Biology History PDF

G & ⑤ 6 BIOLOGY I 6 - G g  BIRIEE HISTORY OE BIOLOGY I 1 Claud...

G & ⑤ 6 BIOLOGY I 6 - G g  BIRIEE HISTORY OE BIOLOGY I 1 Claudius Galenus. 2 Ibn Sind 1 Phithisis Tuberculosis perform dissection on Barbary was _ - contagious apes (similar to human body) I - distinguished : -Diabetes symptoms 7 pair Descriptiona · of cranial nerves 1- · structural differences for veins & arteries I values of heart accomplishments · : accomplishments : I-first to describe carotid sinus · discover arteries carrying blood not hypersensitivity (CSH) air , · showing brain controling voice - explaination first person correct · demonstrating kidney & bladder function I bedside technique of pulsation Described several ! - psychiatric disorders (anxiety depression & etc) , BOOKS : 11. The Canon of Medicine 12. Book of the Cure I !. Andreas 3 Vesalius 14. Robert Hooke. - First used the word cell performed dissection cadavers/accomplishments - on ↳ demonstrated : : Musle & bone structure & other Gregorian reflecting telescope · - Built human anatomy & invent modern microscope · Correction for Galen's claimed ; I BOOKS : I human breastbone are in three j "Small Drawings" segments instead of seven.The humerusisnotthelongsit 2 tibia fibula. Anton Van 15 accomplishments : Produced an atomical charts of the blood Leeuwenhoek - & nervous system as reference aid I Bacteria & isolating 'animalcules' - from different BOOK : sources "The sevenBooks on theStructure II I accomplishments : of the Human Body - first to observe protozoa and bacteria first to describe the spermatozoa I - from insects , dogs a man I I I I 6 Carolus Linnaeus 8 Alfred Russel ,.. Systematized the plant & animal - Wallace kingdom - classified the mineral Kingdom /-co-founder of evolutionary theory by natural selection accomplishment : principles for defining discovered I first to frame - : natural genera and species of organism exploration on bird called male < unique name) BOOK : BOOKS 1 Malay" : "The Archipelago "Systema Naturae" 19 Charles Darwin Pasteur.. 7 Loise 4 founder of evolutionary theory - microorganisms cause fermentation I Cine "On the origin & beer industry ( " of species - Germ theory , the theory of zoonotic diseases (chicken cholera accomplishments : I - originated the process of pasteurization develop vaccine against 10. Gregor Mendel - anthrax & rabies I discovered : - the basic principles of heredity I complishments : - Mendel's law of Inheritance  I 11 James Watson. & Francis Crick ↳ discovered the double helix & the twisted ladder structure of DNA.  I #Cell structure ↳ Prokaryotic cells · unicellular organism non-living 1 · cell walls made of peptidoglycan I (maintain cell shape & ↳ Plant cell provide protection ( - regular in shape due to cell walls some hu extra contain chlorophyll in chloroplasts - - layer containing (photosynthesis ( lipopolysaccharides - vacuoles : maintaining cell turgidity C + ( C - ) - lack membrane-bound organelles & nucleus enclosed by a membrane. - high metabolic & growth rate - shorter generation time than eukaryotes (plant) Canimal) - some he capsule for extra protection & ↳ Animal cell flagela/pili for movement ! & - no cell walls : smaller irregular ↳ reproduction : shapes binary fission Casexual ( movement assisted by flagella (sperm) - - number hu pair of centrioles next to nucleus occur min, creating large a - every 20 - , & store food of bacteria quickly as glycogen no chloroplasts - ↳ Eukaryotic cells - plants , animal , fungi , slime molds , protozoa & algae. I I - larger than prokaryotic cells - undergo meiosis a mitosis for growth/ reproduction.  