BIO 2120 FINAL EXAM Study Guide PDF

FINAL EXAM - STUDY GUIDE / LEARNING OUTCOMES Chapter 14 - Autonomic Nervous System 1. Name the two main divisions of the ANS and compare and contrast the major functions of each division, their neurotransmitters, the origination of the division in the CNS, the location of their pregangl...

FINAL EXAM - STUDY GUIDE / LEARNING OUTCOMES Chapter 14 - Autonomic Nervous System 1. Name the two main divisions of the ANS and compare and contrast the major functions of each division, their neurotransmitters, the origination of the division in the CNS, the location of their preganglionic and postganglionic (ganglionic) cell bodies, and the length of the preganglionic versus postganglionic axons. Sympathetic (fight or flight) they release acetylcholine at the preganglion and norepinephrine/ epinephrine at the post /// and parasympathetic (rest and digest) performs body maintenance like digestion and urine formation apart of the cranial division they release acetylcholine at the post and preganglionic neuron 2. Describe the different anatomical pathways through which sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons reach target effectors. Through preganglion and porst ganglion 3.Compare and contrast the effects (or lack thereof) of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation on various effectors. Sympathic increases heart rate force contraftion para decrease heart Sympathic releax bowels 4. Explain the relationship between the adrenal medulla and the sympathetic division of the nervous system. It is made up of sympathetic postganglionic neurons when stimulated releases epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood. 5. Compare and contrast cholinergic and adrenergic receptors with respect to neurotransmitters that bind to them, and characterize different major subtypes of these receptors. Cholinergic binds to ACH their subtypes are muscarinic and nicotinic receptors adrenergic binds to epinephrine and norepinephrine their subtypes are a1 a2 b1 b2 b3 6. Explain the concept of dual innervation. Dynamic regulaytion of organ functions both sympayheic and para take turns controllong the odies system Chapter 16 - Endocrine System 1. Describe the major functions of the endocrine system. Secrete hormones into the blood stream and regulates body function 2. Define the terms hormone, endocrine organ, and target cell. Differentiate between a primary and secondary endocrine organ. A hormone is a regulatory substance secreted into the endocrine gland made of amino acids peptides and lipids,endocrine organs are pancreas, anterior pituitary gland, testes, ovary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal gland, thymus secondary endocrine organs are hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland pineal gland 3. Compare and contrast how the nervous and endocrine systems control body functions. 4. Describe the effects of hypersecretion or hyposecretion of a given hormone. 5. List the two major chemical classes of hormones. Amino-acid based and steroid 6. Compare and contrast how steroid and peptide hormones are produced and stored in the endocrine cell, released from the endocrine cell, and transported in the blood. Steroid hormones are hydrophobic peptide hormones are bound and hydrophilic 7. Compare and contrast the locations of target cell receptors for steroid and peptide hormones. peptide hormones are embedded in the cell membrane, cytosol or nucleus steroid hormones can be embedded in all locations 8. Compare and contrast the mechanisms of action of plasma membrane hormone receptors and intracellular hormone receptors. Hydrophilic hormones bind to plama membrane hormones causing g- proteins to split and hydrophobic hormones bind to intacellular hormones which enters the nucleus and interacts with dna and causes cellular change 9. Describe the various signals that initiate hormone production and secretion hormone secreation can be stimulated by humoral hormonal and neural stimuli hormonal inhibition is caused by somatosatin which inhibits hrowth hormone from the anterior pituitary cell the production and secretion of hormones are regulated through negative feedback loop 10. Describe the locations and the anatomical relationship of the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and posterior pituitary, including the hypothalamic- hypophyseal portal system. The hypothalous which is apart of the cns is anteroinferior portion of the diencephalon, the posterior pituitary is composed of nervous tissue and contains oxytocin and adh it stores and secretes the neurohormones produced by hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary gland produces its own hormones the hypotamus can control it by inhibiting hormones into the vessels of the hypothamic hyposeal portal which is a channel that connect the anyerior pituitary to the brain 11. Describe major hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary, their control pathways, and their primary target(s) and effects. The anterior pituitary secreates thyroid stimulating hormones, acth prolatin, lh, fsh, gh 12. Explain the role of hypothalamic neurohormones (releasing/inhibiting hormones) in the release of anterior pituitary hormones. 13. Name the two hormones produced by the hypothalamus that are stored in the posterior pituitary, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects. Adh and oxytoxin 14. Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the release of hormones from the posterior pituitary. 15. For the thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal cortex, and pancreas: 16. Describe the structure's anatomy, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects. 17. Give examples of hormones released by other organs/tissues of the body. 18. Describe examples of how the endocrine organs interact with other body organs and systems to maintain homeostasis. Through a series of feedback loops Chapters 17 & 18 – Cardiovascular system 1. Describe the position of the heart in the thoracic cavity. The heart is located medial to the lungs and posterior to the sternum it is devived into two sides right (pulmonary) low pressure delivers deoxygenated blood left (systemic pump) high pressure circuit delivers oxygenated blood the heart secretes atrial natriuretic peptide 2. Identify and describe the location, structure, and function of the fibrous pericardium, parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium, serous fluid, and the pericardial cavity. Fibrous pericardium (the outer most layer) protecting and anchoring Serous pericardium has 2 lays parietal (lines the pericardium) and visceral (also known as epicardium covers the heart.) pericardial cavity contains serous fluid that reduces friction 3. Explain the structural and functional differences between atria and ventricles. Atria are thin walled and functions as chambers to receive blood Ventricles are thick walled and pumps chambers to eject blood into the lungs and systemic circulation 4. Identify and describe the structure and function of the primary internal structures of the heart, including chambers, valves, papillary muscles, chordae tendineae, fibrous skeleton, venous and arterial openings, and layers of the heart wall. Chambers- two atria two ventricles Valves – tricuspid aka right av. Bicuspid aka left av , pulmonary and aortic Papillary and chordae prevent the falling out of place of av valves aka tri and bicuspid during ventricular contraction Fibrous skeleton provides structural support and insulates the heart electrical activity 5. Describe the major blood vessels responsible for blood flow to and from the heart wall. Coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart Coronary veins drain deoxygenated blood from the heart into coronary sinus 6. Describe the microscopic anatomy of the myocardium, including the location and function of the intercalated discs. Composed of cardiomyocytes connected by intercalated disc 7. List the phases of autorhythmic (pacemaker) and contractile cardiac muscle action potentials and explain the ion movements that occur in each phase.  