POLS 206: International Relations and World Politics Final Historical Context PDF

POLS 206: International Relations and World Politics Academic Year 2024 - 2025 CHAPTER 2: THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS  TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction …………..…………………………………………………………………………. 4 The Pre-Westphalian World ……………………………………...

POLS 206: International Relations and World Politics Academic Year 2024 - 2025 CHAPTER 2: THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS  TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction …………..…………………………………………………………………………. 4 The Pre-Westphalian World …………………………………………..………………………. 4 The Middle Ages (Feudal Practices, Church Monopoly) The Late Middle Ages Emergence of the Westphalian System ……………………………………………………. 5 Background (Definition and Historical Context) Key Developments ……………………………………………………………………… 6 ❖ Formulation of Sovereignty ❖ Territorial Integrity ❖ Permanent National Militaries ❖ Core Groups of States that Dominated the World ❖ Legal Equality of States ❖ Decline of Religious Authority Criticisms and Challenges ……………………………………………………………… 7 The Notion of a Market (Adam Smith, An Inquiry into ………………………………. 7 the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations) Europe in the Nineteenth Century …………………………………………………………... 7 Key Terms Aftermath of the Revolution: Legitimacy and Nationalism Napoleonic Wars ……………………………………………………………………….. 8 ❖ Definition ❖ Causes ❖ Magazine System ❖ Consequences ❖ The Downfall of the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte Peace at the Core of the European System …………………………………………. 9 ❖ Definition ❖ Congress of Vienna ❖ Concert of Europe ❖ Three Factors of Peace Core 2  Imperialism and Colonialism in the European System before 1870 …………….. 10 ❖ Key Terms ❖ Motivations ❖ Key Features Balance of Power ……………………………………………………………………… 11 The Breakdown: Solidification of Alliances ………………………………………… 12 The Interwar Years and World War 2 ………………………………………………………. 13 The Interwar Years ❖ Overview ❖ After World War 1 World War 2 ❖ Overview ❖ Causes / Timeline ❖ End of World War 2 The Cold War …………………………………………………………………………………… 16 The Atlantic Charter of 1941 Origins of the Cold War Series of Confrontations ……………………………………………………………….. 18 ❖ Definition ❖ Mutual Assured Destruction ❖ Timeline of Cold Wars in Asia, Africa, & Latin America Was the Cold War Cold? The Immediate Post-Cold War Era ………………………………………………………… 21 End of the Cold War Explaining the End of the Cold War: A View from the Soviet Union …………….. 22 The New Millenium: The First Two Decades ………………………………….……. 23 Why Can’t a Powerful State like Japan Use Armed Forces Abroad? ……………. 24 In Sum: Learning from History …………………………………………………………….. 25 3  INTRODUCTION Contemporary International Relations is rooted in the European experience, in both theory and practice. They have also shaped core concepts in the field, including state, nation, sovereignty, power, and balance of power. THE PRE-WESTPHALIAN WORLD The Middle Ages (500 AD to 15th Century) KEY TERMS Centralization: control of activities and organizations is under a single authority Decentralization: transfer of activities and organizations to several offices or authority Feudalism: controlled by lords and tied to fiefdoms that have the authority to raise taxes and exert legal authority. Timeline 5 AD: The Roman Empire disintegrated, and power and authority were decentralized. 1000 AD: Emergence of three civilizations in Rome ❖ Arabic Civilization - under the religious and political domination of the Islamic caliphate, advanced mathematical and technical accomplishments made it a potent force. ❖ Byzantine Empire - united by Christianity, located near the old Roman Empire ❖ The rest of Europe where languages and cultures were profiliated and networks of communication were developed were beginning to disintegrate. After 1000 AD (The Late Middle Ages): Developing Transnational Networks in Europe and Beyond ❖ Seculars began to undermine the decentralization of feudalism and universalization of Christianity in Europe. ❖ Commercial activity expanded into larger geographic areas. All forms of communication improved and technologies made daily life easier. These led to fundamental changes in social relations: 1. A transnational business community emerged — interests and livelihoods extended beyond its immediate locale. 2. Writers rediscovered classical literature and history where they found intellectual sustenance in Greek and Roman thought. 4  3. Niccolo Machiavelli called for leaders to act in the state’s interest in order not to have no moral rules. 4. In the 1500s-1600s, European explorers and settlers moved into the New World: Feudalism was being replaced by centralized monarchy. 