AP Government Review Packet PDF

AP  Government  Study  Guide     Unit  One:  Constitutional  Underpinnings   Fundamental  Principles  of  Democracy     Direct  Democracy  –  citizens  meet  and  vote  directly  on  government  decisions     Representative  Democracy...

AP  Government  Study  Guide     Unit  One:  Constitutional  Underpinnings   Fundamental  Principles  of  Democracy     Direct  Democracy  –  citizens  meet  and  vote  directly  on  government  decisions     Representative  Democracy  (Republic)  –  citizens  choose  officials  who  make   decisions  on  government  policy   Magna  Carta  (1215)  –  the  first  ever  attempt  to  limit  the  power  of  the  British   King,  guaranteed  all  people  certain  rights   Enlightenment  Philosophers  –Locke  and  Rousseau   o Social  Contract  Theory  –  principle  that  people  enter  into  a  social  contract   with  the  government  and  allow  to  be  ruled     o Consent  of  the  Governed  –  principle  that  there  are  no  supreme  rulers,  all   rulers  depend  on  the  approval  of  the  people,  when  governments  fail  to   protect  rights  the  people  have  the  right  to  change  the  government   o Natural  Rights  –  principle  that  all  people  are  born  with  certain  rights:  life,   liberty,  and  property  (Jefferson  changes  property  into  pursuit  of   happiness     Declaration  of  Independence  –  Thomas  Jefferson’s  document  built  on  principles   of  “life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness”  consent  of  the  governed,  and  social   contract  theory.  It  also  justified  American  revolution  against  England   Common  Good  –  Belief  in  doing  what’s  best  for  the  nation  overall   Popular  Sovereignty  –  Belief  that  the  ultimate  authority  rests  with  the  people   Majority  Rule  –  Belief  that  government  is  run  based  on  the  will  of  the  majority   The  First  Government  –  Articles  of  Confederation   Weak  association  of  states  (states  very  independent)   No  central  executive  power   No  federal  power  to  tax  citizens  directly   Federal  government  could  raise  an  army,  (but  not  pay  for  it),  print  money,   declare  war,  and  run  the  post  office   9  out  of  13  states  were  required  to  vote  to  pass  a  law   With  no  strong  central  government  supervision,  states  could  get  away  with   taxing  and  printing  money,  and  making  foreign  treaties,     Shays’  Rebellion  –  Farmer  rebellion  in  Massachusetts  1786-­‐1787  protesting   mortgage  foreclosures  and  terrible  economy.    Rebellion  represented  how  weak   the  central  government  was,  and  terrified  many  Americans     Constitutional  Debate   Constitutional  Convention  meets  in  Philadelphia,  1787  to  write  new  constitution   All  delegates  supported  Representative  Democracy  (Republic)  –  democracy   where  people  elect  representatives  who  pass  laws   Supported  three  branches  –  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial   1  Serious  debate  between  Federalists  vs.  Anti-­‐Federalists,  North  vs.  South,  Big   States  vs.  Small  States  over  new  government     North-­‐South  Compromises  –  3/5  Compromise  counted  slaves  as  3/5  of  a  person   to  give  the  south  more  representatives   Connecticut  Compromise  –  (Bicameralism)  –  Established  two  equal  bodies   (House  of  Representatives  and  Senate)  one  based  on  population,  one  giving  all   states  equal  representation.    This  was  a  compromise  between  big  states  (Virginia   Plan)  and  small  states  (New  Jersey  Plan)  over  the  format  of  the  Congress   Federalists  (Hamilton,  Madison)  supported  the  Constitution  because  it  gave   power  to  a  strong  central  government.  Anti-­‐federalists  opposed  the  constitution   because  they  thought  the  national  government  would  become  tyrannical  and   take  power  away  from  the  states   Federalist  Papers  –  articles  written  by  Madison,  Hamilton,  and  Jay  arguing  for   the  constitution   o Federalist  Paper  #10  –  written  by  Madison,  discusses  importance  of   factions,  factions  are  inevitable,  but  factions  are  best  handled  by  a  large   republic.   o Federalist  Paper  #51  –  written  by  Madison,  discusses  importance  of   checks  and  balances  and  the  separation  of  powers  in  the  constitution   Weaknesses  in  the  Articles  of   How  the  Constitution  Fixed  these   Confederation   Problems   Congress  could  not  tax,  it  relied  on   National  government  had  power  to  tax   contributions  from  states   directly   Congress  couldn’t  regulate  interstate   Interstate  Commerce  Clause  gives   trade   Congress  interstate  regulatory  power   No  chief  executive  to  enforce  the  law   Article  II  creates  president  who  enforces   the  law   No  national  judiciary  to  handle  state   Article  III  creates  Supreme  Court     fights   Each  state  was  given  only  one  vote   Bicameral  legislature  represents  states   both  by  population,  and  equality   The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America   Article  I  –Legislative  Branch   Article  II  –Executive  Branch   Article  III  –Judicial  Branch   Article  IV  –  Interstate  relations   Article  V  –  Amendment  process     Separation  of  Powers  –  Each  of  the  three  branches  has  its  own  power  and   independence   1. Legislative  Branch  –  Passes  laws   2. Executive  Branch  –  Executes  laws   3. Judicial  Branch  –  Interprets  laws  (this  power  comes  from  Supreme   Court  Case  Marbury  vs.  Madison  –  set  dogma  of  judicial  review,   2  where  the  Supreme  Court  may  rule  an  act  of  the  President  or   Congress  unconstitutional)   Checks  and  Balances  –  Each  branch  has  some  power  over  the  others,  but  retains   independence:   Legislative   Executive   Judicial   Approves  budget   Can  propose  laws   Interprets  laws   Passes  laws     Can  veto  laws   Can  declare   Can  override  veto   Can  call  special   executive  acts  and   Can  impeach   sessions  of  congress   legislative  laws   president,  judges   Can  appeal  to  public   unconstitutional   Approves   Appoints  officials   appointments  and   and  judges   treaties   Can  pardon   Confirms  judges  and   convicted  felons   cabinet   appointments   Federalism  –  Separation  between  powers  of  the  Federal,  State,  and  Local   governments   Confederacy  –  System  of  government  in  which  the  central  government  is  very   weak,  and  most  of  the  true  power  lies  in  individual  states   Unitary  System  –  System  of  government  in  which  the  central  government  is   extremely  powerful,  and  individual  states  have  few  powers   Dual  Federalism,  aka  “Layer  Cake”  Federalism  (1789-­‐1932)  –  Belief  that  the  state   and  national  governments  are  supreme  within  their  own  sphere  of  influence   Cooperative  Federalism,  aka  “Marble  Cake”  Federalism  –  sharing  powers   between  state  and  federal  governments   Fiscal  Federalism  –  government’s  patterns  of  spending,  taxing,  and  providing   grants  to  influence  state  and  local  governments   o Grants-­‐in-­‐aid  –  money  given  from  the  federal  government  to  the  states   o Categorical  grants  –  federal  grants  for  specific  purposes  (building  an   airport)   o Block  grants  –  broad  grants  from  the  federal  government  that  give   local/state  governments  a  lot  of  freedom  to  spend  money  as  they  please   without  many  strings  attached.    