Pace maker spontaneously generate action potiential contractile undergo depoloratization due to sodium and a plateu phase due to calcium repolsrize due to potassium 8. Contrast the initiation of action potentials in cardiac pacemaker cells, cardiac contractile cells, and skeletal muscle cells. 9. Explain the significance of the plateau phase in the action potential of a cardiac contractile cell. Ensures a long refractory phase preventing contraction allowing heart to relax between beats Compare the refractory periods of cardiac contractile muscle and skeletal 10. muscles. Long refractory period with cardiac muscle and short with skeletal muscle 11. Explain the role of calcium in determining the force of myocardial contraction (contractility). Enters during plateu phase 12. List the parts of the electrical conduction system of the heart in the correct sequence for one contraction and explain how the electrical conduction system functions. Sa node ---atrial ---av node --- ---av bundle branches--- purjunke---- ventricular contractile 13. Describe the role of autonomic innervation in regulating heart rate. Sympathetic and parasympathetic 14. Explain why the SA node normally paces the heart. Fast spontaneous depoloarization 15. Explain how the cardiac conduction system produces coordinated heart chamber contractions. Ventricular filling isovolmetric contaction ventricular ejection isovulmetric relaxation 16. Name the waveforms in a normal electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) and explain the electrical events represented by each waveform.  P wave atrial depolarize T eave ventricle repolarize Qrs ventricle depolarize 17. Trace the path of blood through the right and left sides of the heart, including its passage through the heart valves, and indicate where the blood is oxygen- rich or oxygen-poor. Deox enters right atrim through superior and inferior vena cava passes through tricuspid valve into right ventricle to pulmonary valve then pulmonary arteries then carried to lungs Oyx enters the left atrium via pulmonary vein passes through biscuspid then to left ventricle then through aortic vslve then into aorta and systemic arteries 18. Define cardiac cycle, systole, and diastole. C0=hr*stroke volume sv distole relaxes and pumps blood in systold contracts and pumps blood out 19. Describe the phases of the cardiac cycle. 20. Relate the electrical events represented on an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) to the typical mechanical events of the cardiac cycle. 21. Relate the opening and closing of specific heart valves in each phase of the cardiac cycle to pressure changes in the heart chambers and the great vessels. 22. Relate the heart sounds to the events of the cardiac cycle. 23. Compare and contrast pressure and volume changes of the left and right ventricles during one cardiac cycle. 24. Define and calculate cardiac output. 25. Predict how changes in heart rate and/or stroke volume will affect cardiac output. 26. Describe the concept of ejection fraction. 27. Define end diastolic volume (EDV) and end systolic volume (ESV), and calculate stroke volume given values for EDV and ESV. 28. Define preload, afterload, and contractility, and explain the factors that affect them. 29. Explain how preload, afterload, and contractility each affect stroke volume. 30. State the Frank-Starling Law of the heart and explain its significance. 31. Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system in the regulation of cardiac output. 1. List the tunics associated with most blood vessels and describe the composition of each tunic. 2. Compare and contrast tunic thickness, composition, and lumen diameter among arteries, capillaries, and veins. 3. Identify and describe the structure of specific types of blood vessels (i.e., elastic [conducting] arteries, muscular [distributing] arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins). 4. Define vasoconstriction and vasodilation. 5. Describe anastomoses and explain their functional significance. 6. Define blood flow, blood pressure, and peripheral resistance. 7. List the factors that affect peripheral resistance. 8. Predict and describe how mean arterial pressure would be affected by changes in total peripheral resistance, cardiac output, and blood volume. 9. Using a graph of pressures within the systemic circuit, interpret the pressure changes that occur in the arteries, capillaries, and veins. 10. Given values for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, calculate pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure. 11. Describe how muscular compression and the respiratory pump aid venous return. 12. Describe the factors that regulate short-term and long-term maintenance of blood pressure. 13. Explain how the baroreceptor reflex maintains blood pressure homeostasis when blood pressure changes. 14. List types of capillaries, state where in the body each type is located, and correlate their anatomical structures with their functions. 15. Explain the mechanisms of capillary exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes. 16. Explain how local control mechanisms and myogenic autoregulation influences blood flow to tissues. 17. Define the forces that create capillary filtration and reabsorption (i.e. hydrostatic pressure, osmotic pressure) and how these differ at either end of a typical capillary. 18. Calculate net filtration pressure and determine whether fluid will move into or out of a capillary. Chapter 19 - Blood 1. Describe the general composition of blood (plasma and formed elements). Plasma makes up 55% of the total blood volume it consists of water plasma proteins and dissolved solutes 2. Describe the composition of blood plasma and describe where plasma proteins are formed. 3. Compare and contrast the morphological features and general functions of the formed elements. Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets 4. List the five types of leukocytes in order of their relative prevalence in normal blood, and describe their major functions. Neutrophils (most prevalent): Attack bacteria and fungi. Lymphocytes: Responsible for immune responses. Monocytes: Engulf and digest pathogens; become macrophages. Eosinophils: Combat parasitic infections and allergens. Basophils: Release histamine, aiding in inflammatory response. 5. Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin, including its breakdown products. Hemoglobin is a protein with four polypeptide subunits 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains each bound to a iron containing compound known as a heme groups the heme groups bind to oxygen forming oxyhemoglobin 6. Describe the locations of hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis) and the significance of the hematopoietic stem cell. Hematopoiesis is located in the red bone marrow this houses hematopoietic stem cells, hematopoietic cells are cells that can become any formed element in the blood 7. Explain the process of erythropoiesis and its regulation through erythropoietin (EPO). Erythropoiesis is the process of transforming Cells into matured red blood cells 8. Describe the process of erythrocyte death. They squeeze through blood vessels their under high pressure that leads to cellular damage the lifespan is only 100-120 their plasma membrane becomes less flexible as they age 9. Compare and contrast different types of anemia. Iron deficiency anemia due to lack of iron in diet without functional iron containing heme groups hemoglobin cannot be made. Pernicious anemia Anemia cause by b12 deficiency b12 is a important vitamin that helps in the making of red blood cells it keeps blood cells healthy and plays a key role in dna and genetic material in all cell Hemolytic anemia happens when red blood cells are destroyed faster than the bone marrow can replace them it can be inherited or caused by infections Aplastic anemia this is rare but occurs when bone marrow doesn’t make enough blood can be caused by autoimmune diseases infections or toxic chemicals Sickle cell red blood cells are shaped weird like half a moon and the shape of the cell blocks blood flow and breaks down quickly 10. Describe platelet formation. Platelets are tiny cells in your blood that help stop bleeding. They are made in the bone marrow from larger cells called megakaryocytes those cells break down into smaller pieces to become platelets. 11. Describe the vascular phase of hemostasis, including the role of endothelial cells. When a blood vessel is injured it goes through the vascular phase where it narrows to reduce blood flow and limit bleeding endothelial cells in the vessel wall release signals to attract platelets to the injury site 12. Describe the role of platelets in hemostasis and the steps involved in the formation of the platelet plug. When there is an injury, platelets stick to the damage area and release chemicals that attract even more platelets. This creates a temporary plug that covers the injury to stop it from bleeding out. 13. Describe the basic steps of coagulation resulting in the formation of the insoluble fibrin clot. Coagulation is the process where blood forms a clot , protein activate and create a sticky protein, almost like a mesh like plug to hold a more stable clot 14. Explain how the positive feedback loops in the platelet and coagulation phases promote hemostasis. In homeostasis positive feedback makes the process stronger, for example platelets stick to the injury and release chemicals that bring more platelets 15. Explain the role of vitamin K in blood clotting. Vitamin K is needed for making proteins in the blood that help with clots without vitamin K blood can’t clot properly and even the smallest injury might lead to excessive bleeding 16. Describe the process of fibrinolysis, including the roles of plasminogen, tissue plasminogen activator, and plasmin. Fibrinolysis is the process that breaks down clots after the injury has healed. Plasminogen, a protein in the blood, is activated by another protein called tissue plasminogen activator to turn into plasmin. Plasmin is an enzyme that dissolves the fibrin in the clot, breaking it down and allowing blood flow to return to normal. Chapter 20 – Lymphatic system & immunity 1. describe the movement of lymph back to the cardiovascular system and explain the importance of this process. Lymphatic vessels return lymph to the blood via the right lymphatic duct or thoracic duct this regulates the interstitial fluid volume, absorb dietary fats, and assist in the immune function 2. name the lymphoid organs and describe each one's function Malt (mucosa associated lymphatic tissue) thymus: where T cells mature, T cells destroy and Told (thymus) defend lymphocytes (primary) Timothy (tonsil) Lisa (lymph nodes) Says (spleen) Bone marrow: where B cells mature B cell Run (red bone marrow) neutralize secrete antibodies (primary) (apart of malt) tonsils protects the airways lymph nodes: Filter lymph spleen: Filters blood muscosa associated lymphatic tissue: initiates immune responses to specific antigens it is located in the stomach throughout the small and large intestines the two major functions of the lymphatic system is *regulation of interstitual fluid volume (we lose 2-4 liters per day) *Immunity the vessels are lymphocytes/ lymph 3. compare innate versus adaptive immunity. innate means from birth / adaptive is gained during development. 4. describe the three lines of defense in immunity. 1.skin, mucous membranes, secrétions, normal flora (surface barriers) 2.some wbc (white blood cells), inflammation, fever, cytokines, complement system (phagocytes ingest pathogens and release toxic substances, NK cells destroy cancer cells and virally infected cells it is formed in the bone marrow blood and spleen, basophil and mast cells mediate inflammatory response) (internal&innate) 3.cell-mediated and antibody-mediated adaptive immunity (internal& adaptive) 5. explain how surface barriers function in immunity. prevents entry. 6. describe the 4 cardinal signs of the inflammatory response and how those signs are triggered by inflammatory mediators Vasodilation(aka redness) increased capillary permeability(heat), swelling and chemotaxis (pain) tissue damage occurs damaged cells and mast cells release inflammatory mediators and those mediators trigger it helps recruit immune cells to the site. 7. compare and contrast helper T cells with cytotoxic T cells helper t aka (cd4 or th) cells enhance the immune response ( exogenous antigen class ll mhc, *dendritic cells, macrophages, b lymphocytes. Only target antigens that binds to t cell receptor cytotoxic t cells aka (tc or cd8) kill cells ( endogenous antigen class l mhc molecule *cancerous& infected cells only make one kind of antibody which has a specific binding region 8. describe how T cells are activated and what happens once a particular T cell is activated they are activated when they bind to specific antigen presenting cells or diseased body cells once it binds to a specific antigen the t cell becomes fully activated 9. describe the role of MHC and APCs in T cell activation they are the binding receptors that activate the t cells allowed t cells to recognize specific antigens 10.describe how B cell activation leads to antibody production They are activated they encounter their specific antigen and receive t cell signal activated b cells produce plasma cells that make antibodies ( t cells are cell mediated b cells are antigen mediated) 11.compare and contrast the 5 different classes of antibody igG makes up the majority of the antibodies only antibody that can cross the placenta from mother to fetus* functions in opsonization, neutralization and complement fixation igA found in secretions such as breast milk and saliva * function in agglutination and neutralization igM the first antibody secreted on exposure to an antigen *functions in complement fixation igE binds mast cells and basophils and triggers degranulation facilitating inflammation * particularly in a allergic response igD found exclusively on the surface of b cells has a role in b cell sensitization and activation 12.describe how an antibody participates in immunity? they bind, activate and trigger mediators 13.explain the purpose of vaccination? to prevent disease 14.describe how the immune system responds to a bacterial infection? by citing the bacteria activating innate and adaptive immune responses then releasing immune cells to eliminate the infection 15. describe how the immune system responds to a viral infection? it activates innate and adaptive immune responses involving the production of antibodies, immune cells and development of memory cells 16.describe how the immune system fights against cancer through recognition, activation, effector responses and memory response 17.describe