5. The masses rebelled and rioted because of the taxes imposed by the emerging states. Key Features Western Europe practiced feudalism to prevail in disorder. The church was the preeminent institution. ❖ This was challenged by Carolus Magnus (Charlemagne), leader of the Franks (France) in the late eighth century. THE EMERGENCE OF THE WESTPHALIAN SYSTEM BACKGROUND Definition International order established by the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648, ending the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. The beginning of the modern international order. This was characterized by the principles of state sovereignty, territorial integrity, and legal equality of states. This reduced the influence of religious authorities in political matters. It laid the groundwork for the principles of international law and the concept of nation-states. Historical Context The Thirty Years' War in Central Europe resulted in widespread destruction and loss of life, prompting the need for a resolution to stabilize the region and prevent further conflicts. 5  Key Developments & Impacts on International Relations Formulation of Sovereignty ❖ The absolute authority of a state over its territory and independence from external interference. ❖ This was also vested to individuals: they cannot be subject to the commands of another, because he is who makes law for the subject, abrogates and amends obsolete law. ❖ According to Jean Bodin, a French Philosopher, sovereignty was absolute and perpetual power vested in a commonwealth. However, this is NOT absolute, because leaders are limited by divine and natural law, types of regimes, and covenants. Territorial Integrity ❖ The states have defined territorial boundaries and should be respected by others. ❖ This is the cornerstone of international law and relations: the importance of borders, and rights to govern their affairs without external intervention. Permanent National Militaries ❖ Due to tax collection, the state’s power over the military increased into a powerful force and the leaders also assumed absolute control over the troops. Core Groups of States that Dominated the World ❖ England, France, and the United Provinces underwent an economic revival under the aegis of liberal capitalism. ❖ Prussia and Russia reverted to feudal practices. ❖ In the West, private enterprise was encouraged, and improved infrastructure to facilitate commerce, and great trading companies and banks emerged. Legal Equality of States ❖ Regardless of size or power, states are legally equal in the international arena. ❖ This laid the groundwork for diplomatic relations and the establishment of international organizations. Decline of Religious Authority ❖ The authority to determine the religion of a state’s subjects was transferred to the sovereign: they chose between Catholicism and Protestantism without interference from the Church. 6  Criticisms and Challenges Context of globalization, transnational issues, and the rise of non-state actors The rigid adherence to state sovereignty can hinder cooperation on global challenges (climate change, terrorism, and human rights). The Notion of a Market Adam Smith, a Scottish economist, argued that the notion of a market should apply to all social orders. ❖ When individuals pursue their self-interests, they will act rationally to maximize them. Therefore, the economic efficiency, wealth of the state, and international system are enhanced. EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY KEY TERMS Industrial Revolution: Period of major mechanization and innovation that was led by Great Britain. American Revolution / US War of Independence (1775-1783): To throw off Great Britain's rule in 13 North American states and to establish the sovereign United States of America. French Revolution (1787-1799): Change the relationship between the rulers and those they governed and redefine the nature of political power. The Aftermath of Revolution: Core Principles Legitimacy (Two Treatises on Government) ❖ The absolute rule is subject to limits and imposed by man. ❖ John Locke argues that political power rests with the people, rather than with a leader or monarch — they have rational thinking to protect their natural rights and self-interests. Nationalism ❖ Individuals with common past, language, customs, and practices, are motivated to participate actively in the political process as a group. 7  Napoleonic Wars (1803-1515) Definition Series of conflicts involving Napoleon Bonaparte’s French Empire and various coalitions of European nations. France was the target of European states because of the popular consent idea of government. Causes of Napoleonic Wars 1. French Revolution: To overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic creating tensions, because of the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. 2. Rise of Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte led the French military and became the rank of emperor of France because he seized power in a coup d’etat in 1799. His further ambition to expand French territory and influence alarmed other European powers. 3. Continental System: A policy to exclude British goods from Europe to weaken their economy through a trade blockade and led to widespread resentment and conflict. 4. Nationalism: This sentiment spread across Europe and fueled revolutionary ideas and self-determination, contributing to resistance against French domination. Magazine System War supplies are stored in pre-positioned positions for troops to receive them on the move and avoid having to stop and forage for food. However, this was destroyed by Russia through the Scorched Earth Policy, wherein they destroyed all available food and shelter behind them, so they would suffer from severe malnutrition. Consequences of the Napoleonic Wars Political Changes: The collapse of several monarchies and the rise of nationalist movements across Europe. Spread of Revolutionary Ideas: Those were legal equality, secular governance, and the concept of meritocracy influencing future political developments in Europe and beyond. Military Innovations: This includes the use of mass conscription and the development of corps systems. Long-term Impact: Emergence of modern nation-states and the eventual rise of nationalism as a powerful political force in the 19th century. 