I · prokaryotic cells · Eukaryotic cells ↳ unicellular (bacteria & ↳ larger than prokaryotic cells archaebacteria ( ↳Some cells having cell walls outside ↳ non-living wall made of the plasma membrane peptidoglycan (maintain cell shape) ↳ undergo meiosis & mitosis for growth & ↳ bacteria , gram-negative reproduction - hv additional layer > gram-positive I gram stain : helps in desease diagnose ↳ simple lacking membrane-bound , organelles & a nucleus enclosed by a membrane ↳ high metabolic & growth rate- = shorter generation time ↳ hu capsules/flagella/pili ↓ wer extra movement protection - reproduction : binary fission a sexual reproduction ↳ occur every 20 min  I O Plant cells # Plasma membrane ↳ shape due > encloses provide shape Regular to cell walls cytoplasm : & protection ↳ mature cells he large central ↳ semi-permeable vacuoles for cell maintaining ↳ Glycolipids & Glycoproteins act as turgidity chemical reseptor ↳ Cholesterol reduces membrane flexibility Y plant cell are connected by the & permeability middle lamela & plasmodesmata allowing substance exchange # Cytoskeleton · Animal Cells ↳ provide mechanical support & maintaining cell shape ↳ he a pair of centrioles next to nucleus ↳ fixes organelle locations & aids substance movement within the ↳ store food as glycogen in cell cytoplasm ↳ Microfilaments support muscle ↳ contain membranous organelles contraction (no chloroplast ( ↳ Microtubules maintain cell shape & assist in chromosome Cell wall separation - tough rigid, , non-living structure - Intermediate filaments prevent excessive giving plant defined shapes. stretching & fix organelle positions cell thin Callows growth young : - secondary : harden by lignin cell maintain cell shape , support - growth, protect against pathogen  I Nucleus Mitochondria ↳ Powerhouse of cell ↳ largesta prominent organelle (metabolizing glucose & fatty acids > - (containing DNA) & directing ATP) cellular activitiess. E Chloroplast ↳ stores material genetic ↳ ↳ directs responsible for photosynthesis protein synthesis ↳ consist chlorophyll ↳ regulates cell metabolism # Epithelial tissues # Endoplasmic reticulum ↳ cover exterior of the body ↳ consist 1/more layers of cells CER) 1 Squamous : -thin , smootha strong 4 Rough ER (RER) : synthesizes facilitates diffusion - & transport proteins - found in : o blood vessels · Bowman's capsule ↳ Smooth ER (SER) : hormone. 2 cuboidal : - protection to underlying tissues production & lipid synthesis. - absorption and transport of filtered substances in Kidney tubules # Golgi Body. 3 columnar : -secretes digestive enzymes - consists cistere absorbs product - of digestion - modify , sort & distribute proteins stratified : from the rough ER 1. squamous = epidermis of skin & lining of esophagus. # Ribosomes ↳ 2. Cuboidal = sweat glands synthesis proteins. 3 Columnar = mammary glands * Lysosomes · Pseudostratified ↳ digest macromolecules recycle old , ↳ found in trachea , bronchi & organelles bronchioles ↳ digest dead cell remains  I Neurons # cartilage ↳ main features 4 hard , flexible & specialized tissue that withstand mechanical stress 1 cell body : contain nucleus. 2 Dendrite : bring impulses ↳ found in joints. Axon 3 : carries away impulses away ↳ absorber , cushioning bones Dendrite - produced by chondrocytes Axon Terminal Node of (secrete protein matrix ( Ranvier Cell body 1. Hyaline : -common form surface of bones Schwann cell - AXOn Myelin Sheath Nudeus 2. Elastic : - contains many elastic transmit impulses fibers (yellowish) Motor neurons : nervous system · - ear canal , epiglotti ↓. 3 Fibrous : -dense network of muscle collagen fibers conduct impulses intervertebral disc sensory - neurons : receptor organs ↓ Bones central nervous ↳ convert system muscle contraction > - movement · Relay neurons : receive impulses from 1. & Spongy : center flat bones sensory neurons ends of long bones #Neuroglial cells. 