The  Welfare  Reform  Act  of  1996  began   transferring  more  authority  back  to  the  states  through  block  grants     o Revenue  sharing  –  federal  sharing  of  a  fixed  percentage  of  its  revenue   with  the  states   o Mandates  –  terms  set  by  the  federal  government  that  states  must  meet   if  they  accept  federal  grants   Devolution  –  process  of  returning  power  to  the  states,  this  began  during  New   Federalism  under  presidents  Nixon,  Reagan,  and  Bush   Federal  Powers  –  Express,  Implied,  and  Inherent  powers  :   3  1. Express  powers  –  powers  listed  (enumerated)  in  the  constitution  for   the  Federal  government:  go  to  war,  raise  an  army,  regulate  interstate   and  foreign  commerce,  establish  post  offices   2. Implied  powers  –  Based  on  necessary  and  proper  clause  (elastic   clause)  –  gives  congress  flexibility  to  make  laws  necessary  and  proper   for  carrying  out  express  powers,  upheld  in  McCulloch  v.  Maryland   3. Inherent  powers  –  powers  dealing  with  foreign  policy  not  in   constitution,  but  given  to  federal  government   Federal  Powers   Federal  and  State  Powers   State  Powers  (Reserved)   (Expressed,  Implied,   (Concurrent)     Inherent)   Regulate  interstate   Levy  taxes   Regulate  intrastate   commerce   Spend  for  general   commerce   Coin/print  money   welfare   Establish  local   Provide  army   Enact  and  enforce   governments   Declare  war   laws   Establish  public   Establish  federal     schools   courts   Administer   Set  foreign  policy   elections   Make  all  laws   Establish  licensing   “necessary  and   requirements     proper”       Denied  Powers  –  Powers  explicitly  denied  to  government:   o suspending  writ  of  habeas  corpus  (being  imprisoned  without  formal   accusation)   o passing  bills  of  attainder:  laws  that  declare  a  person  to  be  guilty   o ex  post  facto  laws:  “after  the  fact,”  laws  that  make  an  act  illegal  after  it   was  performed   Concurrent  Powers  (shared  by  Federal  and  State  governments)  –  power  to  tax   and  spend,  establish  courts,  make  laws   Reserved  to  States  (10th  amendment)  –  any  power  not  denied  nor  given  to   federal  government  is  reserved  for  state  governments  (create  local   governments)   Supremacy  Clause  –  Federal  law  is  superior  to  state  law.  This  came  out  of  the   court  case  McCulloch  vs.  Maryland,  in  which  there  was  debate  as  to  whether  or   not  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  had  to  pay  Maryland  state  taxes.    The  Supreme   Court  ruled  that  because  the  Bank  of  the  US  was  NATIONAL  it  did  not  have  to   follow  Maryland  STATE  law.    This  ruling  overturned  the  idea  of  nullification  by   which  states  could  override  federal  law   Interstate  Commerce  Clause  –  Gives  Federal  Government  authority  to  regulate   all  of  interstate  commerce.    This  clause  gives  the  federal  government  authority   4  to  regulate  businesses  that  go  between  state  lines,  and  justifies  many  federal   laws  (Civil  Rights  Act)   Take  Care  Clause  –  president  must  enforce  ALL  laws  passed  by  congress     Full  Faith  and  Credit  –  states  must  honor  laws  and  court  rulings  of  other  states   Privileges  and  Immunities  –  requires  states  to  extend  same  privileges  and   immunities  to  all  citizens  (even  of  other  states)   Bill  of  Rights  –  First  10  amendments  to  the  Constitution  that  guarantees   individual  and  states’  rights.    This  was  a  concession  the  federalists  made  to  the   anti-­‐federalists  to  ensure  constitution  would  be  ratified   o Amendment  1  –    freedom  of  speech,  assembly,  petition,  religion,  press   o Amendment  2  –    right  to  bear  arms   o Amendment  4  –  no  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures   o Amendment  5  –  right  to  a  trial,  no  double  jeopardy,  individuals  are  not   required  to  testify  against  themselves   o Amendment  6  –  right  to  a  speedy,  public,  and  impartial  trial  with  lawyer   o Amendment  8  –  no  excessive  bails  or  fines,  no  cruel  and  unusual  policies   o Amendment  10  –  powers  not  given  to  the  federal  government  or  denied   of  the  states  are  reserved  to  the  states  (states  rights)   How  to  Amend  the  Constitution   1. 2/3  of  congress  propose  amendmentà3/4  of  states  ratify  it   2. State  convention  called  by  2/3  of  states  propose  amendmentsà3/4  of   states  ratify  (this  method  has  only  been  used  once,  21st  amendment)   Unit  Two:  Political  Culture,  Beliefs,  and  Behaviors   Alexis  de  Tocqueville  –  Frenchmen  who  visited  America  in  the  1800's  and   described  the  young  democracy  he  saw   Political  Culture  –  a  coherent  way  of  thinking  about  how  politics  and  the   government  ought  to  be  carried  out   o Americans  tend  to  support  free  enterprise  with  some  limits   o Americans  tend  to  be  committed  to  individual  responsibility  and   economic  individualism   o Americans  believe  strongly  in  equality  of  opportunity,  NOT  result   o Americans  tend  to  be  particularly  patriotic  and  aware  of  their  rights   o Religion  tends  to  play  a  very  influential  role  in  determining  an   individual’s  political  views   Political  Socialization  –  manner  in  which  people  develop  their  political  views   (family,  friends,  media,  current  government,  education)   Ideologies     1. Liberal  –  large  federal  government  involvement  needed  to  provide  for  the   people  (welfare,  new  deal,  great  society)   2. Socialist  –  belief  in  an  extremely  powerful  state  to  protect  people   3. Conservative  –  belief  that  limited  government  is  necessary  to  grow  strong   economy,  very  pro-­‐business  anti-­‐regulation   5  4. Libertarianism  –  belief  in  very  small  government  and  extreme  focus  on   individual  and  business  rights,  no  regulation  of  industry   People  may  be  liberals/conservatives  either  economically  or  socially.     Demographics  –  characteristics  of  population  on  income,  education,  race,   gender   Demographics  trends  –  changes  in  the  way  people  of  a  certain  socio-­‐economic   background  vote  (politicians  follow  these  very  closely)   o Who  votes?  Whites  vote  more  than  blacks.  Rich  vote  more  than  poor.   Women  vote  more  than  men.  Old  vote  more  than  young.  Educated   vote  more  than  uneducated.   o Women,  blacks,  Hispanics,  young  people,  blue  collar  workers  vote   liberal.  