the role of the immune system in the pathogenesis of AIDS aids attach the cd4 t cells making the immune system susceptible to infections and diseases 18.explain what happens if a person develops self-reactive T or B cells this can lead to autoimmune responses and autoimmune diseases where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells or tissues Chapter 21 – Respiratory system 1. list the airway structures in order, from nares to alveoli nares Naughty (nares) nasal cavity Naked ( nasal cavity) pharynx People (pharynx) Like (larynx) larynx Touching (trachea) trachea Big (bronchi) bronchi Black (bronchioles) Asses (alveoli) bronchioles alveoli 2. differentiate the upper versus lower respiratory tract and the conducting zone versus the respiratory zone the upper respiratory includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx and nose the lower respiratory includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs the conducting zone refers to the pathway for air from the upper respiratory tract to the respiratory zone the respiratory zone is where gas exchange occurs in the respiratory system 3. describe the function of each portion of the respiratory tract filtering, warming and humidifying ( nose and nasal cavity) speech production and airway protection (larynx) conducting air to and from the lungs (trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles) facilitating gas exchange (alveoli) 4. describe the structure of the alveolus, and specifically the respiratory membrane. the alveolus has a thin alveolar epithelium surrounding capillaries and a basement membrane forming the respiratory membrane *gas exchange occurs across the respiratory membrane 5. describe how the muscles of respiration cause air movement muscles contract during inhalation (expanding thoracic cavity and creating negative pressure) and relax during exhalation (reducing thoracic cavity and increasing pressure) 6. describe the changes in volume and pressure that occur during inspiration and expiration, and how they contribute to ventilation during inspiration the volume of the thoracic cavity increases leading to a decrease in pressure allowing air into lungs during expiration the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases resulting to an increase in pressure allowing air to flow out the lungs the changes in pressure and volume facilitate ventilation by creating pressure gradients for air movement 7. describe the difference between breathing at rest versus breathing when a person is in respiratory distress (breathing at rest) is regular breathing while (respiratory distress) is discomfort and difficulty breathing 8. name the lung volumes and capacities and describe the meaning of each value Tim. Insist everyone. run inside for vital tests tidal volume(tv) the amount of air inhaled or exhaled inspiratory reserve volume(irv) the extra air inhaled after inhaling expiratory reserve volume( erv) the extra air exhaled after exhaling residual volume(rv) the air that remains after exhaling inspiratory capacity (ic) the total air you can inhale functional residual capacity(frc) the amount of air remaining after exhaling vital capacity(vc) the max air you can inhale after a max inhalation total lung capacity (tlc) the total air that can be held 9. explain the physiological significance of surfactant it reduces surface tension and prevents alveolar collapse, protects lung tissue 10.describe the forces that push outward versus the forces the pull inward on lung tissue during ventilation outward forces are chest wall( physically pulling the lung outward) plural fluid( suction helping visceral and parietal pleura stay in contact) inward forces are elastic recoil ( elastic fibers around the alveolus spring back during expiration surface tension ( water on the inside of each alveolus favors alveolar collapse 11. explain how oxygen in the air eventually arrives at tissue cells Oxygen in the air is inhaled through the respiratory system. It enters the lungs and diffuses across the thin walls of the alveoli into the bloodstream. From there, it binds to hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells for transport 12.describe the two ways that oxygen travels in the blood, and how they are related Oxygen travels in the blood through two ways: dissolved in plasma and bound to hemoglobin. Dissolved oxygen is readily available for immediate use by tissues, while oxygen bound to hemoglobin provides a reserve for when the dissolved oxygen levels are low. These two forms of oxygen transport are interrelated and work together to ensure oxygen delivery to tissues 13.explain how metabolically active tissues can retrieve more oxygen from the blood Metabolically active tissues can retrieve more oxygen from the blood through mechanisms such as increased blood flow, increased oxygen extraction, and the release of factors that promote vasodilation. These processes help ensure that oxygen is efficiently delivered to tissues with high metabolic demands. 14.describe the three ways that carbon dioxide travels in the blood Carbon dioxide travels in the blood through three ways: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions. The majority of carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate ions in red blood cells, which can then be transported in the plasma. Some carbon dioxide also binds to hemoglobin. These mechanisms help maintain the balance of carbon dioxide in the blood. 15. describe the physiological significance of the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain blood pH The bicarbonate buffer system plays a crucial role in maintaining blood pH. It involves the conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate ions and vice versa. When blood pH decreases (becomes more acidic), the system releases bicarbonate ions to neutralize the excess hydrogen ions and restore pH balance. Conversely, when blood pH increases (becomes more alkaline), the system generates carbon dioxide to increase the concentration of hydrogen ions and restore pH balance 16.compare respiratory acidosis with respiratory alkalosis Respiratory acidosis occurs when there is an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood, leading to a decrease in blood pH. This can be caused by conditions such as hypoventilation or lung diseases. Respiratory alkalosis, on the other hand, occurs when there is a decrease in carbon dioxide levels in the blood, leading to an increase in blood pH. This can be caused by conditions such as hyperventilation or anxiety. 17.describe how central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors regulate respiratory rate Central chemoreceptors, located in the brainstem, monitor the levels of carbon dioxide and pH in the cerebrospinal fluid. They regulate respiratory rate by sending signals to the respiratory centers in the brainstem to adjust breathing. Peripheral chemoreceptors, located in the carotid and aortic bodies, monitor the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH in the arterial blood. They also send signals to the respiratory centers to regulate breathing. 18. compare restrictive disorders versus obstructive disorders, and classify a patient example as restrictive or obstructive Restrictive disorders are characterized by a decrease in lung volume and capacity, often due to lung tissue stiffness or reduced lung expansion. Examples include pulmonary fibrosis. Obstructive disorders, on the other hand, involve a narrowing or blockage of the airways, making it difficult to exhale air.  