2 Compact : formed by ↳ Schwann cells produce myelin - sheath osteocytes surrounding many axons CHaversian canals) ↳ myelin sheath is segmented by the nodes - contain blood of Ranvier (faster impulse movement) vessels & nerves  I # Muscle tissues · neutrophils - contain several ① smooth muscle : lysosomes involuntary capable of leaving - - - controlled by the brain via blood vessels & autonomic nervous system perform phagocytosis ② Stricted muscle : - large number of muscle attached · eosinophils to bones via tendon - defending against voluntary parasitic infections, - support & motion allergic reaction & - inflammation ③ Cardiac muscle : - only in heart - involuntary · basophils - does not require brain impulses - contain histamine, to contract serotonin & heparin # Blood ↳ Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) · lymphocytes - formed in bone marrow - produced in lymph nodes lack nucleus T-lymphocytes (thymus - - filled - B-lymphocytes with hemoglobin - (bone marrow) disc shape antibodies) (producing - ↳ White blood cells (Leukocytes) · Monocytes - defending mechanism - process antigens granulocytes Basophil - involved in antigen [ · Neutrophil presentation to B - & Eosinophil T-lymphocytes agranulocytes lymphocytes [ · monocytes  I themistry. 3 Polysaccharides & cellulose starch glycogen - , compound - formation known as polymerisation organic Inorganic · Lipids no carbon triglycerides - - nu carbon atom - , phospholipids & steroids consist H O C doesn't consist fatty saturated - acids - , , - unsaturated -found in living - non-living things · Proteins (C , H , 0 & N Water (common Polymers of amino acids - · ↳ essential properties : ↳ non-essential 1. Universal solvent. 2 Low viscosity 3. Specific heat capacity. latent heat of vap orisation 4 5. Surface tension. 6 Density · Carbohydrates (Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen ( , , 1 Monosaccharides ↳ Aldoses (reducing ( ↳ Ketoses (non-reducing). 2 Disaccharides - sucrose , lactose , maltose - reducing sugar  I * D Hershey SD8 ↳ & Chase - confirming DNA as the genetic material ↳ Frederick Griffith's - investigate bacteriophages , viruses (exp on mouse heating that infect bacteria composed of only by , - used bacterium S-strain & DNA & protein R-strain - DNA : 32p protein : 35SX - Transforming principle : heat-killed S-strain · DNA # nucleic acid composed of nucleotides - living R-strain consists 5 carbon : sugar - = 1 phosphate group mouse died 1 nitrogenous base (ATCG) ↳ Avery , Macleod & McCarty ↳ Chargaff's rule adenine = thymine , cytosine = guanine S-strain - responsible for - Purines = Pyrimidines transformation prepared extract of heat-killed o replication of DNA - S-strain & treated them with : ① unwinding attached continue Protease ② protein RNase DNase ③ Y-shaped replication fork featured ⑨ elongation : leading strand - removal of protein & RNA didn't - 2 new strand constructed (parent affect the transformation ability , DNA as template ( but DNA-digesting enzymes - DNA polymerase III add new destroyed. it nucleotides to form a complementary strand. - DNA is genetic material ⑤ elongation : lagging strand ⑥ termination  I ⑨ DNA > - RNA (Central dogma ① replication DNA Polymerase DNA -DNA ② transcription RNA DNA-RNA Polymerase ③ translation Ribosome RNA > - protein Protein · synthesis ① Transcription - synthesis of RNA from DNA ② RNA Processing ③ Translation ↳ initiation ↳ elongation ↳ termination aher D N-Glycosidic hydrogen a bond # Respiration. Cellular ↓  I · Glycolysis (cytoplasm 1. Phosphorylation (GC glucose. 