Men,  wealthy  whites,  religious  people,  rural  people  vote   conservative   The  Census  –  Every  10  years  a  count  of  the  total  population,  different  ethnic   groups,  religions,  and  how  people  vote   Redistricting  –  after  every  census  the  congressional  districts  are  redrawn  based   on  population   Reapportionment  –  state  legislatures  reapportion  (resize)  state  congressional   districts  after  every  census   Gerrymandering  –  The  practice  of  redistricting  in  order  to  benefit  a  specific  party   by  drawing  districts  based  on  the  demo  of  their  residents  (Baker  v.  Carr  and   Shaw  v.  Reno  were  court  cases  in  which  the  supreme  court  ruled  that   gerrymandering  was  unconstitutional)   Voting  Behavior  –  Since  1960  voting  turnout  has  greatly  decreased  because  of   the  very  difficult  process  of  voter  registration.    People  vote  because  of  the  party   of  the  candidate,  on  basis  of  candidate,  and  on  basis  of  issues   Party  Identification  –  when  people  identify  with  a  political  party  based  on  issues   Political  Efficacy  –  belief  that  you  can  participate  in  politics,  or  that  government   will  respond  (my  vote  counts)   Civic  Duty  –  belief  that  one  has  an  obligation  to  participate  in  civic  and  political   affairs     Types  of  Elections   General  elections  –  held  every  four  years  in  which  president  is  elected   Primary  elections  –  a  political  party’s  elections  to  determine  nominee  for   general  election   1. Open  primaries  –  people  from  either  party  can  vote  (must  choose  to   vote  for  either  democrats  or  republicans)   2. Closed  primaries  –  people  can  only  vote  if  they  are  a  registered   member  of  the  party   Caucuses  –  candidate  nomination  process  in  which  party  members  meet  to   discuss  and  decide  on  candidate   Many  people  think  primary  season  is  too  long,  and  we  should  have  one  national   primary,  or  a  much  shorter  season   6 Changes  to  System  of  Checks  and  Balances   Referendum  –  people  vote  on  whether  or  not  to  accept  a  law  passed  by  state   legislature,  or  a  proposed  amendment  to  the  state  constitution   Initiative  –  people  vote  on  laws  and  constitutional  amendments  within  state   (direct  democracy)   Recall  –  voters  remove  elected  officials   Unit  Three:  Political  Parties,  Interest  Groups,  and  Mass  Media   Linkage  Organizations  –  organizations  that  link  the  people  with  government   Political  Parties   Congressional  elections  use  winner-­‐take-­‐all  systems  in  which  the  winner  of  a   plurality  wins  (single-­‐member  district)   Because  of  the  winner-­‐take-­‐all  system,  we  have  a  two  party  system   Third  parties  –  represent  specific  ideological  positions,  sometimes  can  serve  as   “spoilers”  but  rarely  make  much  of  an  impact   Parties  help  organize  the  government,  organize  election  process,  fundraise,  hold   national  convention  and  form  party  platform,  educate  voters,  and  get  out  the   vote   Before  primary  system,  party  leaders  actually  chose  the  candidates   Parties  are  expected  to  be  “loyal  opposition”  when  other  party  is  in  power   Typically  we  have  Divided  Government  –  one  party  controls  white  house,  other   controls  congress   Parties  have  a  national  leadership,  but  local  chapters  have  a  lot  of  power   Realignment  –  major  change  in  the  core  members/beliefs  of  a  political  party-­‐   either  one  major  party  is  replaced  by  another,  or  the  two  major  parties   completely  change  viewpoints   Dealignment  –  when  people  abandon  parties  and  become  independents     Party  activists  promote  certain  policies,  candidates,  and  ideologies   Elections   Presidents  are  elected  by  the  electoral  college   The  US  public  does  not  vote  directly  for  the  president,  instead  they  vote  in   statewide  elections  for  electors.    These  electors  then  vote  directly  for  the   president  and  vice  president   States  have  electoral  votes  equal  to  number  of  senators  +  number  of   representatives   If  candidate  wins  the  plurality  of  popular  vote  in  state  he  gets  all  the  electoral   votes  (two  exceptions  –  Maine,  Nebraska)   Majority  of  total  electoral  votes  is  needed  to  become  president,  if  no  candidate   has  a  majority,  the  house  votes   It  is  possible  to  win  popular  vote  but  lose  electoral  vote  (Gore)   Many  people  suggest  using  a  popular  vote  to  decide  president,  or  using  the   proportional  system  used  by  Maine  and  Nebraska   In  senate  elections,  total  state  votes  for  2  senators   7  In  house  elections,  each  district  has  a  single  representative,  and  the  candidate   with  a    plurality  winsà2  party  system  (its  harder  for  3rd  parties  to  get   represented)   Throughout  American  history  there  have  been  many  changes  to  who  can  vote:   o Elimination  of  race  requirement  (15th  amendment)   o Direct  election  of  senators  (17th  amendment)   o Women  allowed  to  vote    (19th  amendment)   o Elimination  of  laws  that  discriminated  against  blacks  from  various  civil   rights  acts  like  the  voting  rights  act  (grandfather  clause,  literacy  tests,   white  primaries)   o Allowing  DC  residents  to  vote  (23rd  amendment)   o Elimination  of  poll  tax  (24th  amendment)   o Lowering  voting  age  to  18  (26th  amendment)   Influencing  Elections   Interest  Group  –  a  collection  of  people  who  share  a  common  interest  or  attitude,   and  seek  to  influence  government.    These  groups  use  fundraising  and  lobbying  to   influence  the  political  process.    Interest  groups  can  be  unions,  government   groups,  businesses,  think-­‐tanks,  or  ideological  groups   Political  Action  Committees  (PACs)  –  form  financial  branch  of  interest  groups   (donate  to  candidates)   Iron  triangle  –  close  relationship  between  interest  groups,  congress,  and   agencies   Revolving  door  –  government  officials  often  retire  and  move  on  to  work  as   lobbyists  for  interest  groups   Lobbying  –  activities  aimed  at  influencing  public  officials  (legislators)  and  trying   to  promote  or  defeat  certain  legislation.    Lobbying  often  comes  in  the  form  of   supplying  data  to  government  officials  to  convince  them  to  vote  a  certain  way   Interest  groups  often  appeal  to  public  opinion  by  issuing  television  and  radio   ads,  or  sending  out  newsletters   The  Media   The  Media  is  referred  to  as  the  4th  estate  (branch)  of  government  because  of  its   huge  impact   Media  is  a  business,  driven  by  profit,  so  media  is  often  bias   Media  Bias  –  the  media  has  a  tendency  to  spin  the  news  towards  a  certain   political  ideology   Selective  perception  –  people  hear  what  they  want  to  hear   Selective  exposure  –  people  avoid  listening  to  media  with  other  viewpoints   Horserace  Journalism  –  Journalists  cover  elections  like  a  horserace,  focusing   almost  exclusively  on  the  candidate  who  is  doing  well  at  that  particular  moment   Campaign  Finance  Reform  (As  of  the  Citizens  United  vs.  