" but understood everything else. Wernicke's Aphasia Fluent Aphasia: Wernicke's aphasia involves fluent speech that lacks meaning. People can produce long sentences but often use incorrect or nonsensical words. They have difficulty understanding language and may not realize their speech is confusing. Singing Using Music for Therapy: Singing can help people with aphasia communicate better. Music activates different areas of the brain, which can aid in language recovery. Music Intonation Therapy 7 Steps: This therapy uses melodies and rhythms to help individuals with aphasia improve their speech. The steps typically include: Humming while tapping a hand. Intoning sentences while tapping. Unison intoning while tapping. Fading the intonation while tapping. Immediate repetition of sentences. Time delay repetition. Time delay probe questions. Critiques: Some critiques of this therapy focus on its effectiveness and the need for more research to confirm its benefits. Wellbeing Group Singing: Participating in group singing can improve mental health and social connections. It helps reduce feelings of isolation and enhances mood. Alex MSc Thesis - Method and Result Research Study: Alex's thesis likely involved studying the effects of group singing on individuals with aphasia, examining methods and outcomes to assess improvements in communication and social interaction. Academic Abilities Definition: Academic abilities refer to skills related to learning and education, such as reading and math. Neuronal Recycling Hypothesis Brain Adaptation: This hypothesis suggests that the brain repurposes existing neural circuits for new functions. For example, areas of the brain originally used for visual processing may be adapted for reading. The Reading Brain Core Regions: Key areas of the brain involved in reading include the occipital lobe (visual processing), the temporal lobe (language processing), and the parietal lobe (integrating sensory information). What Abilities Are Recycled: Skills developed for one purpose (like recognizing faces) can be adapted for reading (recognizing letters and words). How It Develops: Reading skills develop through practice and exposure to language, leading to changes in brain structure and function. Dyslexia: A learning disorder that affects reading ability. Individuals with dyslexia may struggle with phonological processing, making it hard to connect sounds to letters. What/Who/Brain etc.: Dyslexia is linked to differences in brain structure and function, particularly in areas responsible for language processing. Hoeft et al. Findings: Research by Hoeft and colleagues likely explored brain differences in individuals with dyslexia and how these differences affect reading abilities. The Math Brain Core Regions: Key areas involved in math include the parietal lobe (number processing) and the prefrontal cortex (problem-solving). What Abilities Are Recycled: Similar to reading, the brain may adapt areas used for other functions (like spatial reasoning) for mathematical tasks. Retrieval vs. Calculation: Retrieval involves recalling known facts (like multiplication tables), while calculation involves solving problems step-by-step. Dyscalculia: A learning disorder that affects mathematical abilities. Individuals with dyscalculia may struggle with number sense, calculation, and understanding math concepts. What/Who/Brain etc.: Dyscalculia is associated with differences in brain function, particularly in areas related to numerical processing. Math Anxiety: A feeling of fear or apprehension about math, which can negatively impact performance. It often involves overactivation of emotional brain regions. Structural Connectivity of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia: Research shows that both disorders may involve differences in the brain's structure and connectivity, affecting how information is processed. Consciousness Definition: Consciousness refers to our awareness of ourselves and our environment, including thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. Hard vs. Easy Problem Easy Problem: Refers to understanding the mechanisms of consciousness (how the brain processes information). Hard Problem: Refers to understanding why consciousness exists at all (the subjective experience of awareness). Methods to Measure Conscious Awareness Flash Suppression: A technique where a strong visual stimulus decreases awareness of a steady stimulus. Masking: Presenting a brief stimulus followed by a longer one to obscure awareness. Binocular Rivalry: A phenomenon where two different images are presented to each eye, leading to alternating perceptions. Testing Visual Imagery: Assessing how well someone can visualize images in their mind. Aphantasia: A condition where individuals cannot visualize images in their mind. Consciousness in the Cerebral Cortex Brain Activity: Consciousness involves complex interactions between different brain areas, particularly in the cerebral cortex. Attention Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up: Top-Down: Intentional focus on specific stimuli (like looking for a friend in a crowd). Bottom-Up: Reaction to unexpected stimuli (like noticing a deer running past). Stroop Task: A psychological test that demonstrates the interference of automatic processing (reading) with controlled processing (naming colors). Loss of Consciousness Definition: Loss of consciousness can occur due to various reasons, including medical conditions. Anesthesia Induced Loss of Consciousness: Anesthesia is a medical procedure that temporarily blocks awareness and sensation during surgery. Vegetative State Patients Minimal Awareness: Patients in a vegetative