2 Isomeration Glucose-6-phosphate ↓ fructose-6-phosphate. 3 Phosphorylation fructose-6-phosphate ↓ fructose - 1 , 6-diphosphate I 6 1. , 3-bisphosphoglycerate. 4 Cleavage hydrolyzed fructose- 1 , 6-diphosphate (GC) ↓ split 3 - phosphoglycerate (3PG) 33 produce ATP 7 Isomerization. & 3PG- > 2PG(2-phosphoglycerate) 5 Oxidation , phosphorylation substrate - level phosphorylation phosphogly ceratomutase 8. Dehydration 2PG- > PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate (. Substrate 9 - level phosphorylation 7 PEP > - Pyruvet form g ATP G3P > 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) - 9 forming NADH & ATP  I * Net products · Link Reaction (mitochondrial matrix ( ↳ 2 ATP (net gain) NADH (transported ↳ occurs with ↳ 2 to electron oxygen. transport chain ( ↳ Carbon dioxide is removed. ↳ 2 pyruvate (transported to the ↳ Hydrogen atoms transferred to NAD+ link reaction ( to form NADH. ↳ Pyruvate is converted to acetyl- CoA.  I O Krebs Cycle. Oxidation 6 (mitochondrial matrix ( succinate < fumarate (4C) form FADH2 -) occurs only in the presence Of oxygen. 7. Hy dration fumara+ e > malate (4) ↳ formation of NADH & FADH2 , carry high-energy electrons and H. 8 O xidation ions to the electron Transport malate > Oxaloacetate (4)) Chain. form NADH 1. Condensation (GC) Acetyl CoA (2x) > 4 > citrate Acetyl - - Oxaloacetate Citric acid. 2 Isomerization citrate > isocitrate ( GC) Malate Iso citric acid. 3 Oxidative Decarboxylation : isocitrate (a-ketoglutarate (5C) Fumarate 4 Ketoglutaries & release CO2 ↳ form NADH Succinate Succiny/CoA. Oxidative 4 Decarboxylation ' a - Ketoglutarate (5C) - succinyl-CoA (4c) A Overall product release CO2 & forming NAD H ↳ 6 NADH ↳ 2 FADH2 5 Substrate level 5 Phosphorylation - ↳ 2 ATP succinyl-CoA (4c) ↳ 4 CO2 ~ succinate (4) forming GTP (ATP  I · Electron transport chain (inner mitochondrial membrane ( - contains three proton pumps & ( Complexes I , III IV  CELLULAR RESPIRATION · definition : reactions in cells that involve the breakdown & oxidation of organic molecules , primarily sugars , to release energy. · energy utilization : - released as heat - stored as ATP · Type : 1. Aerobic ↳ food completely oxidized with the help of > CO2 + H20 oxygen -. 2 Anaerobic ↳ food oxidized without oxygen · Proses involved (ATP for energy) ↳ oxidation ↳ reduction ↳ phosphorylation ↳ substrate - level Phosphorylation ↳ Isomerization ~ erobic ↳ rodox reactions in living cells in the presence of oxygen. ↳ tages : Glycolysis (cytoplasm ( - - Link reaction (mitochondrial matrik) - Krebs cycle Electron Transport Chain -  ↳ Glycolysis 1 phosphorylation of 6C glucose 2. Isomerization : Glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate 3. Phosphorylation :. 4 cleavage fructose- 1 6-diphosphate split : , into two 3. 5 oxidation : G3P > - ATP + NADH 6. Hydrolyzed :. Isomerization 7 : 3PG > - 2PG. 8 Dehydration : 2PG - PEP ATP. 9. Substrate-level phosphorylation : PEP- pyruvate forming Products ↳ Glycolysis - 2 ATp (net gain - 2 NADH (electron chain ( 2 Pyruvate Clink reaction - Link reaction - occurs with oxygen - CO2 removed - H2 : NAD + > - NADH - pyruvate > - acetyl-CoA ↳ Krebs cycle Coccurs in the presence of oxygen) 2C molecul entering Krebs cycle - - form NADH + FADH2 1 condensation : 2 c (acetyl) > - 4c > SC - (citrate). 2 Isomerization : citrate > - isocitrate. 