BIOL 221 Ch03 Cell PDF

Andrews University (+Cilia, Flagellum Most cell: 10 –15 m 15 to 40x SA BIOL 221-001 Chapter 3 Cell 7–10 m +Basal bodies)...

Andrews University (+Cilia, Flagellum Most cell: 10 –15 m 15 to 40x SA BIOL 221-001 Chapter 3 Cell 7–10 m +Basal bodies) brush border 6 nm (+ Inclusion bodies) (+ Proteasomes) 8-10 nm 5 m (+ Peroxisome) 25 nm (+ Ribosomes) Brian Y.Y. Wong, PhD Ciliary Motion & Contractile Vacuole Action in Paramecium Trachea cilium Oviduct cilium Vas deferens cilium Spermatozoan flagellum 3-3 Cell Shapes and Sizes (200 types of cells) Squamous Cuboidal Columnar (Cervix, skin) (Kidney tubules, (Intestine, kidney thyroid follicles) tubules, trachea) Polygonal Stellate Spheroidal (Liver) (Brain, spinal cord) (Neutrophil, lymphocyte) Discoid Fusiform:spindle-shaped Fibrous (RBC) (Smooth muscle) (Skeletal muscle) 3-5 Development of the Cell Theory Cell theory All organisms composed of cells and cell products The cell is the most straightforward structural and functional unit of life An organism’s structure and functions are due to the activities of cells Cells come only from preexisting cells Cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities 3-6 2 3 Development of the Cell Theory Cytology— scientific study of cells Began when Robert Hooke coined the word cellulae to describe empty cell walls of cork in 17th century Theodor Schwann concluded, about two centuries later, that all animals are made of cells Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1859 that “cells arise only from other cells” Refuted idea of spontaneous generation—living things arising from nonliving matter 3-8 Cell Shapes and Sizes About 200 types of cells in the human body with varied shapes Squamous— Thin, flat, scaly; skin epidermis cell & oral cavity cell Cuboidal— Squamish-looking; renal tubules Columnar— Taller than wide; digestive tract Polygonal— Irregularly angular shapes, multiple sides; liver Stellate— Star-like; neuron Spheroid to ovoid— Round to oval; lymphocyte Discoid— Disc-shaped; red blood cell Fusiform— Spindle; smooth muscle cell Fibrous— Thread-like; skeletal muscle cell Note: A cell’s shape can appear different if viewed in a different type of section (longitudinal vs. cross-section) 3-9 Cell Shapes and Sizes Human cell size Most cells about 10–15 micrometers (µm) in diameter Egg cells (very large) 100 µm diameter Some nerve cells over 1 meter long Limit on cell size: an overly large cell cannot support itself, takes too long for nutrients to get into the interior and waste products to get out, may rupture For a given increase in diameter, volume increases more >than surface area Volume proportional to the cube of the diameter Surface area proportional to the square of the diameter 3-10 Cell Shapes and Sizes 20 m Growth Surface area Ratio Volume 20 m 10 m 10 m Large cell Diameter = 20 m Surface area = 20 m  20 m  6 = 2,400 m2 Volume = 20 m  20 m  20 m = 8,000 m3 = 0.3 → 2x Small cell Diameter = 10 m Surface area = 10 m  10 m  6 = 600 m2 Volume = 10 m  10 m  10 m = 1,000 m3 = 0.6 Effect of cell growth: Diameter (D) increased by a factor of 2 by a factor of 4 (= D2) Square Surface area increased3-11 Volume increased by a factor of 8 (= D3) Clube Basic Components of a Cell Light microscope (LM) revealed plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm (fluid between nucleus and surface) Transmission electron microscope (TEM) improved resolution (ability to reveal detail) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) improved resolution further, but only for surface features 3-12 3-13 Basic Components of a Cell Plasma (cell) membrane Surrounds cell, defines boundaries Made of proteins and lipids Cytoplasm Organelles Cytoskeleton Inclusions (stored or foreign particles) Cytosol (intracellular fluid, ICF) Extracellular fluid (ECF) Fluid outside of cells Includes tissue (interstitial) fluid 3-14 The Plasma Membrane Plasma membrane— border of the cell Appears as pair of dark parallel lines when viewed with electron microscope Has intracellular and extracellular faces Functions Defines cell boundaries Governs interactions with other cells Controls passage of materials in and out of cell The Plasma Membrane 5% Hydrophilic Hydrophobic Amphipatic Hydrophilic 75% 20% 50% of the weight Oily film of lipids (98% molecules) with embedded proteins (2%) Membrane Lipids 98% of membrane molecules are lipids Phospholipids 