8 The Downfall of the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte National guerillas in Spain and Russia fought against French invaders. Invasion of Russia (1812): Due to the harsh winter, scorched earth tactics, and logistical challenges led to a catastrophic retreat. War of the Sixth Coalition (1813-1814): Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria united against Napoleon leading to Napoleon’s abdication and exile to Elba. The Hundred Days and the Battle of Waterloo (1815): Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France to regain power for a hundred days. Later on, defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the Seventh Coalition led by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher. This led to his final exile to Saint Helena. Peace at the Core of the European System Definition The period of relative stability and peace among major European powers following the Napoleonic Wars until the outbreak of World War 1 in 1914. This was characterized by diplomatic efforts, balance of power conflicts, and the establishment of international norms to prevent large-scale conflicts. The Congress of Vienna (1813-1815) To redraw the map of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon. To restore stability and order through balancing the power among the major states. The Concert of Europe (Austria, Britain, France, Prussia, Russia) A system of collective security and cooperation among the great powers. Regular meetings and conferences were held to address issues and manage conflicts diplomatically. To resolve disputes peacefully and maintain the status quo. This was based on mutual agreements and recognition of each power’s interests. Three Factors of Peace Core 1. Elites’ Fear of Revolution from the Masses ❖ They envisioned that grand alliances would bring European leaders to fight revolution from below. ❖ They wanted to ensure that mass revolutions did not spread from state to state. 9  2. Unifications of Germany and Italy ❖ Unification of Germany (1871): Consolidation of various German states into a single nation led by Otto von Bismarck. This was supported by Russia as long as their interests in Russia were respected, as well as from Britain’s dominant middle class, a counterbalance to France. ❖ Italian Unification (Risorgimento): The political and social process that consolidated different states of the Italian Peninsula (Naples and Sicily) into the Kingdom of Italy. This was supported by Britain and created myriad independent units. ❖ These exemplified the power of nationalist sentiment, and the formation of strong nation-states. ❖ This formed new sources of conflicts, such as the general wars. 3. Imperialism and Colonialism Imperialism and Colonialism in the European System before 1870 KEY TERMS Imperialism: annexation of distant territory, usually by force, and its inhabitants into an empire Colonialism: settling for people from their home country among Indigenous peoples whose territories have been annexed. Motivations Economic Interests: Explorers seek discovery, riches, and personal glory; Merchants seek raw materials and trade relations Political Competition: There was a desire among states to expand their empires through colonies. Cultural and Religious Factors: Clerics seek to convert savages to Christianity Key Features Establishment of European Identity ❖ European, Christian, civilized, and white were contrasted with the other people of the world. Expansion of Territory ❖ The Industrial Revolution provided them with the military and economic capacity to engage in territorial expansion. However, the struggle for economic power led to the exploitation of the colonial areas in Africa and Asia, in order to guarantee cheap imports of raw materials. 10  ❖ Latin America was protected by the Monroe Doctrine, the US policy of defending the Western Hemisphere from European interference. ❖ Only Japan and Siam, Thailand were not under direct European or US control. ❖ China began to trade with Great Britain with tea, silk, and porcelain. Furthermore, after they lost in the Opium War, they were forced to cede various political and territorial rights to foreigners. ❖ The United States won the Spanish-American War in 1898, pushing more imperial power over countries like the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. The Scrambles of Africa ❖ In the 1870s, Europeans only have control of the coast side of the region, not until the report of rich raw materials in the interior of Africa, thus the start of colonization by Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Belgium, and Italy. ❖ They constructed railroads and sailed steamships on rivers into the interiors. ❖ Europeans did not know the ethnic groups and kingdoms in Africa, leading to