Examples include asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). To classify a patient example, more specific information about the patient's lung function and symptoms would be needed. Chapters 22 & 23: The Digestive System & Metabolism 1. list the organs of the digestive tract (their regions, and sphincters) in order from mouth to anus mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (including duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), large intestine (including cecum, colon, rectum), and anus. 2. explain the difference between an organ of the digestive tract versus an accessory organ of digestion Organs of the digestive tract are directly involved in the process of digestion and absorption of nutrients. Accessory organs of digestion, such as the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, produce and release substances (such as enzymes and bile) that aid in digestion but are not part of the continuous digestive tube 3. define ingestion, secretion, propulsion, digestion, absorption, defecation, segmentation, propulsion, mastication - Ingestion: The process of taking in food or liquid into the body. Secretion: The release of digestive juices, enzymes, and hormones necessary for digestion. Propulsion: The movement of food through the digestive tract, including swallowing and peristalsis. Digestion: The breakdown of food into smaller molecules by mechanical and chemical processes. Absorption: The uptake of nutrients and water from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. Defecation: The elimination of indigestible waste materials from the body. Segmentation: The mixing and movement of food in the small intestine. Mastication: The process of chewing and grinding food with the teeth. 4. describe the space of the peritoneal cavity and the structure of a mesentery (both related to visceral and parietal peritoneum) The peritoneal cavity is a space within the abdominal cavity that contains organs of the digestive system. The visceral peritoneum covers the organs, while the parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall. Mesenteries are double layers of peritoneum that suspend and support organs, providing a pathway for blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics 5.list the layers of the digestive tract from lumen to covering and describe the structure and function of each layer The layers of the digestive tract, from lumen to covering, are: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa/ adventitia. The mucosa is responsible for secretion and absorption, the submucosa contains blood vessels and nerves, the muscularis externa controls movement, and the serosa/adventitia provides protection and support 6. name the salivary glands, describe their locations, and describe the function(s) of saliva The salivary glands include the parotid glands, submandibular glands, and sublingual glands. The parotid glands are located near the ears, the submandibular glands are beneath the lower jaw, and the sublingual glands are under the tongue. Saliva moistens and lubricates food, contains enzymes (such as amylase for initial digestion of carbohydrates, and helps with swallowing 7. describe the phases of swallowing. Is swallowing voluntary or involuntary? The phases of swallowing are the voluntary phase (initiated by conscious control), the pharyngeal phase (involuntary passage through the pharynx), and the esophageal phase (involuntary passage through the esophagus). Swallowing is primarily involuntary. 8. name the regions of the stomach, the layers of the stomach, the cells found in the gastric glands, and what each of those cell types produces the regions of the stomach are the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. The layers of the stomach include the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa (with three layers of smooth muscle), and serosa. The gastric glands contain various cell types, including mucous cells, chief cells (produce pepsinogen), parietal cells (produce hydrochloric acid, and G cells (produce gastrin). 9. describe the phases of gastric secretion, as well as the receptive, churning, and emptying functions of the stomach The phases of gastric secretion are the cephalic phase (triggered by sensory stimuli), gastric phase (triggered by the presence of food in the stomach), and intestinal phase (triggered by the presence of chyme in the small intestine). The stomach's receptive function involves relaxation to accommodate food, churning function mixes food with gastric secretions, and emptying function involves the controlled release of chyme into the small intestine. 10.explain how the small intestine's villi are specialized for absorption The small intestine's villi are finger-like projections that increase the surface area for absorption. They are lined with epithelial cells that have microvilli, forming the brush border. This structure maximizes the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area available for contact with digested food. 11. compare and contrast peristalsis versus segmentation in terms of the motility of the small intestine Peristalsis is a coordinated muscular contraction that propels food along the digestive tract, including the small intestine. Segmentation is a mixing movement that occurs in the small  intestine, helping to mix food with digestive enzymes and enhance absorption 12. describe the roles of gastrin, histamine, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in regulating digestion Gastrin stimulates the release of gastric acid and promotes gastric motility. Histamine stimulates acid secretion by parietal cells.Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. Secretin stimulates the release of bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice and inhibits gastric acid secretion. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) relaxes smooth muscles in the digestive tract and stimulates secretion 13. name the regions of the large intestine in order , the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus.q 14.describe the role of bacteria in the functioning of the large intestine.Bacteria in the large intestine play a crucial role in the functioning of the digestive system. They help break down undigested carbohydrates and fiber, produce vitamins (such as vitamin K and some B vitamins), and help maintain a healthy gut microbiota. They also contribute to the formation of feces and aid in the absorption of water and electrolytes. 15.describe the defecation reflex The defecation reflex is a reflexive response that triggers the elimination of feces from the rectum. When the rectum becomes distended with feces, stretch receptors in the rectal walls send signals to the spinal cord, which in turn sends motor signals to the muscles of the rectum and colon. This causes the muscles to contract and the anal sphincters to relax, allowing for the expulsion of feces 16.describe the function of the pancreas in digestion. What does the pancreas produce, and how do these secretions reach the digestive tract? The pancreas plays a crucial role in digestion by producing digestive enzymes and hormones. It produces enzymes such as amylase, lipase, and proteases that help break down carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins respectively. These secretions reach the digestive tract through the pancreatic duct, which connects the pancreas to the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). 