75% of membrane lipids are phospholipids Amphipatic molecules arranged in a bilayer Hydrophilic phosphate heads face water on each side of the membrane Hydrophobic tails— are directed toward the center, avoiding water Drift laterally, keeping membrane fluid 3-17 Membrane Lipids Cholesterol 20% of the membrane lipids Holds phospholipids still and can stiffen membrane Glycolipids 5% of the membrane lipids Phospholipids with short carbohydrate chains on extracellular face Contributes to glycocalyx— carbohydrate coating on cell surface 3-18 Membrane proteins - 2% of the molecules but 50% of the weight of the membrane Integral proteins— penetrate membrane Transmembrane proteins pass completely through Hydrophilic regions contact cytoplasm, extracellular fluid Hydrophobic regions pass through lipids of the membrane Some drift in membrane; others are anchored to cytoskeleton 3-19 Functions of membrane proteins Receptors, second-messenger systems, enzymes, channels, carriers, cell-identity markers, cell-adhesion molecules 3-20 Membrane Proteins Peripheral proteins Adhere to one face of the membrane (do not penetrate it) Usually tethered to the cytoskeleton Receptors— bind chemical signals Second messenger systems— communicate within the cell receiving the chemical message Enzymes— catalyze reactions including digestion of molecules, production of second messengers Channel proteins— allow hydrophilic solutes and water to pass through the membrane Some are always open, some are gated Ligand-gated channels— respond to chemical messengers Voltage-gated channels— respond to charge changes Mechanically-gated channels— respond to physical stress on cell Crucial to nerve and muscle function 3-21 Membrane Proteins Carriers— bind solutes and transfer them across the membrane Pumps— carriers that consume ATP Cell-identity markers— glycoproteins acting as identification tags Cell-adhesion molecules— mechanically link cells to extracellular material 3-22 Second Messengers Chemical first messenger (epinephrine) binds to a surface receptor Receptor activates G protein An intracellular peripheral protein that gets energy from guanosine triphosphate (GTP) G protein relays signal to adenylate cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP (second messenger)* cAMP activates cytoplasmic kinases Kinases add phosphate groups to other enzymes turning some on and others off Up to 60% of drugs work through G proteins and second messengers 3-23 Second Messenger System A messenger such as epinephrine (red triangle, First works as 1st messenger) and binds to a receptor 1 messenger in the plasma membrane. Receptor Adenylate cyclase The receptor releases a G protein, which then travels freely in the cytoplasm and G G can go on to step 3 Pi 2 ATP Pi or have various other 3 effects on the cell. The G protein binds to an enzyme, Guanosine adenylate cAMP(second messenger)* triphosphate cyclase, in 4 cAMP activates a (GTP) the plasma Inactive Cytoplasmic enzyme membrane. kinase called a kinase. Adenylate cyclase Activated kinase converts ATP to cyclic Kinases add phosphate groups (Pi) Pi 5 to other cytoplasmic enzymes. This AMP (cAMP), the Inactive activates some enzymes and enzymes second deactivates others, leading to varied messenger. metabolic (amplifying) effects in the cell. Activated enzymes 3-24 Various metabolic effects The Glycocalyx Fuzzy coat external to plasma membrane Carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins and glycolipids Unique in everyone but identical twins Functions Protection – Cell adhesion Immunity to infection – Fertilization Defense against cancer – Embryonic development Transplant compatibility 3-25 Microvilli Extensions of membrane (1–2 m) Gives 15 to 40 times more surface area Best developed in cells specialized in absorption On some absorptive cells they are very dense and appear as a fringe—“brush border” Some microvilli contain actin filaments that are tugged toward the center of the cell to move absorbed contents into the cell 3-26 Microvilli Actin microfilaments are centered in each microvilli 3-27 Cilia Cilia— hairlike processes 7–10 m long Single, nonmotile primary cilium found on nearly every cell “Antenna” for monitoring nearby conditions Helps with balance in inner ear; light detection in retina; flow direction in kidney tubules Multiple nonmotile cilia Found on sensory cells of the nose Ciliopathies— defects in the structure