reorganizations into groups: the Congress of Berlin 1885 divided the 50 countries through geometric boundaries to divide African resources. Balance of Power Definition The states had relatively equal power and feared the emergence of a predominant state (hegemon) among them. This resulted in alliances to counteract any potential of more powerful factions. Concept A. Symmetrical: States will hesitate to start a war with an adversary whose power to fight and win wars is relatively balanced because the risk of defeat is high. B. Asymmetrical: Whereas if one state or coalition of states is much more powerful than its adversaries, war is more likely. Key Features Realpolitik: A pragmatic approach wherein states prioritize their national interests and security over ideological considerations. The outbreak of World War 1 demonstrated the failure of balance of power to prevent conflict, because of the rigid alliances and miscalculations that led to escalations. 11  The Breakdown: Solidification of Alliances in the Late 19th Century Key Features 1. Decline of the Concert of Europe ❖ In the late 19th century, they began to fray due to rising nationalism, imperial ambitions, and conflicting interests among states. 2. Emergence of Rigid Alliances ❖ Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy — to counterbalance the perceived threat from France and Russia ❖ Dual Alliance (1893): France and Russia — in response to the growing power of Germany and aimed to provide mutual support in case of conflict. 3. Britain’s Shift of Policy ❖ They were offshore balancer to maintain the power in Europe relatively balanced. ❖ However, this was departed by them because of the formation of alliances: 1. 1902: Naval alliance with Japan to counter Russian expansion in China. This was the first time a European state turned to an Asian one to thwart a European ally. 2. 1904: The Entente Cordiale with France, an alignment against Germany. 4. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) ❖ Japanese forces surrounded the Russian fortress at Port Arthur, however, due to the sufficient railroads, they were unable to send troops. Although they tried to send a naval flotilla from Baltic home ports, they were still captured, making it the greatest naval defeat in history. ❖ Germany discounted their ability to interfere with German ambitions in Europe. ❖ This also compromised the legitimacy of the Tsar and replaced it with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 5. Causes of World War 1 ❖ Germany was not satisfied with the solutions offered by the Congress of Berlin, and due to it being a latecomer to the core of European power, it did not receive the diplomatic recognition and status its leaders desired. ❖ The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914 triggered alliance systems and Germany encouraging Austria to crush Serbia. 12  ❖ This escalated into a continental war when Russia’s tsar ordered the premobilization of Russian forces; and German troops crossing Belgium, violating British-guaranteed Belgian neutrality, thus escalating to a world war, as Britain sided with France and Russia. ❖ Germany Schlieffen Plan: a strategy for a decisive victory in a two-front war against Russia and France was a total failure. 6. World War 1 (the Great War) ❖ The introduction of aerial bombing and unrestricted submarine warfare. ❖ Britain blocked Germany’s navy causing widespread suffering and privation — 8.5 million soldiers and 1.5 million civilians lost their lives. ❖ Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia were defeated. Britain and France were also seriously weakened. ❖ The defeat and dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire by France and Britain continue to affect interstate peace in the Middle East to this day. THE INTERWAR AND WORLD WAR 2 The Interwar Years (1918-1939) Overview This was marked by significant political, economic, and social changes in Europe and beyond. This was characterized by the rise of totalitarian regimes, economic instability, and the failure of peace efforts, leading to another global conflict. After World War 1 European empires (Russia, Austro-Hungary, and the Ottoman) broke up near the end of WW1 ❖ There was an acceleration and intensification of nationalism: Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points called for self-determination, and the right of national groups to self-rule. ❖ Technological innovations in the printing industry and a mass audience stimulated the nationalism of various groups. 