17.describe the function of the liver and gallbladder to produce and concentrate bile. What is bile used for? How does bile reach the digestive tract? The liver and gallbladder work together to produce and concentrate bile. Bile is a substance that aids in the digestion and absorption of fats. The liver produces bile, which is then stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. When needed, the gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine through the common bile duct. 18.describe the functions of the liver that contribute to metabolism The liver has multiple functions that contribute to metabolism. It metabolizes nutrients, detoxifies harmful substances, stores vitamins and minerals, produces bile, and regulates blood glucose levels. It also plays a role in protein synthesis and the breakdown of old red blood cells. 19.describe the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth and small intestine. In the mouth, salivary amylase begins the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars. In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase and enzymes on the brush border of the intestinal lining further break down carbohydrates into monosaccharides, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. 20.describe the digestion and absorption of proteins Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine. In the stomach, the enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptides. In the small intestine, pancreatic proteases and enzymes on the brush border complete the digestion of proteins into amino acids, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. 21.describe the digestion and absorption of lipids Lipids (fats) are digested in the small intestine. Bile salts produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder emulsify fats, breaking them into smaller droplets.Pancreatic lipase then breaks down these droplets into fatty acids and glycerol, which are absorbed into the intestinal cells and then transported to the bloodstream. 22.describe what happens to water along the digestive tract, in terms of ingestion, secretion, and reabsorption Water is ingested through drinking and is also produced as a byproduct of metabolic reactions. It is secreted into the digestive tract by various glands, including salivary glands, gastric glands, and intestinal glands. Most of the water is reabsorbed in the small intestine and large intestine, ensuring that the body maintains proper hydration. 23.describe how the body uses carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. What is the basic reason we need each of these macronutrients? Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are macronutrients that provide energy to the body. Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy, proteins are essential for growth and repair of tissues, and lipids serve as a concentrated energy source and help with insulation and protection of organs. 24. describe how the body can break down carbohydrates, to use the energy released Carbohydrates are broken down through a process called glycolysis, which occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. During glycolysis, glucose is converted into pyruvate, releasing energy in the form of ATP. 25. describe how lipids are used to store energy and how it is released Lipids are used to store energy in the form of triglycerides. When energy is needed, lipids are broken down through a process called lipolysis, releasing fatty acids and glycerol These components can then enter cellular metabolism to produce ATP. 26.describe how proteins are broken down and what may happen to the monomer produced (amino acids) Proteins are broken down through a process called proteolysis. Proteolytic enzymes break proteins into smaller peptides, and further digestion occurs in the small intestine where enzymes break peptides into individual amino acids. Amino acids can be used for protein synthesis or can be metabolized for energy compare and contrast aerobic oxidative phosphorylation with anaerobic 27. catabolism of glucose Aerobic oxidative phosphorylation requires oxygen, produces more ATP, and results in the end products of CO2 and H20, while anaerobic catabolism of glucose does not require oxygen, produces less ATP, and results in different end products depending on the specific pathway. 28. describe how mitochondria generate ATP with the electron transport chain Mitochondria generate ATP through the electron transport chain (ETC. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed along a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient. This gradient drives the synthesis of ATP through atp synthesis 29. explain how carbon dioxide and H+ are produced by oxidative phosphorylation Carbon dioxide (CO2) and H+ ions are produced as byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation. CO2 is released into the bloodstream and transported to the lungs for elimination. H+ ions contribute to the regulation of pH in the body. 30.explain where urea comes from. Why do we make this waste product? Urea is produced in the liver as a waste product of protein metabolism. It is formed when ammonia, a toxic byproduct of protein breakdown, is converted into urea. Urea is then transported to the kidneys for excretion in urine. 31. compare and contrast the absorptive versus the postabsorptive state The absorptive state refers to the period after a meal when nutrients are being absorbed and used for energy or stored. The postabsorptive state occurs when the body is not actively digesting a meal and relies on stored energy reserves to meet its energy needs. 32. define basal metabolic rate Basal metabolic rate (BMR is the amount of energy expended by the body at rest to maintain basic physiological functions such as breathing, circulation, and cell production. It is influenced by factors such as age, gender, body composition, and thyroid function. 33. describe the regulation of body temperature by the hypothalamus  The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating body temperature. It receives input from temperature receptors throughout the body and initiates responses to maintain a stable core temperature. These responses include sweating, shivering, and adjusting blood flow to the skin 34.describe why people need to eat fiber. What is fiber, and what type of foods have it? Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that cannot be digested by human enzymes. It adds bulk to the diet and helps regulate bowel movements. Foods rich in fiber include fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nut 35. contrast essential versus nonessential nutrients, such as essential versus nonessential amino acids Essential nutrients are necessary for normal body functioning and must be obtained from the diet, while nonessential nutrients can be synthesized by the body 36.compare and contrast water-soluble versus fat-soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored in the body, while fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in fat and can be stored in the body. 37. name several minerals that are essential for life, and why Essential minerals include calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, and zinc, among others. 