and function of cilia E.g. infertility Motile cilia— respiratory tract, uterine tubes, ventricles of brain, ducts of testes 50 to 200 on each cell Beat in waves sweeping material across a surface in one direction Power strokes followed by recovery strokes 3-28 Cilia (9+2) 50 to 200 on each cell Cilia inside trachea 3-29 Cilia 9+2 50 to 200 on each cell 9x3 9+2 Microtubules 9+2 3-30 Cilia Axoneme— the core of motile cilium Has 9 + 2 structure of microtubules Two central microtubules surrounded by a ring of nine pairs Ring of nine pairs anchors cilium to cell as part of basal body Dynein arms “crawl” up adjacent microtubule, bending the cilium Uses energy from ATP 3-31  Cilia Mucus Saline layer Epithelial cells 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (a) (b) Power stroke Recovery stroke Cilia beat freely within a saline layer at the cell surface Chloride pumps pump Cl- into ECF Na+ and H2O follow Mucus floats on top of a saline layer 3-32 Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis— a hereditary disease in which cells make chloride pumps, Mucus Saline but fail to install them in the plasma layer membrane Epithelial cells Chloride pumps fail to create an adequate saline layer on the cell surface (a) Thick mucus plugs pancreatic ducts and respiratory tract Inadequate digestion of nutrients and absorption of oxygen Chronic respiratory infections Life expectancy of 30 3-33 Flagella Tail of a sperm— only functional flagellum in humans Whip-like structure with axoneme identical to cilium’s Much longer than cilium Stiffened by coarse fibers that support the tail Movement is undulating, snake-like, corkscrew No power stroke and recovery strokes 3-34 Pseudopods Pseudopods— continually changing extensions of the cell that vary in shape and size - Can be used for cellular locomotion, capturing foreign particles 3-35 Membrane Transport Expected Learning Outcomes Explain what is meant by a selectively permeable membrane. Describe various mechanisms for transporting material through the plasma membrane. Define osmolarity and tonicity and explain their importance. 3-36 Membrane Transport Plasma membrane is selectively permeable— allowing some things through, but preventing others from passing Passive mechanisms require no ATP Random molecular motion of particles provides the necessary energy Filtration, diffusion, osmosis Active mechanisms consume ATP Active transport and vesicular transport Carrier-mediated mechanisms use a membrane protein to transport substances across a membrane 3-37 Filtration Blood pressure in capillary Filtration— particles are forces water and small solutes such as salts through driven through membrane narrow clefts between capillary cells. Solute by physical pressure Water Capillary wall Examples Red blood cell Filtration of water and small solutes through gaps in capillary walls Clefts hold back larger particles uch as red blood Allows delivery of water and cells. nutrients to tissues Allows removal of waste from capillaries in kidneys 3-38 Simple Diffusion Simple diffusion— the net movement of particles from a place of high concentration to a place of lower concentration Due to constant, spontaneous molecular motion Molecules collide and bounce off each other Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient Does not require a membrane Substance can diffuse through a membrane if the membrane is permeable to the substance 3-39 Simple Diffusion Factors affecting diffusion rate through a membrane Temperature:  temp.,  motion of particles Molecular weight: larger molecules move slower Steepness of concentrated gradient: difference,  rate Membrane surface area:  area,  rate Membrane permeability:  permeability,  rate 3-40 Osmosis Osmosis— net flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane Water moves from the side where it (water) is more concentrated to the side where it is less concentrated Solute particles that cannot pass through the membrane “draw” water from the other side Crucial consideration for I.V. fluids Osmotic imbalances underlie diarrhea, constipation, edema Water can diffuse through phospholipid bilayers, but osmosis is enhanced by aquaporins— channel proteins in membrane specialized for water passage Cells can speed osmosis by installing more aquaporins 3-41 Osmosis Osmotic pressure— hydrostatic pressure required to stop osmosis – Increases as the amount of nonpermeating solute