13  Enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) ❖ This formally ended World War 1, making Germany pay the cost of the war through reparations. They further suffered from hyperinflation, because of the mass printing of money to pay the reparation, causing to widespread impoverishment of the middle and working classes. Failure of Peace Efforts ❖ League of Nations: The intergovernmental organization designed to prevent all future interstate wars was unsuccessful. They did not have political weight, legal instruments, or legitimacy, as the US refused to join, retreating instead to an isolationist foreign policy, nor did Russia join. ❖ The Policy of Appeasement (by Britain and France): Allowed aggressive actions by Germany and Italy to go unchecked. Rise of Totalitarian Regimes ❖ Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in 1933, promoting aggressive nationalism, militarism, and anti-Semitism. They sought to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and expand German territory. Economic Instability ❖ The global economy faced severe challenges, culminating in the Great Depression of 1929, leading to widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest. ❖ This crisis led to undermining the faith in democratic governments and contributed to the rise of extremist political movements. The Blueprint for a Peaceful International Order enshrined in Wilson’s 14 Points Failed ❖ The interwar years had visionary hopes, taking little account of reality in which liberalism and its utopian and idealist elements were replaced by realism. World War 2 (1939-1945) Overview This was a global conflict involving the majority of the world’s nations. This formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. Axis Power — Italy, Germany, and Japan The Allies — communist Russia, liberal United States, Britain, and France 14 Causes of World War 2 / Timeline 1. Treaty of Versailles (1919) ❖ The heavy reparations and losses on Germany led to resentment and economic hardship, contributing to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. 2. German Reich (Empires of Germany) ❖ Expanded through the extreme pace of rearmament for foodstuff and raw materials in the neighboring countries. This also strengthened the belief that certain racial groups were superior and others were inferior. 3. Expansionist Policies ❖ 1931 — Mukden, China Incident: A horrifying barbarity against Chinese people. ❖ 1935 — Italy attacked Ethiopia: They used yperite, a form of mustard gas banned by the Geneva Protocol. ❖ 1939 — Invasion of Poland: They were invaded by Germany, therefore prompting Britain and France to declare war, marking the official start of WW2. this was followed by organized murder of human beings (Jews, Gypsies, communists, and Germans with signs of genetic defects). ❖ 1940 — Fall of France: Germany launched blitzkrieg (lightning war) leading to the fall of Paris and the establishment of the Vichy regime. ❖ 1940 — Battle of Britain: This was marked as the first major defeat for Hitler’s military forces because the Royal Air Force defended the UK against the German Luftwaffe. ❖ 1941 — Operation Barbarossa: This led to the largest and deadliest battles, as Germany invaded the Soviet Union. ❖ 1941 — Pearl Harbor: After the US received the news about the incidents in China, Japan launched a surprise attack on the US naval base at Hawaii, making them enter the war. ❖ 1944 — D-day: Establishment of the Western Front against Germany and led to the liberation of Western Europe. ❖ 1945 — Use of Atomic Bombs: The US dropped bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to their surrender and the end of the war. This weapon was combined with the Soviet declaration of war against Japan. End of World War 2 This resulted in the establishment of the United Nations There were significant changes in political boundaries and power dynamics 15  THE COLD WAR (1945-1989) The Atlantic Charter of 1941 Planned by Britain’s Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US President Franklin Roosevelt, and Soviet Union’s Premier Joseph Stalin. Collaboration on economic issues and prepared for a permanent system of security. Origins of the Cold War Outcomes of World War 2 The Emergence of Superpowers (US & Soviet Union) ❖ They are the primary actors in the international system, resulting in the decline of Western Europe as the epicenter of international politics. Intensification of Fundamental Incompatibilities ❖ The Soviet Union befriended friendly neighbors on its western borders was vital to the country’s national interest. ❖ In the US, they have two strategies: A. Rollback Strategy — pushing the USSR back to its borders B. Containment Strategy — limiting their plan to spread Containment Policy ❖ George Kennan (X Telegram): The Soviet Union would always feel military insecurity, forcing them to conduct an aggressive foreign policy. Therefore, the containment strategy would work better as the postwar foreign policy of the US. ❖ The Truman Doctrine of 1947 was put into notion and was supported by Greece against communists and to support free peoples who were resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities. ❖ This policy uses economic pressure, espionage, and forward-deployed military resources. ❖ Although the Third Reich had surrendered and US and British forces had demobilized, the Soviet army did not — they blocked the western corridors to Berlin in 1948. Only the US had possession of atomic weapons, but they did not possess the power to make them retreat, not until August 1949, when the Soviets had successfully tested their first atomic bomb. Therefore, the strategies of the US will likely lead to another world war. 16  Major Ideological Differences ❖ The United States: They have democratic liberalism translating into support for other democratic regimes and support of liberal capitalist institutions and processes. A. Social System — accepts the worth and value of the individual B. Political System — depended on the participation of individuals in the electoral process