3 5 Not :. Oxidative 4 Decarboxylation ↑C NADH : CO2. substrate level phosphorylation &C + GTP (converted ATP) 5 - : to 6. Oxidation : 1C > - FADH2 7. Hydration : Fumarate > - malate. oxidation 8 : malate > - Oxaloacetate form NADH ↳ products - 6 NADH - 2 FADH2 2 ATP - 4 CO2 - · Electron transport chain ↳ involves oxidation and reduction processes ↳ transfers elections from NADH & FADH2 ↳ contain 3 protin pumps & 2 mobile electron carriers ↳ NADH-> NADH + reduction (inner Mitochondrial membrane ( 1 4 Entry : - complex = NADH - complex 2 = FADH2 · NADH 4 binds to complex 14 release its 2 hydrogen atom into ETC + 4 NAD return to Krebs cycle ↳ H20 formed · FADH  + creating # gradient LV 2 : Transport system a gaseous exchange in plant ↳ Transport system 1. uptake& loss. 2 transport 3 distance transport (sap. long ↳ transport from roots 1. root hair 2. epidermis 3. Cortex. 4 endodermis > - Casparian strip. 5 pericycle. 6 xylem · Xylem · Phloem tibm perforation m " esse tracheids  Transport 1 Apoplast pathway (passive diffusion (. 2 3. · Intergal Membrane protein ↳ Aquaporins (water transport channel that speeds up movement of water) ↳ suberin (waterproof waxy material) > - to apoplastic movement · Casparian Strip 4 pilih ion & substrate yg masuk · stomates ↳ Night - closed prevent leakage of ions - - decrease in water potential - root pressure (root pressures high humidity 3 · Gutation , ↳ hydathodes herbs 4 root pressure water to escape ↳ exudation  shoot tension puling xylem sap : · ↳ via transpiration Y adhesion (lekatan) ↳ cohesion (lekitan) · Transpiration ↳ loss of water as watervapour from plant to atmosphere ↳ guard cell Copens & closed) - water Cosmosis) - active uptake of Potassium (k") - light ↳ factors : I. temperature 2. humidity 3. light intensity 4. wind speed * Photosynthesis light reaction process & calvin cycle 3 - - basic principle of light/dark reaction objective -describe principle of limiting photosynthesis * Location - convert light > - energy 4 chlorophyll ↳ natural process ↳ create food ↳ take place in mesophyll cell ! chloroplasts ↳ Chlorophyll take light energy-> store ① Chloroplast ↳ various pigments molecules that absorbed ↳ a strongly absorbs violet & red ↳ b strongly absorbs blue & red-orange · Dark reaction ↳ Sugar , NADPT , ADP (produces CH , 200 (photon) ① Light reaction solar energy > chemical ↳ solar energyAl,H energy i Short(very energetic * 4 Light drives - from H20 to NADP - > NADPH · ii. (lower ↳ Ho provide e-a produce off O2 Long energy · calvin cycle (light reaction ( ↳ production sugar from CO2 ↳ ATP provide high energy for sugar synthesis ↳ NADPH provide high energy for e-  * Light reaction process (thylakoid) ↳ thylakoid contain many photosystems cluster of chlorophyll & accessory pigments molecules - ↳ Photosystem work together > - photosystem 1 -> photosystem ( - each type he different electron transport chain (ETC) ) each ↳ ETC hr series of e-carrier molecules ↳ overall path of e- PS 11 > - ETC 11 > - PS1 - > ETC1 - > NADPT Process · 1 Light energy ejects e- from PS11. 1. I energy hops from one pigment (chlorophyll) to another until reaction center. 1 2. When it reaches , energy from light boost e-to form energized e: 2. PS11 pulls replacemente fromH20 that breaks into O2 & H + 2. 1 I  I Photosynthesis - Used to generate ATP 5. Meanwhile light has also been 5 4 chemical process green plant/ , striking of PS I phototrophs synthesize organic compound pigment molecules , as in PS # from C + H20 in presence of sunlight - light energy ejects e- from PSI. ↳ Chlorophyll a (violet & red ( Replacement e come from ETCII. chlorophyll b (blue & red-orange). The 6 e-move through ETC I , then combine * Light reaction (thylaboid) with NADP + + H + > - NADPH forms · NAppt-picks up with Ht. 4 PSI + ETCI + PSI-ETCI- two energetic e , along one process :. 