FEC  case  none  of  the  following   information  is  accurate,  but  this  is  the  information  you  are  responsible  to  know  for  the   AP  exam)   8  Originally  individuals  could  donate  infinite  sums  of  money  to  candidates  (bribing   them)   Candidates  could  spend  infinite  amounts  of  hard  money     Federal  Election  Campaign  Act   1. Set  limits  on  individual  contributions  to  candidates   2. Limited  how  much  money  is  spent  by  candidates  (later  ruled   unconstitutional  in  Buckley  v.  Valeo)   3. Individuals  must  disclose  contributions   4. Set  up  option  to  use  public  financing  of  presidential  funds   Interest  groups  and  individuals  got  around  FECA  by  donating  to  parties  (soft   money)   McCain-­‐Feingold  Act   1. Limited  soft  money   2. Still  allowed  PACs  and  interest  groups  to  spend  infinite  amounts  of   money  on  issue  advocacy   Political  Action  Committees  (PACs)  –  Financial  branch  of  an  interest  group  (the   part  of  the  business  that  donates  money)   527  Groups  –  Tax  exempt  organization  created  to  influence  the   nomination/election  of  a  candidate   Currently,  groups  are  free  to  spend  infinite  amounts  of  money  on  issue   advocacy,  as  long  as  they  do  not  say  the  name  of  a  specific  candidate   Proposed  Campaign  Financing  Reforms   Public  Financing   Limit  expenditures   Free  TV  ads   Shorten  Campaign  Season   Unit  Four:  Institutions:  Presidency  and  Congress   Congress   Congress  has  two  bodies,  the  House  and  the  Senate,  in  order  for  a  bill  to  pass  it   must  be  passed  by  both  houses   After  a  congressmen  proposes  a  bill,  the  Speaker  (in  the  house)  or  the  Majority   leader  (Senate)  gives  that  bill  to  a  committee,  which  gives  it  to  a  subcommittee   Congress  holds  hearings  to  oversee  the  executive   Incumbents  have  great  chances  of  wining  reelection   Has  power  to  create  executive  agencies  (for  example  the  clean  air  and  water  act   established  the  EPA)   Authorizes  and  appropriates  money  for  the  executive   Approves  the  budget   How  they  Vote   Sometimes  politicians  “trade”  votes,  a  process  known  as  logrolling   Politicians  like  to  add  on  extra,  unrelated  programs  to  bills  that  will  benefit  their   constituents,  these  additions  are  known  as  pork  barrel  spending   The  House  of  Representatives   9  The  house  is  regarded  as  the  “lower  house”   States  are  given  representatives  based  on  population   Impeaches  members  of  executive,  judicial   Representatives  serve  two  year  terms   Each  rep.  represents  a  certain  congressional  district   The  House  has  a  Rules  Committee  –  determines  whether  bills  have  closed  rule   (no  amendments,  time  limit  on  debate)  or  open  rule  (open  to  relevant,  germane   amendments,  no  time  limit)   The  Leader  of  the  House  is  the  Speaker  of  the  House  who  assigns  people  to  a   committee  that  assigns  people  to  committees,  directs  floor  debate,  and  gives   bills  to  appropriate  committee   Senate   Senate  is  considered  the  “upper  house”  –  older  and  wiser   Each  state  has  two  senators  (equal  representation)   Tries  impeached  members  of  executive,  judicial   Senators  serve  six  year  terms   The  senate  has  the  responsibility  of  confirming  presidential  appointments  and   nominees,  ratifying  treaties,  and  confirming  the  budget   There  is  no  rules  committee,  debate  is  always  unlimited   Because  debate  is  unlimited,  the  minority  party  can  filibuster  –  kill  a  bill  by   continuing  to  talk   To  end  debate  and  a  filibuster,  cloture  (a  vote  by  3/5  of  the  senate)  is  required   Senate  can  also  add  riders  (irrelevant  amendments)  to  bills   Committees   Most  work  is  done  in  committees  (especially  in  house)   Most  bills  DIE  in  committee     Committee  Type   Description   House  Examples   Senate  Examples   Standing  Committee   Permanent  panel   Appropriations  –   Armed  Services  –   with  full  legislative   sets  specific   oversees  military   functions  and   expenditure  for  the   and  Defense   oversight   federal  government   Foreign  Relations  –   responsibilities.  The   Rules  –  determines   provides  foreign   members  become   under  what  rules   policy  leadership   experts   bill  comes  to  floor     Subcommittee   Formed  to  tackle   Livestock,  Dairy,   Health  Care   specific  tasks  within   and  Poultry   Subcommittee   standing  committee   (subcommittee  of   (subcommittee  of   agriculture)   finance  committee)   Select  or  Special   Temporary  groups   House  Watergate   Select  committee   Committee   with  limited   Committee   on  Ethics   purposes   (investigation)   10 Joint  Committee   Includes  members   Joint  Economic   Joint  Economic   of  both  houses  to   Committee   Committee   perform   housekeeping  tasks   of  studies   Conference   Special  type  of  joint   Conference   Conference   Committee   committee  that   committees  formed   committees  formed   reconciles  senate   as  needed   as  needed   and  house  versions   of  a  bill   President   Requirements  for  office   1. Natural  born  citizen   2. At  least  35  years  old   3. Resident  of  America  for  at  least  14  years   Powers  as  Commander  in  Chief  (civilian  power  over  military)   1. Head  of  Army  and  Navy   2. Head  of  National  Guard   Powers  as  Chief  Executive  of  Government   1. “Faithfully  execute”  the  laws   2. require  opinions  of  heads  of  agencies   3. grant  pardons  except  in  cases  of  impeachment   4. nominate  judges  to  federal  courts  and  nominate  cabinet  (confirmed   by  senate)   5. call  for  special  session  of  congress   Powers  in  Foreign  Affairs   1. appoint  ambassadors   2. make  treaties  (to  be  confirmed  by  senate)   3. send  troops  anywhere  in  the  world  if  Congress  authorizes  it  or  during   national  emergency  (War  Powers  Act)    The  president  has  48  hours  to   justify  in  writing  to  congress  why  troops  were  sent,  and  60  days   before  he  must  withdraw  troops  (unless  congress  extends  time)   Legislative  Powers   1. Give  State  of  the  Union  address  to  Congress  to  push  his  agenda   2. recommend  and  suggest  bills  for  congress   3. call  special  sessions  of  congress   4. veto  bill  (can  be  overturned  by  2/3  of  congress)   5. pocket  veto  –  not  signing  a  bill  within  10  days  and  having  Congress   adjourn     Cabinet  –  president  picks  (senate  confirms)  the  heads  of  the  15  most  important   agencies,  these  agencies  help  execute  the  law   1. Department  of  Defense,  Department  of  State,  Department  of   Treasury…   11  2. Office  of  Management  and  Budget  –  writes  budget  (must  be   confirmed  by  the  senate)   Council  of  economic  advisers  –  part  of  executive  office,  help  advise  the   president  on  economic  issues   Informal  Powers  of  the  President   1. Executive  orders  –  orders  written  by  president  or  agency  that  have   the  weight  of  law.    