C. Economic System — provided opportunities to pursue economic rational with minimal government interference ❖ The Soviet Union: Communist ideology influencing the country’s conception of the international system and state practices. This happened due to the failure of the Revolutions of 1848 cast Marxist theory into crisis. The problem was resolved by Vladimir Lenin through the Vanguard of the Proletariat amendment: the masses shall be led by intellectuals who fully understand Socialism. In the end, in the hope to achieve Socialism, it must be led from the top down. However, this was seen as an aggressive dictatorship by the US and its liberal allies, also the Soviets' allies (Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, and so on) have vanished. Herewith, the Soviet Union acted to strengthen its state, state organs, intelligence service, and army, to not be smashed by the capitalist environment. They will always view the other side’s policies as necessarily threatening, such as NATO and the Marshall Plan. Collapse of the Colonial System ❖ The defeat of Japan and Germany had ended their empires. Other colonial powers faced economic and political challenges and newly powerful indigenous movements for independence (revolutionary guerilla warfare). ❖ The victorious powers were forced through local resistance and pressure from the US to grant independence to their former colonies. Indirect Confrontation ❖ Both rivals realized that direct military conflict would have great risks, such as the loss of potential allies. ❖ They developed new ideologies and recast the dominant discourse of Europe in international relations. 17  The Cold War as a Series of Confrontations Definition High-level tension and competition between the superpowers but with no direct military conflict. This compromised confrontations between two blocs of states A. Non-communist bloc — US, Canada, Australia, most of Western Europe, South Korea, Japan, and the Philippine B. Communist bock — Soviet Union with Warsaw Pacts — Eastern Europe, North Korea, Vietnam, the People’s Republic of China, and Cuba However, they had a high-level and direct confrontation in the Wall of Berlin in 1949. ❖ 1949: After the WW2, Germany was divided into two zones. This blocked the land access to Berlin, prompting the US to airlift supplies for a year: A. Western — US, France, and Great Britain B. Eastern — Soviet Union ❖ 1961: East Germany erected the Berlin Wall around the West German portion of the city. US President John F. Kennedy visited Berlin and said that he was a Berliner — this made the US commit to the security of the Federal Republic of Germany. ❖ 1989: The Berlin Wall was dismantled, the iconic symbol of the end of the Cold War. Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) The advent of nuclear weapons created a deterrence stalemate that would likely destroy each power beyond the hope of recovery. COLD WAR IN ASIA YEAR NAME KEY FEATURES 1946 - China Kuomintang (non-communist Chinese nationalists) and Mao Zedong (People 1949 Liberation Army) — a civil war wherein the US supported Kuomintang with large shipments of arms and military equipment. However, Kuomintang lost and their leaders fled to the island of Taiwan. 1946 - French Viet Minh — Ho Chi Minh raised the communist flag over Hanoi, making 1954 Indochina them declare their independence; French forces fought but were defeated. (Cambodia, They made a trap in Dien Bien Phu, but they trapped themselves. Laos, and Vietnam) 18  France abandoned Indochina through a peace treaty signed in Geneva — dividing Indochina and Vietnam into two zones. 1950 - Korean War USSR with North Korea — Kim Il-Sung persuaded Joseph Stalin to lend him 1953 the tanks, heavy artillery, and combat support aircraft needed to conquer non-communist South Korea. ❖ North Koreans captured Seoul and were forced to retreat South Koreans and American armed forces to Pusan. United States with South Korea — Due to the unprovoked aggression and violations of international law, the US captured Pyongyang and destroyed its military. ❖ Harry Truman and General Douglas MacArthur ordered to finish off North Koreans encamping on the close border of Communist China. They were warned not to approach the territory, but they still did, therefore, they were attacked. US armed forces retreated in 1953, but provoked many things: A. US military bases in South Korea B. Use of demilitarized zone between South and North Korea C. North Korea attempts to become a nuclear power 1955- Vietnam Communist North Vietnam was with China and the USSR, while South 1975 Intervention Vietnam allied with the US with South Korea, the Philippines, and Thailand. The US tried to stop the communist influence throughout Southeast Asia through the containment doctrine. They ought to win, but it failed, aside from the domino effect did not occur. Consequences of the Vietnam War: ❖ The Soviet Union and China degenerated into a geostrategic fight and a struggle over the proper form of communism. ❖ Canada strongly opposes US policy toward Vietnam. ❖ The bipolar structure of the Cold War era was coming apart. ❖ The power of the US was supposed to be righteous, but in Vietnam was neither victorious nor righteous. 