7 Hions in thylakoid compartment are propelled from their PS #I synthases by - ↓ Light energy ejects through the interior of ATP - the energy hops from one pigment to gradient. the next until it funneled into reaction - Hion flow causes ATP synthases to attach Pi to centre. ADP , so ATP forms in stroma - energy from light boost an e- from one of the reaction center chlorophyll primary e acceptor > - * Calvin cycle (stromal Ccaptures energized e) 1 Fixation of CO2.. 2 PS II pulls for replacement - from - Cycle begins when CO2 react with RuBP. + H 20 which breaks + O2 & H ions This phase fixes C & - produces molecule of - O2 leave 3-phosphoglycerate + H + ion contribute to # gradient uses rubisco to combine enzyme - - that drives ATP synthesis. CO2 + RuBP. - every 2 molecul H20 1 O2 gas produced. 2 Reduction phase (3-phosphoglycerate > - G3P)( 3-phosphoglycerate phosphorylated by ATP -. 3 The e-enter an ETC I in the thylakoid then reduced by electrons from NADPH. membrane - the product is the phosphorylated sugar , G3P.. 1 Energy lost by the e-as they some G3P synthesized is drawn of to - more through ETC #I causes Hions to be manufacture glucose & fructose pumped from the stroma > - thylakoid compartment. + - H ion gradient forms across T M.  I. 3 (G3P Regeneration phase + RuBP) - 5 of 6 G3P molecules used to generate G3P to repeat the cycle. - The remaining I GSP is the product of photosynthesis exits the cycle ↑ SUMMARY 1 Fixation. ↳ 3 RuBP + 3CO2) 63-Phosphoglycerate. 2 Reduction 46 3 Phosphoglycerate + 6 ATP + 6 NADPH - >5 G3P > - step 3 1 I G3P / glucose/fructose. 3 Regeneration ↳ 5G3P + 3 ATP > - 3 RuBP (to Step 1 I  I # Mitosis & Meiosis ↳ Cell division with the a cell into 2 daughter cell same genetic material ↳ functions : - reproduction - growth & development - healing a tissue repair 4  I # Asexual Reproduction * Fragmentation ↳ mitosis/does not involve meiosis ↳ Parents breaks into fragments ↳ each piece develops into a whole animal · Animal - Types * Vegetative reproduction 1. Binary fission. 2 Budding - occurs naturally/artificially. 3 Sporulation 1. Bulbs Conion. 4 Fragmentation - short underground stem surrounded by thick fleshy leaves (store food. Vegetative reproduction 5 6. Parthenogenesis. 2 Tubers (potato) - enlarged part of an underground stem that contain stored food (eye * Binary fission bud ↳ parent divides into 2 equal cell through 3. Runners (strawberry mitosis - stolon ↳ daughter cell identical to parent 4 stem that grows sideways a has buds process :. Rhizomes 4 (ginger) 1. cell elongate & DNA replicate 4 stem that grows sideways underground Cell wall & plasma membrane start. 2 ↳ thicka fleshy to divide 3. A cros-wall formed completely * Parthenogenesis around divided DNA. without 3 females produce eggs that develop. cell separate 4 fertilization by male. ↳ occurs when male is unavailable * Budding ↳ Estrogen 4 ovaries grow & lizard behave ↳ small outgrowths/buds on the like a female. parent organism level + & progesteron ↳ After ovulation , estrogen ↳ smaller than parent level ↑ correlate male behavior * sporulation ↳ single specialised cells & formed by the nucleus of a single - celled organisms breaking up into many nuclei 4 Zoospores (flagella & motile  I 7 * Oriparity (laying egg) ↳ Sexual reproduction (Animal) 4 external & internal fertilization L - that will sustain ↳ Yo Ik provides nutriens internal : external the development of the embryo groups : 1. Oviparity (bertelur). 