rises Reverse osmosis—the process of applying mechanical pressure to override osmotic pressure – Allows purification of water 3-42 Osmolarity and Tonicity One osmole (osm) = 1 mole of dissolved particles Takes into account whether solute ionizes in water 1 M glucose is 1 osm/L 1 M NaCl is 2 osm/L Osmolarity— number of osmoles per liter of solution Body fluids contain a mix of many chemicals, and osmolarity is the total osmotic concentration of all solutes Blood plasma, tissue fluid, and intracellular fluid are 300 milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L) Osmolality is number of osm per kg of water In physiology osmolarity and osmolality are nearly the same 3-43 Osmolarity and Tonicity Tonicity— the ability of a surrounding solution (bath) to affect fluid volume and pressure in a cell Depends on the concentration of nonpermeating solutes Hypotonic solution (outside of the cell) — causes the cell to absorb water and swell Has a lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than intracellular fluid (ICF) Distilled water is an extreme example Hypertonic solution— causes the cell to lose water and shrivel (crenate) Has a higher concentration of nonpermeating solutes than ICF Isotonic solution— causes no change in cell volume Concentrations of nonpermeating solutes in bath and ICF are the same Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) is an example 3-44 Effects of Tonicity on RBCs Hemolysis Swollen Crenated Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solutions affect the fluid volume of a red blood cell. Notice the crenated and swollen cells. 3-45 Carrier-Mediated Transport Transport proteins in the membrane carry solutes into or out of the cell (or organelle) Specificity Transport proteins are specific for particular solutes Solute (ligand) binds to a receptor site on the carrier protein Solute is released unchanged on the other side of the membrane Saturation As solute concentration rises, the rate of transport rises, but only to a point—transport maximum (Tm) 3-46 Carrier-Mediated Transport through plasma membrane) Rate of solute transport (molecules/sec passing Transport maximum (Tm) Concentration of solute Transport maximum— transport rate at which all carriers are occupied 3-47 Carrier-Mediated Transport Three kinds of carriers Uniport— carries one type of solute Example: Calcium pump Symport— carries two or more solutes simultaneously in the same direction (cotransport) Example: Sodium-glucose transporters Antiport— carries two or more solutes in opposite directions (countertransport) Example: Sodium-potassium pump removes Na+, brings in K+ Three mechanisms of carrier-mediated transport Facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, secondary active transport 3-48 Carrier-Mediated Transport Facilitated diffusion— carrier moves solute down its concentration gradient Does not consume ATP Solute attaches to the binding site on the carrier, carrier changes conformation, then releases solute on the other side of the membrane ICF ICF A solute particle enters The solute binds to a receptor Figure The 3.18 carrier releases the The channel of a membrane site on the carrier and the solute on the other side of protein (carrier). carrier changes conformation. the membrane. Carrier-Mediated Transport Primary active transport— carrier moves solute through a membrane up its concentration gradient The carrier protein uses ATP for energy Examples: Calcium pump (uniport) uses ATP while expelling calcium from the cell to where it is already more concentrated Sodium–potassium pump (antiport) uses ATP while expelling sodium and importing potassium into the cell 3-50 Carrier-Mediated Transport The sodium-potassium pump (Na+−K+ ATPase pump) Each pump cycle consumes one ATP and exchanges three Na+ for two K+ Keeps K+ concentration higher and Na+ concentration lower within the cell than in ECF Necessary because Na+ and K+ constantly leak through membrane Half of the daily calories utilized for Na+−K+ pump 3-51 Carrier-Mediated Transport Na+−K+ pump functions – Maintains steep Na+ concentration gradient allowing for secondary active transport – Regulates solute concentration and thus osmosis and thus cell volume – Maintains negatively charged resting membrane potential – Produces heat 3-52 Carrier-Mediated Transport Secondary active transport Carrier moves solute through the membrane but only uses ATP indirectly Example: sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT) (symport) Moves glucose into the cell while simultaneously carrying sodium down its gradient Depends on the primary transport performed by Na+-K+pump Does not use ATP itself 3-53 Carrier-Mediated Transport (Secondary Active Transport) Sodium-Glucose Transporter 2. Carrier symport (SGLT) (symport) SGLTs work in kidney cells that have Na+−K+ pump at the other end of a cell Prevents loss of glucose to urine Active Transport 1. 