There  are  several  ways  to  undo  executive  orders:   president  can  rescind  it,  next  president  can  rescind  it,  the  supreme   court  can  rule  it  unconstitutional   2. Executive  privilege  –  right  of  president  to  keep  certain  documents   private  if  pertaining  to  national  security  (in  USA  vs.  Nixon  the   supreme  court  ruled  that  executive  privilege  is  NOT  unlimited)   3. Agenda  Setting  –  president  sets  out  the  legislation  he  wants  passed   (he  uses  his  bully  pulpit)   4. Impoundment  –  ability  to  refuse  to  spend  money  appropriated  by   congress  (this  was  ruled  unconstitutional)   Unit  Five:  The  Bureaucracy     Bureaucracy  –  administrative  system  that  divides  work  into  specific  departments   carried  out  by  non-­‐elected  officials     The  bureaucracy  remains  politically  neutral  through  the  Hatch  Act,  which  bats   bureaucrats  from  running  for  public  office,  making  political  speeches,  or   soliciting  campaign  funds  from  subordinates   The  bureaucracy  has  grown  tremendously  over  the  past  100  years,  taking  on   more  and  more  responsibilities   Currently  it  employs  4  million  people,  2.8  are  civil  servants,  the  rest  are  military     Many  other  people  are  indirectly  employed  by  the  federal  government   The  biggest  department  is  the  Department  of  Defense   Over  time,  the  bureaucracy  has  increased  its  discretionary  authority  –  its  power   to  choose  course  of  action  and  make  policies  not  explicitly  spelled  out  by  laws   Many  federal  officials  belong  to  the  competitive  civil  service  –  government   offices  to  which  people  are  appointed  on  the  basis  of  merit  (by  taking  an  exam);   this  ended  the  “spoils  system”  where  government  jobs  were  given  in  exchange   for  political  support;  managed  by  the  Office  of  Personnel  Management  (OPM)   It  is  very  difficult  to  fire  a  bureaucrat   At  the  higher  levels  there  are  more  whites  than  African  Americans,  and  there  are   more  men  than  women   Often  many  departments  are  responsible  for  similar  tasks,  there  are  many   procedures  bureaucrats  must  go  through  to  do  anything   Red  Tape  –  complex  rules  and  procedures  that  must  be  followed  to  get  stuff   done   Many  people  are  critical  of  the  large  amounts  of  waste  (pork)  in  the  bureaucracy   Iron  Triangle:  informal  alliances  that  work  together  to  formulate  and  implement   policy  in  their  area  of  interest;  they  are  made  up  of:   12  1)  particular  industry  and  its  lobbyists   2)  the  congressional  committee  dealing  with  that  industry   3)  the  agency  that  is  actually  affected   Alliance  (or  issue)  network:  coalitions  of  interest  groups,  members  of  Congress,   and  bureaucrats  form  a  close  working  relationship  (more  complicated  than  a   simple  iron  triangle)   Deregulation:  removing  government  restrictions  and  regulations;  deregulation   has  occurred  recently  in  the  telecommunications  and  transportation  industries   The  bureaucracy  has  3  main  roles:   1. Implementation  –  carry  out  laws,  executive  orders  (homeland  security   enforces  airport  security  laws)   2. Administration  –  routine  administrative  work  (social  security   administration  sends  out  social  security  checks,  postal  service  delivers   mail)   3. Regulation  –  issue  rules  and  regulations  that  impact  the  public  (EPA  sets   out  standards  for  clean  air  and  water)   The  Structure  of  the  Bureaucracy   Component     Characteristics   Examples   Cabinet  Departments   Comprised  of  the  15  main   Department  of  Defense   departments.    Headed  up  by   Department  of  Treasury   secretaries,  secretaries  are   Department  of  State   appointed  by  president,   confirmed  by  senate.  Each  has  its   own  budget   Independent   Perform  services  on  behalf  of   Social  Security   Executive  Agencies   government.    These  are   Administration   established  by  Congress  outside  of   Central  Intelligence   the  Executive  Branch   Agency     Environmental  Protection   Agency   Independent   Regulate  economic  activities,   Federal  Reserve  Board   Regulatory   operate  independently.    Once   Federal  Communications   Commissions   appointed,  leaders  cannot  be   Commission  (FCC)   removed  without  cause.  Leaders   Federal  Trade   serve  fixed  terms   Commission  (FTC)   Quasi-­‐Legislative  Agencies:   Interstate  Commerce   independent  agencies  responsible   Commission  (phased  out)   for  filling  in  jurisdiction  gaps  and   Securities  and  Exchange   writing  rules   Commission  (SEC)   Quasi-­‐Judicial  Agencies:   responsible  for  rule  enforcement   and  punishing  violators   Government   Businesses  established  by   US  Postal  Service   13  Corporations   government,  serve  a  public  need,   Amtrak   intended  to  be  profitable   Corporation  for  Public   Broadcasting     Oversight   Presidential  Oversight   Congressional  Oversight   Judicial  Oversight   The  president  controls   Congress  can  create/abolish  agencies.   Federal  Courts  can   the  agencies’  budget   Senate  confirms  all  presidential   use  their  power  of   access.    President   appointees  to  the  bureaucracy.   judicial  review  to   appoints  heads  to   Congress  must  authorize  agencies  to   determine  whether   departments  and  can   spend  money.  Congress  must  also   an  act  taken  by  a   issue  executive  orders     appropriate  (fund)  all  government   department  was   agencies  and  programs.  In  some  cases   unconstitutional     congress  may  use  committee   clearance  –  the  ability  of  a  committee   to  review  and  approve  decisions  of   agencies.  Congress  may  hold   committee  hearings  to  hold  agencies   responsible,  congress  may  also  launch   investigations  of  the  bureaucracy.   Congress  can  punish  agencies  by   cutting  their  funding.         The  Judicial  Branch  and  Civil  Liberties   The  judicial  branch  was  never  expected  to  grow  as  powerful  as  other  branches   1787-­‐1865  –  Court  asserts  federal  supremacy   1865-­‐1937  –  Court  puts  restrictions  on  government   1937-­‐2010  –  Court  deals  primarily  with  individual  freedoms     Criminal  Law  –  type  of  law  dealing  with  crimes  and  their  punishments   o Protects  interests  of  state  (state  vs.  individual)   o Between  prosecutor  (government)  and  defendant     o Defendant  must  be  guilty  “beyond  reasonable  doubt”  to  be  convicted   o Conviction  results  in  removal  of  “life,  liberty,  or  property”   Civil  Law  –  type  of  law  dealing  with  the  rights  and  relationships  of  citizens   o Protects  interests  of  individual  (individual  vs.  individual)   o Between  plaintiff  and  defendant   o A  preponderance  of  evidence  (above  50%)  is  necessary     o If  convicted,  there  are  monetary  penalities     Based  on  principle  of  judicial  review  –  allows  judges  to  interpret  the  Constitution   and  deem  something  unconstitutional   Stare  Decisis  –  the  rule  of  precedent,  whereby  a  rule  or  law  contained  in  a   judicial  decision  is  viewed  as  binding  on  judges  whenever  the  same  question  is   raised  “let  the  decision  stand”   14  Strict-­‐constructionist  approach  –  the  view  that  judges  should  decide  cases   strictly  on  the  basis  of  the  language  of  the  laws  and  the  constitution     Judicial  Restraint  –  principle  that  courts  will  not  overturn  previous  decisions   Activist  approach  –  the  view  that  judges  should  discern  the  general  principles   underlying  the  constitution,  and  apply  them  to  modern  circumstances.    