1967 Israel (Six-Day The establishment of Israel was supported by the US. & War) and Yom There was a confrontation by proxy between US-supported Israel and the 1973 Kippur War Soviet-backed Arab: ❖ Israel crushed the Arabs, seizing territories of the Golan Heights, Gaza, and the West Bank. ❖ Egyptians planned a limited war, but the Israelites won because of the cease-fire negotiations to lessen the damage. 19 1979 - Soviet - The US supported Mujahideen resistance fighters through military aid and 1989 Afghanistan training and to counter Soviet expansionism. COLD WAR IN AFRICA YEAR NAME KEY FEATURES 1960 - Congo Crisis After the Belgians left Congo, Congolese premier Patrice Lumumba 1963 appealed to the Soviets for help in fighting the Western-backed insurgents and receive diplomatic support and military supplies. They also dismissed President Joseph Kasavubu, an ally of the US; Moise Tshombe, leader of the copper-rich Katanga province, closely identified with Western interests. There was a three-year war, not until the UN sent peacekeepers to stabilize a transition government and prevent Congo from being a violent arena of the Cold War. COLD WAR IN LATIN AMERICA YEAR NAME KEY FEATURES 1962 Cuban Missile The Soviet Union installed nuclear missiles in Cuba, and this was seen as a Crisis threat by the US because they were located near the US shores. The US used the containment strategy: they chose to blockade Cuba, unofficial contains in Washington, and direct communication between Kennedy and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev where they agreed to remove the missiles in Cuba and Turkey. 1973 Establishment The US supported authoritarian and anti-communist regimes through of Augusto military coups, such as the aim to overthrow Chile’s President Salvador Pinochet's Allende. dictatorship 1979 Contras in Sandinista communists captured the government from Ronald Reagan's Nicaragua dictatorship administration to reverse the communist foothold in Latin America. 20  Was the Cold War Cold? Wars with no act from the other side 1. Soviet invasion in Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), and Afghanistan (1979) 2. United States preoccupied the Suez Canal (1956) 3. United States mired in the Vietnam War 4. United States invaded Grenada (1983) and Panama (1989) Diplomatic Engagements Summits and Treaties: Meetings between leaders to address issues and reduce hostilities, such as the Glassboro Summit. Detente: In the 1970s, easing tensions efforts through the arms control agreement (SALT) aimed to limit the number of nuclear weapons. THE IMMEDIATE POST-COLD WAR ERA End of the Cold War Glasnost (Political Openness) This and the video cassette player (new technology) made it possible for the Soviets to compare their living standards with those of their Western counterparts — the comparison opened criticism of the political system, the emergence of a multiparty system, and the massive reorientation of the Communist Party. Perestroika (Economic Restructuring) Undermines the foundation of the planned economy, an essential part of the communist system. Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet premier, sought to save the system, but the reforms led to the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, his resignation, and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev’s Domestic Reforms 1. Orientation of Soviet foreign policy 2. UN Security Council as the Guarantor of Regional Security ❖ Soviet troops withdrew from Afghanistan in 1988. ❖ Soviets withdrew Cuban troops from Angola in 1988. 21  ❖ Retreated from international commitments near its borders and others. 3. Agreed to cooperate in multilateral activities to preserve regional security Iraq’s Invasion and Annexation of Kuwait, August 1990 Russia and the other four members of the UN Security Control agreed to implement economic sanctions against Iraq. They also agreed to support the means to restore the status quo; and to oust Iraq from Kuwait with a multinational military force. They sent the UN Iraq-Kuwait Observer Mission to monitor the zone and permitted the UN to undertake humanitarian intervention. Challenges in the Post-Cold War Era 1. The US military and economic power proved insufficient to deter or prevent ethnic conflict, civil wars, and human rights abuses from occurring. 2. Terrorism, cyber security, and the global financial crisis of 2008 3. The US became the primary and second civil and ethnic strife: A. Yugoslavia’s violent disintegration B. Ethnic tension and violence as genocide in Rwanda and Burundi Explaining the End of the Cold War: A View from the Former Soviet Union 1. Political dominance and authority of the Communist Party had eroded in the late 1980s 2. Revelation of Joseph Stalin’s horrific crimes against their citizens 3. Republics and subnational regions held grudge against the central government for forced Russification, resettlement of certain minorities, and other atrocities. 4. Open discussion of events undermining the ideological fervor of the common population. 5. Stagnant economy, technology, and agriculture spheres, because of political appointees staying in their posts for 20 or more years, regardless of their performance. 