3-54 Vesicular Transport Vesicular transport— moves large particles, fluid droplets, or numerous molecules at once through the membrane in vesicles— bubble-like enclosures of membrane Endocytosis— vesicular processes that bring material into the cell Phagocytosis—“cell eating,” engulfing large particles Pseudopods; phagosomes; e.g. in macrophages Pinocytosis— “cell drinking,” taking in droplets of ECF containing molecules useful in the cell Membrane caves in, then pinches off pinocytic vesicle Receptor-mediated endocytosis— particles bind to specific receptors on the plasma membrane Clathrin-coated vesicle Exocytosis—discharging material from the cell Utilizes motor proteins (dynein & kinesin) energized by ATP 3-55 Vesicular Transport 3-56 Phagocytosis keeps tissues free of debris and infectious microbes Vesicular Transport Receptor-mediated endocytosis More selective endocytosis Enables cells to take in specific molecules that bind to extracellular receptors Clathrin-coated vesicle in cytoplasm Uptake of LDL from the bloodstream 3-57 Vesicular Transport Receptor-mediated endocytosis 3-58 Vesicular Transport Transcytosis— transport of material across the cell by capturing it on one side and releasing it on the other Receptor-mediated endocytosis moves it into the cell and exocytosis moves it out to the other side 3-59 Vesicular Transport Exocytosis Secreting material Replacement of plasma membrane removed by endocytosis 3-60 The Cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton— network of protein filaments and cylinders Determines cell shape, supports structure, organizes cell contents, directs movement of materials within cell, contributes to movements of the cell as a whole Composed of: microfilaments, intermediate fibers, microtubules 3-61 The Cytoskeleton Microvilli 6 nm, actin Microfilaments Secretory vesicle in transport Terminal web Desmosome L L ysosome Kinesin (-) Dynein (+) 8–10 nm, keratin Microtubule Intermediate filaments Intermediate filaments 25 nm thick Centrosome Microtubule in the process Microtubule undergoing of assembly Protofilaments disassembly tubulin (α, β) Nucleus Mitochondrion (a) Basement membrane Hemidesmosome 3-62 The Cytoskeleton Microfilaments (A) 6 nm thick Made of actin protein Forms terminal web Intermediate filaments (K) 8–10 nm thick Within skin cells, made of protein keratin Give cell shape, resist stress Microtubules (T→P) 25 nm thick Consist of protofilaments made of protein tubulin (α, β) Radiate from centrosome; can come and go Maintain cell shape, hold organelles, act as railroad tracks for walking motor proteins (dynein +, kinesin -), make axonemes of cilia and flagella, form the mitotic spindle 3-63 EM and Fluorescent Antibodies Demonstrate Cytoskeleton 3-64 Microtubules (a) (b) 9+2 9x3 (c) Microtubule Protofilaments Dynein arms Tubulin 3-65 Organelles Internal structures of a cell, carry out specialized metabolic tasks Membranous organelles Nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complex Nonmembranous organelles Ribosomes, centrosomes, centrioles, basal bodies 3-66 The Nucleus Nucleus— largest organelle (5 m in diameter) Most cells have one nucleus A few cell types are anuclear or multinucleate Nuclear envelope— double membrane around the nucleus Perforated by nuclear pores formed by rings of proteins (NPC) Regulate molecular traffic through the envelope Hold the two membrane layers together 3-67 The Nucleus Nuclear envelope is supported by the nuclear lamina Web of protein filaments Provides points of attachment for chromatin Helps regulate the cell life cycle Nucleoplasm— material in the nucleus Chromatin (thread-like) composed of DNA and protein Nucleoli— masses where ribosomes are produced 3-68 The Nucleus 3-69 Endoplasmic Reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum— system of channels (cisternae) enclosed by membrane Rough endoplasmic reticulum— parallel, flattened sacs covered