These   justices  typically  try  to  overturn  precedent   Structure  of  the  Federal  Courts   Each  state  has  at  least  one  district  court   94  district  courts  in  the  50  states,  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the   Commonwealth  of  Puerto  Rico.   District  judges  are  bound  by  the  precedents  of  higher  courts     Federal  judges  are  appointed  by  the  president,  and  confirmed  by  the  senate   If  for  whatever  reason  the  supreme  court  is  tied,  then  the  precedent  set  forth  by   the  previous  court  is  maintained  WITHIN  THAT  DISTRICT     District  Courts  –  the  lowest  federal  courts,  where  federal  trials  usually  go  first,   use  jury   Courts  of  Appeals  (circuit  courts)  –  Federal  courts  that  hear  appeals  from  district   courts,  no  juries,  decisions  made  by  panels  of  appointed  judges.  To  get  here   someone  must  claim  that  their  constitutional  rights  have  been  violated   Supreme  Court  –  Hears  appeals  of  appeal  court  rulings  (somebody  appeals  the   decision  of  the  circuit  court).    4  of  9  justices  must  agree  to  hear  case  (writ  of   certiorari).    Supreme  Court  has  original  jurisdiction  in  cases  between  states  or   with  foreign  ambassadors     The Supreme Court (original and appellate jurisdictions) Court of Appeals for the 12 Courts of Appeals Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (general appellate Federal Circuit And other Legislative jurisdiction) (specialized appellate jurisdiction) Courts 94 U.S. District Courts (original jurisdictions)   Appointing  Judges     15  1. The  president’s  staff  presents  him  with  possible  nominees  (typically  other   judges),  FBI  does  background  check,  president  looks  at  previous  record  of  the   individuals,  conducts  litmus  test  (determines  political  views),  uses  senatorial   courtesy  (uses  preferences  of  senators  from  the  district  where  the  judge  will   serve)  and  finally  selects  nominee   2. The  Senate  Judiciary  committee  members  and  staff  review  candidates,  interest   groups  campaign  for/against  nominees,  senate  judiciary  committee  holds   hearing,  asking  nominee  questions,  finally  votes  up/down  on  whether  to  send   recommendation  to  the  full  senate   3. The  full  senate  has  open  floor  debate  on  nominee,  votes  on  confirmation   4. If  confirmed,  the  judge  is  given  an  oath  of  office  by  the  Chief  Justice   Because  judges  serve  life  terms,  there  is  no  political  pressure  on  them  to  rule  a   certain  way,  and  they  are  allowed  to  act  independently   The  Court   To  apply  for  writ  of  certiorari  costs  $300.    A  cheaper  means  is  to  use  in  forma   pauperis  –  in  which  poor  people  have  their  cases  heard  in  federal  court  for  free   Sovereign  Immunity  –  rule  that  citizens  cannot  sue  the  government  without  the   government’s  consent     Class-­‐action  Suit  –  a  case  brought  by  someone  to  help  him  or  her  and  all  others   who  are  similarly  situated   Brief  –  a  written  statement  by  an  attorney  that  summarizes  a  case  and  the  laws   and  rulings  that  support  it   Amicus  Curiae  –  brief  submitted  by  a  third  party  “friend  of  the  court”  (typically   an  interest  group)   Opinion  of  the  Court  –  a  signed  opinion  by  the  majority  that  decided  the  ruling   in  a  case   Concurring  Opinion  –  a  signed  opinion  that  agrees  with  majority  for  other   reasons   Dissenting  Opinion  –  a  signed  opinion  from  the  justices  on  the  losing  side   Civil  Liberties   Civil  Liberties  –  freedoms  protected  against  government  restraint,  secured  by   1st,  14th,  and  15th  amendments   Due  Process  Clause  –  denies  government  the  right  to  deny  people  of  life,  liberty,   or  property  without  due  process  of  law  (trial)   Selective  Incorporation  –  the  process  by  which  individual  liberties  originally  only   applied  to  the  federal  government  are  applied  to  the  states  (through  the  due   process  clause  of  the  14th  amendment)     Equal  Protection  of  the  Law  –  a  standard  of  equal  treatment  for  all  Americans   Freedom  of  Expression  –  right  of  people  to  speak,  punish,  assemble,  and   petition   Non-­‐protected  Speech  –  libel,  obscenity,  fighting  words,  and  commercial  speech   do  not  receive  first  amendment  protection   16  Freedom  of  Religion  –  people  shall  be  free  to  exercise  their  own  religion  (free   exercise  clause)  and  government  cannot  establish  an  official  religion   (establishment  clause)       Exclusionary  Rule  –  evidence  that  is  obtained  through  illegal  means  cannot  be   used.    This  means  that  police  can  only  conduct  searches  if  they  have  search   warrants  and  there  is  probable  cause  (4th  amendment)   No  self-­‐incrimination,  right  to  a  trial  (5th  amendment)       Notable  Cases  (highlighted  cases  especially  important)     Marbury  v.  Madison   Established  Judicial  Review   McCulloch  v.  Maryland   Established  federal  supremacy  over  states   Gibbons  v.  Ogden     Commerce  Clause  gives  congress  broad  regulatory  power   Dred  Scott  v.  Sanford   Slaves  are  property,  not  citizens   Plessy  v.  Ferguson   “Separate  but  equal”  is  ok,  allows  for  segregation   Schenk  v.  USA   Government  can  limit  speech  –  “clear  and  present  danger   test”   Gitlow  v.  New  York   Limits  on  speech  if  it  threatens  government  (anarchy)   Korematsu  v.  USA   Government  can  detain  citizens  in  emergencies     Brown  v.  Board  of  Ed   Overturned  Plessy,  rules  segregation  is  unconstitutional     Mapp  v.  Ohio   Search  warrants  needed,  otherwise  evidence  is  thrown  out   Baker  v.  Carr     Apportionment  of  districts  must  be  as  fair  as  possible  “one   man,  one  vote”   Engel  v.  Vitale   No  school-­‐led  daily  player  allowed  in  public  schools   Gideon  v.  Wainwright   States  must  provide  attorneys  to  defendants     Griswold  v.  Connecticut   Information  about  birth  control  is  protected  under  right  to   privacy   Miranda  v.  Arizona   Police  must  inform  suspects  of  their  rights  (Miranda  rights)   Terry  v.  Ohio   Police  can  search  and  seize  with  probable  cause   Lemon  v.  