6. Due to growing economic discontent and erosion of the ideology, ethnically diverse states made it harder to keep the empire. Russia became the first to declare independence and affirm sovereignty in 1991 The de facto dissolution of the Soviet Union marked an important chapter in the history of the Cold War. 22  The New Millennium: The First Two Decades Terrorism Al Qaeda against New York City and Washington, September 11, 2001 ❖ This invoked Article 5 of the NATO Charter: An attack on one NATO member is an attack on all. ❖ This war on terrorism combines many elements into multiple campaigns in different countries. ❖ In October 2001, the US launched a war in Afghanistan ousting the Taliban regime that provided a safe haven to the Al Qaeda organization and a base where it planned, organized, and trained operatives to carry out the campaign against the US and its allies. Operation Enduring Freedom ❖ Iraq to maintain a clandestine weapons of mass destruction program ❖ Posed a continued threat by backing terrorist organizations through building support in the UN for authorization to remove Saddam Hussein forcibly from power and find the hidden WMD. ❖ However, the UN refused this request, and so the US formed a coalition with Great Britain, destroying the Iraqi military and throwing their government in 2003. There were no weapons of mass destruction, but proofs of invasions — Kurds, Sunni Arabs, and Shia Arabs — in a single state. ❖ The US withdrew in 2011, but Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon are now facing a new and barbarous group — Islamic State. Massive Social protest in Tunisia, December 2010 ❖ This was held by a single man against the cruelty and corruption of the long-standing dictator, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali. he was soon overthrown and fled to exile in Saudi Arabia in January 2011. Egypt Mass Murder of Protestors ❖ Hosni Mubarak chose to mass murder them, not until their military refused to kill protestors, forcing him to step down. Muammar Qaddafi in Libya ❖ He was forced from power by a rebellion supported by France and the US. He was later captured and murdered by his captors. 23  Arab Spring of 2011 ❖ Widespread social protests have led due to Bashar al Assa’s staying in power and Bahrain, leading to the killings of 70,000 citizens of Syria and massive refugee crises. ❖ Democracy was elusive in Egypt, due to the election of Muhammad Morsi and his ouster by the Egyptian military, and now a provincial government run. A. Lies to the claims of radical and militant Islamists that only Islamic revolution, terrorist attacks on the West, and the re-establishment of strict Islamic Law could Arab dictators be overthrown. B. The resistance power of young people armed with mobile phones, courage, and conviction. Recent Developments 1. China Peaceful Rise ❖ 2003: they have been growing in terms of economy, military, and diplomatic power without provoking fear and insecurity in their neighbors. ❖ 2014: China’s military power has been expanding, following the budget of the US. ❖ 2014: They practiced dredging large quantities of sand onto fragile coral reefs in the disputed waters of the Spratly Islands, a resource for Vietnam, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Malaysia. ❖ These acts did not align with their peaceful rise, thus the US Navy sent a guided missile destroyer (USS Lassen) to one of their artificial islands to protest, and the tension continued to rise. 2. Russian Federation invading Ukraine and Annexation of Crimea ❖ This was taken by Russian soldiers, their special forces, wearing uniforms without insignia (hybrid warfare). ❖ There was no violation of international law, but the precedent of this action is the most dangerous, because of the Sudeten Germans in 1938 (The citizens were physically threatened when their legitimate government had fallen in a coup). NATO members were afraid that Russia was using similar tactics to bring down their governments and annex large portions of their territories. 3. European Union’s Most Reliable Engine of Economic Growth & Productivity - Germany ❖ EU members have proved unable to repay or refinance their government debt, this led to serious political tensions between Germany and the northern tier of Eurozone states. 24  ❖ The wealthier nations have come under pressure to forgive the debt, but the debtors claim that the causes would destroy the Union and the relative peace of the Europeans. 4. Weakening of Powerful Dictators in the Arab Spring leading to the rise of Islamic State ❖ The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria or the Levant, has affected Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, and even Europe with many refugees. ❖ They have gained and maintained large swathes of territories and have destroyed cultural heritage sites in territories through naked brutality and religious conservatism. Why Can’t a Powerful State like Japan Use Armed Force Abroad? Article 9: Prohibition against the use of Japanese armed forces abroad, except for humanitarian operations. It was because of their brutal conduct in wartime occupation as a national or race, rather than as bad leadership, such as the Rape of Nanking. IN SUM: LEARNING FROM HISTORY Whether the world develops into a multipolar, unipolar, or bipolar system depends in part on by looking at the trends of the past and how they influence contemporary thinking. 25