38.describe the roles of the various lipoproteins in cholesterol transport and delivery LDL transports cholesterol from the liver to the cells, HDL removes excess cholesterol from the bloodstream, and VLDL transports triglycerides from the liver to the cells. Important figures: 23.7: The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation 23.8: The Big Picture of Glucose Catabolism and Oxidative Phosphorylation 23.14: The Big Picture of Nutrient Anabolism 23.15: Comparison of the absorptive and postabsorptive states 23.18: Maintaining homeostasis: regulation of core body temperature by negative feedback loops 23.19: Cholesterol distribution by lipoproteins. Chapter 24: The Urinary system 1. describe the structure of the kidney and the nephron The kidney has three layers renal cortex, renal medulla and renal pelvis The kidneys receive blood from the renal artery Nephrons are the kidneys functional units it consists of the renal corpuscle and the renal tubule there are two types: Cortical nephron located in cortex (short nephron loops) Juxtamedullary nephron located between cortex nd medulla (long nephron Renal tubule Proximal tubule reabsorbs nutrients ions and water from the filtrate nephron loop concentrates the filtrate distal tubule reabsorbs and secretes Renal corpuscles Glomerulus capillaries that filter the blood glomerular capsule AKA bowmans capsule it collects the filtered fluid 2. explain how urine is produced, including the processes of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion Kidneys remove waste products from the blood and produce urine. Glomerular Filtration: Blood is filtered in the glomerulus; water salt glucose and small molecules is filtered and passes into the bowman’s capsule. Tubular Reabsorption occurs in renal tubule : Useful substances (like water, glucose, amino acids) are taken back into the blood by capillaries Tubular Secretion occurs in distal tubule and collecting duct: Wastes and extra ions are added to the filtrate to form urine. 3. describe the different forces that make up NFP and how that relates to GFR (Ghp) glomerular hydrostatic pressure. 50 mmhg the initial force that pushes fluid out of capillaries and into glomerular space (Gcop) Glomerular colloid osmotic pressure 30 mmhg pulling water back into the capillaries (Chp) capsular hydrostatic pressure 10mmhg pushing water back into the capillaries Nfp: ghp - (gcop + chp) 50 mmhm- (30mmhg+10mmhg) A higher nfp increases gfr and enhances the kidneys ability to filter blood and maintain homeostasis 4. explain how the myogenic mechanism regulates GFR It is a feedback process the helps maintain a stable glomerular filtration rate It increases and decreases blood pressure if it increases it constricts vessels decreasing ghp if it decreases it dilates increases ghp 5. explain how the tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism regulates GFR A negative feedback loop that helps regulate the gfr Macula cells sense how much sodium is in the filtrate 6. Describe the hormonal effects on GFR, including the effects of the RAAS: RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System): When blood pressure is low, the kidneys release renin, which activates angiotensin II.  Angiotensin II raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels and increasing GFR. It also triggers the release of aldosterone, which makes the kidneys retain sodium and water, increasing blood volume. 7. Explain how aldosterone and ADH each act to change the composition of urine: Aldosterone: Reabsorbs more sodium and water, making urine less salty and in smaller amounts. ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): Reabsorbs more water, concentrating the urine and reducing its volume. 8. Compare obligatory and facultative water reabsorption: Obligatory: 65% of Water automatically follows salt in the kidney (you can’t control this). Facultative: Water reabsorption is controlled by ADH, depending on how hydrated you are. 9. Explain why human urine cannot have a higher osmolarity than 1200 mOsm: The kidney’s medulla sets a maximum salt concentration at 1200 mOsm, so urine can’t get saltier than that. 10. Describe the contents of normal urine: 95% water, with wastes like: metabolic waste like Urea (from protein breakdown). ions (sodium, potassium), and small molecules the body doesn’t need. 11. Explain the role of the kidney in maintaining the correct blood pH: the PH of the blood is regulated by adjusting the secretion of hydrogen ions and the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions The kidney removes acid (H+ ions) when blood is too acidic. It reabsorbs bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) to neutralize acids and keep pH balanced. 12. Name the hormones produced by the kidney and describe the physiological target of each: Erythropoietin (EPO): Stimulates red blood cell production in bone marrow.  Renin: Activates RAAS to regulate blood pressure. Calcitriol: Helps absorb calcium in the intestines. 13. Describe the role of the kidney in regulating blood pressure: Adjusts blood pressure by controlling water and salt levels in the blood. Releases renin when blood pressure is low, activating the RAAS system. 14. Explain the micturition reflex: When the bladder is full, stretch receptors send signals to the spinal cord and brain. The bladder contracts, and the sphincters relax, allowing urine to leave the body. Chapter 25: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis 1. Describe where water is in the body (intracellular versus extracellular compartments, for example): Intracellular fluid (ICF): Inside cells (about 60%). Extracellular fluid (ECF): Outside cells (about 40%), includes: Blood plasma. Interstitial fluid (between cells). Cytosol makes majority of our total body water 2. Compare and contrast the solute concentrations in extracellular versus intracellular fluids: Extracellular fluid (ECF): High in sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻). Intracellular fluid (ICF): High in potassium (K⁺) and proteins. 3. Explain why water losses and water gains must be equal: To maintain homeostasis, the body must balance water intake (food, drink) with water losses (sweat, urine, breathing). Imbalances can cause dehydration or over- hydration. 4. Describe how you lose and gain water each day:  Gain: Drinking fluids, eating food, and metabolic reactions. Lose: Through urine, sweat, feces, and evaporation from breathing. 5. Explain what makes you thirsty, and why: The thirst center in the hypothalamus is triggered when: Blood has too many solutes (high osmolarity). Blood volume drops (low blood pressure). These signals make you drink water to restore balance. 6. Describe how angiotensin-II and aldosterone work to maintain homeostasis of blood sodium concentrations: Angiotensin-II: Increases sodium reabsorption in the kidney. Aldosterone: Stimulates the kidney to save more sodium and excrete potassium, keeping sodium levels balanced. 7. Explain how the kidney responds to dehydration: Produces less, more concentrated urine by reabsorbing water through ADH. Retains sodium and water through aldosterone and angiotensin-II. 8. Classify an acid-base disorder as metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, or respiratory alkalosis: Metabolic acidosis: Too much acid (decrease in ventilation and retention of carbon dioxide ). Metabolic alkalosis: Too much base (hypoventalation ). Respiratory acidosis: Too much CO₂ (kidneys secrete more bicarbonate ions transport hydrogen ions ). Respiratory alkalosis: Too little CO₂ (e.g., from hyperventilation). Extras Hypernatremia Is an increase in plasma sodium concentration caused by dehydration Hyponatremia is a decrease in plasma sodium ion concentration caused by over hydration Hyperkalemia causes the resting membrane potential to be more positive than normal hypokalemia Caused by diuretics causes the resting membranes hyperpolarize Hypercalcemia is caused by hyperparathyroidism a decreases the excitability of neurons and shortens the plateau phase Hypocalcemia is due to decreased or ineffective parathyroid or lack of vitamin D no neurons become more excitable alluding to muscle contractions Phosphate buffer system is an important buffer system for the cytosol and the filtrate within the kidney tubules protein buffer systems many proteins such as hemoglobin can bind hydrogen ions and act as buffers Essential Figures: 25.2: The distribution of water in the body 25.3: The solute composition of extracellular fluid and cytosol 25.5: Water losses and gains 25.6: Maintaining homeostasis: regulation of thirst by negative feedback loops 25.7: Maintaining homeostasis: regulation of the extracellular concentration of sodium ions by a negative feedback loop 25.12: Physiological responses to dehydration Table 25.1: Summary of Acid-Base Disorders Chapter 26: The Reproductive System 1. List the structures of the male and female reproductive tracts and name the general function of each: Male: Testes (make sperm), epididymis (sperm matures and moves to ductus deferents ) ductus deferens (transport the mature sperm to ejaculatory duct), ejaculatory duct ( mix with seminal fluid then transport Sperm from ductus deferens into the urethra) urethra (transport semen out penis). Female: Ovaries (make eggs), uterine tubes (Transport oocytes) uterus (supports fetus), vagina (birth canal). 