with ribosomes Continuous with outer membrane of nuclear envelope Produces phospholipids and proteins of the plasma membrane Synthesizes proteins that are packaged in other organelles or secreted from cell 3-70 Endoplasmic Reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Lack ribosomes Cisternae more tubular and branching Cisternae thought to be continuous with rough ER Synthesizes steroids and other lipids Detoxifies alcohol and other drugs Calcium storage Rough and smooth ER are functionally different parts of the same network 3-71 Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth Ribosomes endoplasmic reticulum Cisternae (c) 3-72 Ribosomes Ribosomes— small granules of protein and RNA Found in nucleoli (site of making rRNA), in cytosol, and on outer surfaces of rough ER, and nuclear envelope They “read” coded genetic messages (by decoding the 3 nitrogenous base (codon) sequences in messenger RNA) and assemble amino acids into proteins specified by each of the code of DNA 3-73 Golgi Complex Golgi complex— a system of cisternae that synthesizes carbohydrates and puts the finishing touches on protein synthesis Receives newly synthesized proteins from rough ER Sorts proteins, splices some, adds carbohydrate moieties to some, and packages them into membrane-bound Golgi vesicles Some vesicles become lysosomes Some vesicles migrate to the plasma membrane and fuse to it Some become secretory vesicles that store a protein product for later release 3-74 Golgi Complex 3-75 Lysosomes Lysosomes— package of enzymes bound by a membrane Generally round, but variable in shape Functions Intracellular hydrolytic digestion of proteins, nucleic acids, complex carbohydrates, phospholipids, and other substances Autophagy— digestion of cell’s surplus organelles Autolysis— “cell suicide”: digestion of a surplus cell by itself 3-76 Peroxisomes Peroxisomes— resemble lysosomes but contain different enzymes and are produced by the endoplasmic reticulum Function is to use molecular oxygen to oxidize organic molecules Reactions produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Catalase breaks down excess peroxide to H2O and O2 Neutralize free radicals, detoxify alcohol, other drugs, and a variety of blood-borne toxins Break down fatty acids into acetyl groups for mitochondrial use in ATP synthesis In all cells, but abundant in the liver and kidney 3-77 Lysosome and Peroxisomes Figure 3.30a Figure 3.30b 3-78 Proteosomes Proteosomes— a hollow, cylindrical organelle that disposes of surplus proteins Contain enzymes that break down tagged, targeted proteins into short peptides and amino acids Figure 3.31 3-79 Mitochondria Mitochondria— organelles specialized for synthesizing ATP Continually change shape from spheroidal to thread-like Surrounded by a double membrane Inner membrane has folds called cristae Spaces between cristae called matrix Matrix contains ribosomes, enzymes used for ATP synthesis, small circular DNA molecule – Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) “Powerhouses” of the cell Energy is extracted from organic molecules and transferred to ATP Figure 3.32 3-80 Evolution of Mitochondrion Mitochondria might have evolved from bacteria that invaded another primitive cell, survived in its cytoplasm, and became permanent residents The bacterium provided inner membrane; host cell’s phagosome provided outer membrane Mitochondrial ribosomes resemble bacterial ribosomes mtDNA resembles circular DNA of bacteria mtDNA is inherited through the mother mtDNA mutates more rapidly than nuclear DNA Responsible for hereditary diseases affecting tissues with high energy demands (check clinical discussion in textbook, p103) 3-81 Centrioles Centriole— a short cylindrical assembly of microtubules arranged in nine groups of three microtubules each (9x3) Two centrioles lie perpendicular to each other within the centrosome— a small clear area in the cell Play an important role in cell division Form basal bodies of cilia and flagella Each basal body is a centriole that originated in the centriolar organizing center and then migrated to the membrane 3-82 Centrioles 9x3 9x3 9x3 3-83 Inclusions Two kinds of inclusions Stored cellular products Glycogen granules, pigments, and fat droplets Foreign bodies Viruses, intracellular bacteria, dust particles, and other debris phagocytized by a cell Never enclosed in a unit membrane Not essential for cell survival 3-84