2 viriparity (human) A Viviparity (Live birth 3. ovoviviparity (bertelur dim) 4 development of embryos in female's b ody · External ↳ internal fertilization ↳ sperm cell unites with the egg cell ↳ nutrients & oxygen obtains from placenta outside the female's body * Ovoviviparity Clive birth ( ↳ emb ryos develop inside egg that are retained within the mother's body until it ready to hatch ↳ Environment cues (temp) & ↳ in ternal fertilization body chemicals (pheromones ( number of ↳ High gametes ⑧ Types ↳ Massive zygotes I Cnidaria ↳ Lack/no parental. care 4 se Xual & asexual (budding) · Internal testes are deposited in near ↳ Sperm [sexual) reproductive tract & the union ↳ takes place within the female's ovaries body. 2 Annelida Cearthworm ↳ complementary mating behavior & between the two - exchange sperm reproductive organs sexes via Spermatheca. - Low number of gametes - clitellum ↳ Fewer zygotes secretes mucous cocoon ↳ Parental care , collecting eggs from oviduct & sperm (spermatheca) copulation process  I - male doesn't have penis 3. Arthropoda -gametes exits through cloaca 4 produce sexually. 6 4 internal fertilisation & oriparity Reptilia ↳ viviparity Internal fertilisation 4 oriparous/viviparous 4 using penis Chemipenes) to inject sperm into female's reproduction system when female ready - to mate , it 7. Aves produces a chemical cues/pheromone that attracts males Internal fertilization ↳ - fertilised egg carried in a sac called ↳ courtship ritual ↳ cloacal kiss the Ootheca. 4 Osteichthyes (seahorse (. 8 Mammalia ↳ oviviparous animal ↳Internal fertilization - female deposits egg into a pouch on 1 Monotremes. Coviparous the male's abdomen 2. Marsupials (viriparous) that carry their - male releases sperm into pouch , young in pouch during early development fertilising the egg 3. Eutherians (viviparous) which their embryo obtains its nutrients by placent a - male give birth to tiny seahorses 5. Amphibia (frogs ↳ external fertilisation - during breading seasons the male will receptive female frogs by their mating calls - male frog mounts the female & grasp her on the sides - amplexus (mating position)  I lant life cycle Animal life cycle  I #Plant development * Root system function : Anchor , store food , absorb conduct water & mineral type : Taproot & Fibrous root systems A Shoot system 1. Stems - nodes , the points at which leaves are attached. - internodes , segment between nodes - axillary bud , form lateral shoot/branch - terminal bud (near shoot tip) , causes of. shoot elongation a young 2. Leaves photosynthetic organ - - consist of a flattened blade & a stalk. petiole - monocots & dicots : differ - of veins arrangement * Tissue system I. Dermal. 2 Vascular. 3 Ground  I C ↳ malate X O 3- C pyruvate CO2 - capture CO2 4 ATP & NADPH dissolved in stroma · CAM plants 1. Fixation (CO2) ↳ C fixation at night - CO2 react with RuBP ↳ sugar synthesis at day ↳ Fix (molecul > - 3PG RuBP ↳ in same cell 4 CO2 + : using enzyme rubisco. 2 Reduction (3PG- > G3P) Y 3PG reduced from by electrons NADPH ↳ G3P formed 4 some G3P synthesized drawn off to manufacture glucose & fructose. 3 Regeneration (G3P- > RuBP) -> 5 of 6 G3P used to regenerate the RuBP & remaining I G3P became product of photosynthesis (exit cycle) · C Plant ↳ capture C & synthesize sugar in different cells 4 fix c using PEP carboxylase Y 3- c molecul t = 4 - C molecule CO2 coxaloacetate) 4 - Coxaloacetate ↳ rapidly convert into 4-c malate I I I  I * plant life cycle · life cycle growth - - Morphogenesis differentiation - - axillary bud & terminal bad exam I  I * Homeostasis how is it activate : ↳ - a stimuli is a change in the internal - A maintenance environment physiological process : of a reatively stable internal - a receptor can detect the stimulus. environment -corrective mechanism (regulator) , 4 temperature : ensure enzymes a negative feedback - do not inactivated or denature. get ↳ negative feedback pH & water potential : - change in pH affects enzyme > - stimulus Ie reaction in cell change in water potential affect