2. Describe the position of the male and female reproductive tracts within the pelvis: Male: Urinary bladder anterior to the rectum prostate gland below the urinary bladder surrounding their urethra Seminole vessels posterior to the bladder anterior to the rectum ductus deferens runs from the epididymis loops over the bladder and joined the ejaculatory duct Female: Ovaries are in the pelvic cavity above uterus ; the uterus sits Between the urinary bladder and the Rectum the uterine tubes extend from the ovaries to the uterus running alongside the outside of the pelvic rim the vagina runs behind the pelvic symphysis and the urinary bladder 3. Describe how both mitosis and meiosis are part of producing gametes: Mitosis: Mitosis occurs only in the testes and ovaries to produce gametes they produce 2 diploid cells that are identical to the original cell Meiosis: Makes gametes (sperm and eggs) Produces up to four haploid cells (sister chromatids) 4. Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis: Spermatogenesis: process of which spermatids become motile sperm Begins at puberty12-14, continuously produces sperm, produces motile sperm each day comma, 4 haploid spermatids, continues through life until death, Oogenesis: process of which ovum develops Begins before birth,9-11 a primary oocyte matures to a secondary oocyte each month, produces one large secondary oocyte each month comma, one haploid into haploid polar bodies comma, pauses twice and continues until menopause, 5. Describe the hormones of the HPG axis and how they regulate reproduction: The hypothalamus releases GNRH gonadotropin releasing hormone which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH FSH stimulates cells in the testes to secrete androgen binding protein ABP(androgen binding protein)in females it grows and matures ovarian follicles LH in males stimulate cells in the testes to produce testosterone in females it triggers ovulation and the formation of corpus luteum 6. Explain the events of the ovarian cycle, the uterine cycle, and how they are synchronized: Ovarian cycle: Follicular phase 1 to 13 days primary follicles mature into secondary follicles secondary follicles become Vesicular follicle the primary oocyte site becomes secondary oocyte Ovulation last 14 days releases secondary oocyte luteal phase last 15 to 28 days Sacris progesterone and estrogen Uterine cycle: menstrual phase 1 to five days shedding due to low progesterone proliferative phase last 6 to 14 days estrogen triggers LH surge growth of the stratum functionalis secretory phase lasts 15 to 28 days development of the stratum functionalis The ovarian cycle involves follicle maturation ovulation and corpus luteum formation the uterine cycle involves the shedding and regrowth of the uterine line hormones like GNRH FSH LH estrogen and progesterone synchronize these cycles to prepare for pregnancy 7. Briefly describe the events of puberty and the hormones that regulate it: Hormones (GnRH, FSH, LH Estrogen and progesterone) start secondary sex traits like breast growth or deeper voice. 8. Describe the phases of the male sexual response and how semen is produced: Phases: Erection (blood flow increases), ejaculation (sperm exits). Semen production: Sperm mixes with fluids from seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands. 9. Explain the different types of contraceptives: Behavioral: Avoid sex during ovulation, Removing penis before ejaculation, abstinence Barrier: Condoms, diaphragms. Hormonal: Pills, IUDs. Permanent: Tubal ligation, vasectomy. Chapter 27: Development 1. Describe the periods of intrauterine human development: Pre-embryonic: First 2 weeks. Embryonic: Weeks 3-8 (organs form). Fetal: Weeks 9-38 weeks until birth (growth and refinement). 2. Describe how a woman’s body knows that implantation has occurred: The embryo secretes hCG, which tells the corpus luteum to keep making hormones. 3. Describe capacitation, fertilization, blastocyst formation, implantation, and gastrulation: Fertilization is the fusion of the sperm cell and the secondary oocyte to form a zygote Capacitation: The process a sperm undergoes to gain the ability to penetrate and fertilize and oocyte in the corona radiata in zona pellucida Fertilization: Sperm fuses with a secondary oocyte to form zygote Blastocyst: When the zygo undergoes cleavage it becomes a blastocyte -A hollow ball of cells forms. Implantation: Blastocyst attaches to uterine wall. Gastrulation: Germ layers (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm) form. 4. Describe how the three germ layers eventually become all the tissues of the body: Ectoderm: Skin, nervous system sense organs Mesoderm: skeletal structure ,Muscles, heart. Endoderm: glands and linings of digestive and respiratory tract 5. Name the four extra embryonic membranes and describe the function of each one: Amnion: Protects embryo with fluid.  Chorion: Forms placenta. Yolk sac: Early blood cell formation. Allantois: Forms umbilical blood vessels. 6. Describe the structure of the placenta and how it provides oxygen and nutrients to the fetus: The placenta has villi that connect fetal blood to the mother’s blood via the umbilical cord , allowing oxygen and nutrients to pass through. 7. Explain the changes that happen to the cardiovascular system at birth: Blood flow bypasses (like the ductus arteriosus) close, and the lungs take over oxygen exchange. 8. Describe the stages of labor: Dilation: Cervix opens. Expulsion: Baby is born. Placental: Placenta is delivered. 9. Describe the physiological changes that occur in the mother during pregnancy: Increased blood volume, Weight gain and increase glomerular filtration myometrium hypertrophy Muscles of the uterus thickens, and the placenta grows amniotic fluid the volume of amniotic fluid increases gap junction formation estrogen promotes the formation of gap junctions facilitating contractions during childbirth uterus enlargement the uterus grows significantly expanding the pelvic cavity 10. Explain how lactation is regulated by a positive feedback mechanism: Baby suckling stimulates oxytocin and prolactin, which causes milk ejection. This encourages more suckling. 11. Compare and contrast autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, incomplete dominance, and X-linked traits: Autosomal dominant: One dominant gene needed. Autosomal recessive: Two recessive genes needed. Incomplete dominance: Traits blend (e.g., red + white = pink flowers).  X-linked: Passed on the X chromosome, often affects males more.