Kurtzman     Some  government  aid  to  church  schools  is  allowed  as  long  as   its  fair  to  schools  of  all  faiths.  (Lemon  test)    The  lemon  test    is   the  standard  set  by  the  Supreme  Court  to  measure  the   constitutionality  of  state  laws  in  regard  to  freedom  of  religion   NY  Times  v.  USA  (aka   President  cannot  withhold  pentagon  papers  from  the  press   Pentagon  Papers)   (no  unlimited  right  to  executive  privilege)     Miller  v.  California   Obscenity  is  not  protected  under  freedom  of  speech     Roe  v.  Wade   First  trimester  abortions  are  ok     US  v.  Nixon   Executive  privilege  is  not  unlimited     17 Gregg  v.  Georgia   Death  penalty  is  ok   Buckley  v.  Valeo   Campaign  money  limits,  independent  expenditures  ok     Texas  v.  Johnson   Flag  burning  is  ok,  freedom  of  expression  (symbolic  speech)   Allegany  v.  ACLU   Courts  cannot  prominently  display  religious  symbols   Loving  v.  Virginia     Bi-­‐racial  marriage  is  ok       Economic  Policy   Governments  work  to  avoid  deficits  (spending  more  than  we  make)  and  debt   (the  sum  of  all  the  deficits)   Opportunity  Cost  –  Most  highly  valued  alternative  given  up  or  forgone  when   choice  is  made  (making  trade-­‐offs)   Supply  –  amounts  of  product  producers  are  willing  to  sell   o Law  of  Supply  –  as  price  increases,  the  quantity  suppliers  are  willing  to   supply  increases   Demand  –  Various  amounts  of  a  product  or  service  consumers  are  willing  and   able  to  buy  at  a  price   o Law  of  Demand  –  As  price  falls,  the  quantity  demanded  rises   Maintaining  good  levels  of  supply  and  demand  is  critical  for  stable  prices   Monetary  Policy   Monetary  Policy  –  Actions  the  Federal  Reserve  takes  to  control  the  economy  by   promoting  growth  and  contractions,  and  to  control  the  money  supply   Inflation  –  there  is  too  much  currency  in  circulation,  so  the  value  of  money  falls   The  Federal  Reserve  is  allowed  independence  in  setting  monetary  policy  because   this  removes  politics  from  economic  policy,  and  allows  the  Fed  to  rely  on  experts   and  not  politicians   The  Federal  Reserve  tries  to  keep  the  economy  stable,  it  has  three  tools:   1. Reserve  Requirement  –  the  amount  of  money  the  Fed  requires  banks   to  keep  in  reserve.  To  slow  growth,  the  fed  raises  the  reserve   requirement,  to  increase  growth,  the  fed  decreases  the  reserve   requirement   2. The  Discount  Rate  –  interest  rate  the  fed  charges  on  banks  when  they   borrow  money.    To  slow  growth,  the  fed  raises  discount  rate,  to   increase  growth,  the  fed  lowers  the  discount  rate   3. Government  Bonds  –  bonds  are  investments  in  which  an  investor   loans  money  to  the  government  for  a  certain  amount  of  time  at  a   certain  interest  rate.    To  slow  growth,  the  fed  sells  bonds  (takes   money  out  of  economy).    To  increase  growth,  the  fed  buy  bonds   (injects  money  into  the  economy)   Fiscal  Policy   Fiscal  Policy  –  What  the  president  and  congress  do  to  control  economy  via  taxing   and  spending   18  Budget  –  the  president’s  formal  estimate  of  how  much  every  government   agency  and  program  will  cost.    Congress  has  to  confirm  this  budget,  and  then   find  ways  to  pay  for  all  these  expenditures   Progressive  Taxation  –  a  tax  system  that  forces  people  with  higher  incomes  to   pay  a  larger  fraction  of  their  income  than  do  people  with  lower  incomes   Flat  Taxation  –  a  tax  system  that  charges  a  flat  payment  of  taxes  from  people  of   all  different  income  levels   Regressive  Taxation  –  a  tax  system  in  which  people  with  lower  incomes  pay  a   higher  fraction  of  their  incomes  than  do  people  with  higher  incomes     Taxes  –  income  government  gets  from  people   § Raising  taxes  àslows  economic  growth   § Cutting  taxes  àspeeds  up  economic  growth   Spending  –  money  spent  by  government  on  goods  and  services   § Decreased  government  spending  àslows  economic  growth   § Increased  government  spending  àspeeds  up  economic  growth   Regulatory  Policy  –  the  manner  in  which  government  regulates  the  economy  to   provide  for  the  greater  good   § More  regulation  àslows  economic  growth   § Less  regulation  àspeeds  up  economic  growth       Economic  Theories   § Keynesianism  –  Belief  that  government  must  manage  the  economy  by  spending   more  money  during  recessions  and  cutting  spending  when  there  is  inflation   § Monetarism  –  The  belief  that  inflation  occurs  when  government  prints  too  much   money,  and  that  government  should  leave  the  economy  to  the  free  market   § Planning  –  The  belief  that  total  government  control  over  the  economy  such  as   wage  and  price  controls  or  direction  of  investment  can  improve  the  economy     § Supply-­‐Side  Economics  –  Belief  that  lower  taxes  and  fewer  regulations  stimulate   economic  growth   § Reaganomics  –  Reagan’s  economic  policies  that  combined  monetarism,  supply-­‐ side  economics,  and  lower  spending  (except  on  the  military)  to  stimulate  the   economy     Social  Welfare   § Capitalism  is  inevitably  a  class-­‐based  society  with  inequities  between  classes   § Social  policy  aims  at  helping  poorest  members  of  society   § Liberals  tend  to  blame  society  and  favor  government  intervention,  conservatives   tend  to  blame  individuals  and  favor  private  sector  solutions   § Welfare  programs  are  funded  by  taxes   Types  of  Welfare   § Majoritarian  Politics  –  Universal  welfare  programs  in  which  everyone  pays  and   everyone  benefits  (Social  Security,  Medicare)   19  § Client  Politics  –  Means  tested  programs  in  which  everyone  pays  yet  only  a  few   benefit  (Food  Stamps,  Medicaid)   § Service  Strategy  –  policies  that  provide  poor  people  with   education  and  job  training  to  lift  them  out  of  poverty   § Income  Strategy  –  policies  that  give  poor  people  money  to  lift   them  out  of  poverty   § Earned  Income  Tax  Credit  –  provision  of  1975  law  that  entitles   working  families  with  children  to  receive  money  from  government   if  their  income  is  below  a  certain  level   Welfare  in  USA   1.  State  Sponsored  Era  1789-­‐1932   § During  this  period  most  of  the  welfare  in  the  nation  came  from   the  state  governments,  federal  government  didn’t  play  any  role  in   it.    States  passed  laws  dealing  with  social  problems  (child  labor,   public  schools,  unemployment  benefits,  mandated  pensions)   2. Federal  Era  1932-­‐1980   § During  this  period  the  federal  government  took  more   responsibility  for  the  poor.    This  began  because  of  the  crisis   following  the  Great  Depression.    FDR  in  the  New  Deal  established   Social  Security.    LBJ  in  the  Great  Society  established  Medicare,   Food  Stamps,  and  Medicaid   3. Safety  Net  Era  1980s     § This  period  was  during  the  Reagan  Administration.    