state may show no signs of awareness but can have sleep-wake cycles. They may respond to stimuli without conscious awareness. Tennis vs. Walking Through House: Research shows that some vegetative state patients can respond to commands (like imagining playing tennis) even if they cannot communicate. The Pain of Exclusion Definition: The pain of exclusion refers to the emotional distress caused by social rejection or isolation. Cyberball Game Task and Key Finding: In this experiment, participants play a virtual ball-tossing game. Those who are excluded from the game show increased activity in brain areas associated with physical pain, indicating that social exclusion can feel like physical pain. Summary The evolution of language involves theories about its development, the sensitive period for learning, and bilingualism. Aphasia describes language impairments, with Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia highlighting different challenges in communication. Academic abilities encompass the neuronal recycling hypothesis, reading and math skills, and associated learning disorders. Consciousness involves understanding awareness and attention, while loss of consciousness can occur due to anesthesia or medical conditions. The pain of exclusion illustrates the emotional impact of social rejection. Mental Illness Definition: Mental illness refers to a wide range of mental health conditions that affect mood, thinking, and behavior. These conditions can disrupt daily life and functioning. Myths Common Misconceptions: There are many myths about mental illness, such as: People with mental illness are violent or dangerous. Mental illness is a sign of personal weakness. Mental illness is rare and only affects a few people. Mental illness can be easily overcome with willpower alone. Comorbidities Co-occurring Conditions: Comorbidities refer to the presence of two or more disorders or illnesses occurring in the same person. For example, someone with depression may also have anxiety or substance abuse issues. This can complicate treatment and recovery. Spectrum of Symptoms Variety of Experiences: Mental illnesses can present a wide range of symptoms that vary in severity. For instance, someone with depression might experience mild sadness or severe hopelessness. The spectrum means that symptoms can be mild, moderate, or severe, and can change over time. Major Depressive Disorder (Unipolar) Definition: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest in activities. Prevalence How Common It Is: MDD affects about 5% of adults each year, making it one of the most common mental health disorders. Symptoms Common Signs: Symptoms of MDD include: Persistent sadness or low mood. Loss of interest or pleasure in activities. Fatigue or low energy. Feelings of worthlessness or guilt. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions. Changes in sleep patterns (insomnia or oversleeping). Thoughts of death or suicide. Studies Research Examples: Beeper Study: Participants used a beeper to record their mood and activities throughout the day, helping researchers understand how daily experiences affect mood. Movie Study: Participants watched a movie and reported their feelings before and after, showing how media can influence mood. Sleep Problems Impact on Sleep: Many people with MDD experience sleep disturbances, such as insomnia (difficulty sleeping) or hypersomnia (excessive sleeping). Genetic Underpinnings Role of Genetics: Genetics can play a role in MDD. For example, the 5-HTTLPR gene is linked to serotonin transport, which affects mood regulation. Monoamine Hypothesis Chemical Imbalance Theory: This hypothesis suggests that depression is caused by low levels of certain neurotransmitters (like serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) in the brain. Antidepressants How They Work: Antidepressants are medications that help improve mood by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. Time to Improvement: It usually takes several weeks for antidepressants to start showing effects. Different Types: SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors): Increase serotonin levels. SNRIs (Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors): Increase both serotonin and norepinephrine. Tricyclics: Older class of antidepressants that affect multiple neurotransmitters. How Each Type Works: Each type of antidepressant works by altering the balance of neurotransmitters in the brain to improve mood. BDNF Theory: Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is a protein that supports neuron growth and survival. Low levels of BDNF are associated with depression. Effectiveness Compared to Placebo: Antidepressants are generally more effective than placebo (sugar pills) in treating depression, but the effectiveness can vary among individuals. Alternative Treatments to Antidepressants Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): A type of therapy that helps individuals change negative thought patterns and behaviors. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): A non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): A treatment for severe depression that involves sending small electric currents through the brain to induce a seizure. Exercise: Regular physical activity can improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression. Sleep: Good sleep hygiene and addressing sleep problems can also help improve mood and overall mental health. Bipolar Disorder Definition: Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder characterized by extreme mood swings, including episodes of mania (high energy) and depression (low energy). Prevalence How Common It Is: Bipolar disorder affects about 1-2% of the population. Subtypes Types of Bipolar Disorder: Bipolar I: Characterized by at least one manic episode. Bipolar II: Involves at least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode (less severe than full mania). Cyclothymia: A milder form with periods of hypomania and mild depression. Genetics Role of Genetics: There is a strong genetic component to bipolar disorder, with higher rates among relatives of affected individuals. Glucose Use Brain Energy: Research shows that brain glucose metabolism differs during manic and depressive episodes, indicating changes in brain energy use. Role of Monoamines Neurotransmitter Involvement: Similar to depression, bipolar disorder is thought to involve imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine. Big Picture Overall Concept: Bipolar disorder is a complex condition influenced by genetic, biological, and environmental factors. Treatment Lithium: A common medication used to stabilize mood in individuals with bipolar disorder. Mechanisms of Action: Lithium helps to balance neurotransmitters and reduce the frequency and severity of mood swings. Schizophrenia Definition: Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by distorted thinking, perceptions, emotions, and behavior. History Understanding the Disorder: Schizophrenia has been recognized for centuries, but understanding its causes and treatments has evolved over time. Prevalence How Common It Is: Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the population, with variations in prevalence based on factors like location and socioeconomic status. Age of Onset When It Typically Develops: Symptoms usually appear in late adolescence to early adulthood, with men often showing symptoms earlier than women. Symptoms Types of Symptoms: Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that aren’t there), delusions (false beliefs), and disorganized thinking. Negative Symptoms: Lack of motivation, emotional flatness, and social withdrawal. Cognitive Symptoms: Impaired memory, attention, and ability to process information. Diagnosis How It’s Diagnosed: Diagnosis is based on clinical assessment of symptoms and their impact on functioning. Differential Diagnosis Ruling Out Other Conditions: It’s important to differentiate schizophrenia from other mental health disorders that may have similar symptoms. Case Studies Cecilia McGough: A case study that illustrates the experience of living with schizophrenia. Louis Wain: An artist known for his paintings that reflect his experiences with schizophrenia. Genetics Role of Genetics: Genetics play a significant role in schizophrenia, with higher risks among relatives of affected individuals. Genes Specific Genes: Certain genes, like DISC1 and NRG1, have been linked to increased risk for schizophrenia. Prenatal Environment Influence of Early Development: Factors like maternal infections during pregnancy can increase the risk of developing schizophrenia later in life. Adoption Studies Genetic vs. Environmental Factors: Studies show that individuals with a family history of schizophrenia are more likely to develop the disorder, even if raised in different environments. Rare Genes with Big Impact Microdeletions/Microduplications: Small genetic changes can significantly increase the risk of schizophrenia. Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis Brain Development: This hypothesis suggests that abnormalities in brain development during prenatal or early life can lead to schizophrenia. Two-Hit Hypothesis Combination of Factors: This theory posits that a genetic predisposition (first hit) combined with environmental stressors (second hit) can trigger the onset of schizophrenia. Environmental Influences Season-of-Birth Effect: Some studies suggest that individuals born in certain seasons (like winter) may have a higher risk of developing schizophrenia, possibly due to viral infections during pregnancy. Other Factors: Factors like childhood trauma, urban living, and substance use can also influence the risk of developing schizophrenia. Brain Abnormalities Structural Changes: People with schizophrenia often show changes in brain structure, such as enlarged ventricles and reduced gray matter. Network Neuroscience Brain Connectivity: This field studies how different brain regions communicate and how disruptions in these networks can contribute to schizophrenia. Dopamine Hypothesis Role of Dopamine: This hypothesis suggests that overactivity of dopamine in certain brain areas contributes to positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Glutamate Hypothesis Role of Glutamate: This hypothesis posits that dysfunction in glutamate transmission, particularly at NMDA receptors, is involved in schizophrenia. Antipsychotics 1st Generation: These drugs primarily block dopamine receptors to reduce symptoms but can cause side effects like movement disorders. How They Work: They reduce dopamine activity in the brain, which helps alleviate positive symptoms. Issues: Side effects can include tardive dyskinesia (involuntary movements) and other movement-related issues. 2nd Generation: These drugs affect both dopamine and serotonin receptors, often with fewer movement-related side effects. How They Work: They balance dopamine and serotonin levels, which can help with both positive and negative symptoms. Issues: They can cause weight gain and metabolic issues. 3rd Generation: These newer antipsychotics aim to stabilize dopamine activity more precisely, reducing side effects. How They Work: They modulate dopamine levels without completely blocking receptors, leading to fewer side effects.