Reagan   believed  that  welfare  spending  was  too  much  and  had  created  a   dependency  on  the  state.    He  decreased  spending  on  Medicare   and  reduced  welfare  to  be  a  “safety  net”     4. Block  Grant  Era  1995-­‐2010     § Congressional  republicans  pass  laws  returning  responsibility  to   the  states.    Block  grants  to  the  states  have  very  few  requirements.     For  instance  the  Welfare  Reform  Act  of  1966  replaced  aid   programs  with  voucher  programs  (the  Aid  to  Families  with   Dependent  Children  “AFDC”  program  was  replaced  by  a  voucher   program  –  Temporary  Assistance  for  Needy  Families  “TANF”).         Medicare  and  Social  Security   § Medicare  and  Social  Security  are  the  two  most  famous  Majoritarian  programs.       § Social  Security  –  a  program  that  began  in  1935  that  taxed  individuals  to  provide   funds  that  were  used  to  support  the  poor,  elderly,  and  unemployed.       § Medicare  –  an  insurance  program  begun  under  LBJ  in  1964  that  paid  for  the   medical  expenses  of  senior  citizens     § Both  of  these  programs  are  failing  economically  and  will  soon  be  bankrupt   Welfare  Reform   § There  are  several  proposals  to  reform  the  welfare  system   20  § The  retirement  of  the  baby  boom  generation  and  the  aging  of  the  American   population  will  lead  to  the  bankruptcy  of  these  programs   § Because  Social  Security  will  soon  be  bankrupt,  proposed  reforms  are:   1. Raising  the  retirement  age   2. Increasing  taxes   3. Decrease  retirement  benefits   4. Privatizing  social  security  by  requiring  citizens  to  invest  their  social   security  taxes  in  the  stock  market   § Medicare’s  problems  include:   1. Because  it  is  free,  hospital  visits  by  seniors  are  very  common   2. Many  elderly  get  treatment  that  isn’t  necessary   3. Doctors  and  hospitals  are  paid  with  contracts  that  could  change   whenever   § Medicare’s  problems  need  to  be  addressed  soon,  or  the  costs  will  be   tremendous     Foreign  and  Defense  Policy     US  Government  Interests   National  Security   Strategic  importance  of  the  area   Strength  of  the  economy   Availability  of  resources   Previous  agreements  with  nations   Ideology     Reaction  of  People   Concerns  from  political  parties  and  interest  groups   Public  opinion     Strength  of  the  national  economy   Factors  Relating  to  Other  Countries   Assets  belonging  to  the  other  country   Alliances  with  other  nations   Probable  response  to  the  policy   History/culture  of  the  country   Actions  to  be  Taken   Positive  Actions   Negative  Actions  (conflict)   Make  statements  of   Statements  of  condemnation   praise/support   Cut  diplomatic  ties   Exchange  key  info   Limit  travel/visas   Hold  summit  meeting   Raise  tariffs,  impose  sanctions   Loosen  immigration  policy   Issue  threats   Send  peace  corps   Demand  debt  payments   21  Grant  economic  aid,  give  loans   Mobilize/deploy  troops   Provide  humanitarian  assistance   Perform  covert  operations  to   Forgive  debt   weaken  government   Cut  tariffs,  remove  embargoes   Support  anti-­‐government  factions   Provide  military  aid,  sell  weapons   Assassinate  leaders   Cultural  exchanges     Spread  propaganda   Arrest  their  citizens       The  President  and  Foreign  Policy   The  President  is  considered  the  leader  in  developing  foreign  policy   President  is  the  commander  and  chief,  and  has  the  power  to  negotiate  treaties   and  executive  agreements,  appoint  ambassadors,  and  set  the  nation’s  tone  on   foreign  policy  issues   National  Security  Council  –  chaired  by  the  president,  includes  vice  president,   Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of  Defense,  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,  head  of  CIA,   Attorney  General.    It  is  designed  to  present  various  perspectives,  facilitate   presidential  decision  making  discussions,  and  implement  presidential  decisions   Congress  and  Foreign  Policy   Congress’s  most  powerful  tool  is  its  power  of  the  purse,  Congress  is  responsible   for  authorizing  and  appropriating  the  funds  needed  for  foreign  policy  missions   War  Powers  Act  of  1973  –  All  commitments  of  troops  in  hostile  situations  must   be  reported  within  48  hours.    Troops  may  only  be  deployed  for  60  days  without  a   formal  congressional  declaration  of  war  or  statutory  authorization   In  reality  the  War  Powers  Act  is  relatively  weak,  because  Congressmen  are   typically  very  unwilling  to  end  an  operation  after  troops  have  been  deployed     Four  Worldviews   Isolationism  –  opposes  involvement  in  wars/conflicts,  believes  American  should   withdraw  from  world  affairs   Containment  (antiappeasement)  -­‐    belief  that  the  US  should  resist  the  expansion   of  aggressive  nations  (especially  the  Soviet  Union)   Disengagement  –  belief  that  America  was  harmed  by  the  Vietnam  War  and   should  avoid  similar  events   Human  Rights  –  view  that  America  should  intervene  to  improve  the  lives  of   people  in  other  countries     Previous  AP  Essay  Questions  and  Response  Guidelines     On  the  AP  NSL  exam  you  will  be  given  100  minutes  to  answer  4  essay  questions,  here   are  some  of  the  previous  essays.  There  should  be  enough  information  in  the  study  guide   to  answer  all  of  these  questions,  if  not  please  contact  me  or  look  for  more  information   at  this  website:     http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/usgov/samp.html?usgovpol     22    When  answering  AP  free  responses  it  is  important  to  remember  that  your  grader  is  NOT   Mrs.  Starin,  and  does  NOT  care  about  the  quality  of  your  writing.  JUST  HIT  THE  MAIN   POINTS.  You  earn  points  based  on  whatever  you  write  that  is  correct,  so  please,  don’t  be   fancy  –  just  answer  the  question  as  briefly  as  possible.  This  is  NSL,  not  English.       It  is  also  important  to  note  that  it  is  unlikely  to  have  an  essay  on  a  topic  covered  in  the   2010  exam.  Therefore  it  is  wise  to  go  through  this  website  to  see  what  essay  topics  are   likely  to  be  asked.  (Even  though  the  final  question  included  below  seems  to  violate  this   principle,  it  is  included  because  it  is  a  good  example  of  a  question  that  demands  graph   comprehension  as  well  as  a  sound  knowledge  base).     2008,  Question  One:     Congressional  reapportionment  and  redistricting  are  conducted  every  ten  years.  When   redistricting  is  conducted,  politicians  often  engage  in  gerrymandering.     (a)  Define  congressional  reapportionment  and  explain  one  reason  why  it  is  important  to   states.   (b)  Define  congressional  redistricting.   (c)  Explain  two  goals  of  politicians  when  they  gerrymander  during  redistricting.   (d)  Describe  two  limits  that  the  United  States