Anatomy Flashcards PDF

Chapter 1 1. Front: Define Anatomy Back: The study of the structure of the body and its parts. 2. Front: Define Physiology Back: The study of the function of the body and its parts. 3. Front: Explain the importance between structure and function Back: Structure determines...

Chapter 1 1. Front: Define Anatomy Back: The study of the structure of the body and its parts. 2. Front: Define Physiology Back: The study of the function of the body and its parts. 3. Front: Explain the importance between structure and function Back: Structure determines function; the anatomy of a part of the body is directly related to its ability to perform a specific task. 4. Front: List and define the six characteristics of life Back: ○ Organization: Complex structure and order. ○ Metabolism: Chemical reactions to maintain life. ○ Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli. ○ Growth: Increase in size and complexity. ○ Development: Differentiation and changes through life stages. ○ Reproduction: Production of new organisms. 5. Front: Define Homeostasis Back: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. 6. Front: Describe Negative Feedback Back: A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point to maintain homeostasis. 7. Front: Describe Positive Feedback Back: A mechanism that enhances or amplifies a deviation from the set point. 8. Front: Define the Direction terms Back: Terms used to describe the location of body parts relative to one another (e.g., superior, inferior, anterior, posterior). 9. Front: Describe the serous membrane Back: Thin tissue layers lining body cavities and covering organs; includes the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum. Chapter 2 1. Front: Describe how the properties of water contribute to its physiological functions Back: Water's properties, such as cohesion, high heat capacity, and solvent abilities, make it essential for temperature regulation, chemical reactions, and transportation in the body. 2. Front: Describe the pH scale and its relationship to acidic, basic, and neutral solutions Back: The pH scale ranges from 0-14. Acidic solutions (pH < 7) have more H⁺ ions, neutral solutions (pH = 7) have equal H⁺ and OH⁻ ions, and basic solutions (pH > 7) have more OH⁻ ions. Chapter 3 1. Front: Describe the nature of the plasma membrane in reference to the passage of materials through it Back: The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, controlling the movement of substances through phospholipid bilayer, proteins, and channels. 2. Front: List and explain the three ways that molecules and ions can pass through the plasma membrane Back: ○ Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration. ○ Facilitated Diffusion: Transport using protein carriers or channels. ○ Active Transport: Movement against concentration gradient using energy (ATP). 3. Front: Discuss the process of diffusion Back: The passive movement of molecules or ions from an area of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. 4. Front: Explain the role of osmosis Back: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration. 5. Front: The difference between hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic Back: ○ Hypotonic: Solution with lower solute concentration, causing water to enter the cell. ○ Isotonic: Equal solute concentrations, no net water movement. ○ Hypertonic: Solution with higher solute concentration, causing water to leave the cell. 6. Front: Describe the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis Back: Endocytosis: The process where the cell engulfs substances into vesicles. ○ Types: phagocytosis (solid particles), pinocytosis (liquids). Exocytosis: The process where vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release substances outside the cell. 7. Front: Describe the structure and function of mitochondria Back: Mitochondria have a double membrane, with an inner folded membrane (cristae) and a matrix. They produce ATP through cellular respiration. 8. Front: Describe the two-step process that results in gene expression Back: ○ Transcription: DNA is used to produce mRNA in the nucleus. ○ Translation: mRNA is read by ribosomes to assemble proteins from amino acids. 9. Front: Explain the role of DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in the production of protein Back: ○ DNA: Contains the genetic code. ○ mRNA: Carries the genetic instructions to ribosomes. ○ tRNA: Transfers amino acids to ribosomes. ○ rRNA: A component of ribosomes that helps assemble proteins.  10. Front: Define apoptosis Back: Programmed cell death, crucial for development and maintaining healthy tissues. Chapter 4 1. Front: List the four primary tissue types Back: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues. 2. Front: List and explain the general characteristics of epithelial tissue Back: ○ Covers surfaces and lines cavities. ○ Has tightly packed cells with little extracellular matrix. ○ Avascular but innervated. ○ Regenerates quickly. 3. Front: Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands, and unicellular and multicellular glands Back: ○ Exocrine: Secrete substances into ducts (e.g., sweat glands). ○ Endocrine: Secrete hormones into the bloodstream. ○ Unicellular: Single-cell glands (e.g., goblet cells). ○ Multicellular: Composed of many cells. 4. Front: List and describe the major functions of connective tissue Back: Binding, support, protection, insulation, energy storage, and transportation of substances. 5. Front: Describe the characteristic functions of each type of connective tissue Back: ○ Loose connective tissue: Supports and cushions organs. ○ Dense connective tissue: Provides strength and flexibility. ○ Cartilage: Resists compression and provides structure. ○ Bone: Supports and protects. ○ Blood: Transports nutrients and wastes. 6. Front: Describe the general structures of each of the three types of muscle tissue Back: ○ Skeletal: Striated, voluntary, multinucleated. ○ Cardiac: Striated, involuntary, intercalated discs. ○ Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped cells. 7. Front: Describe the structural and functional roles of neurons and glia in nervous tissue Back: ○ Neurons: Conduct electrical impulses. ○ Glia: Support, protect, and nourish neurons. 8. Front: List the structural and functional characteristics of mucous membranes Back: Line cavities open to the exterior; secrete mucus for protection and moisture. 9. Front: List the structural and functional characteristics of serous membranes Back: Line closed body cavities; secrete serous fluid to reduce friction. 10. Front: List the structural and functional characteristics of synovial membranes Back: Line joint cavities; secrete synovial fluid for lubrication. Chapter 5 1. Front: Describe the structure of the epidermis Back: The outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells; contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. 2. Front: Explain the major factors affecting skin color Back: Skin color is determined by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin levels. 3. Front: Describe the structure of the dermis Back: The middle layer of the skin composed of connective tissue; contains blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles. 4. Front: Describe the structure of the subcutaneous tissue underlying the skin Back: Also called the hypodermis; composed of adipose and areolar tissue, providing insulation and cushioning. 5. Front: List the glands of the skin and describe the secretions they produce Back: ○ Sebaceous glands: Produce sebum (oil). ○ Sweat glands: Produce sweat for temperature regulation. ○ Ceruminous glands: Produce earwax. ○ Mammary glands: Produce milk. 6. Front: Explain how the skin acts as a sense organ Back: The skin contains sensory receptors that detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. 7. Front: Discuss the importance of the skin in temperature regulation Back: The skin regulates body temperature through sweat production and blood vessel dilation or constriction. Chapter 6 1. Front: List the components of the skeletal system Back: Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints. 2. Front: Relate the importance of cartilage to the structure of the skeletal system Back: Cartilage provides flexibility, reduces friction, and absorbs shock in joints. 3. Front: Explain the types of cartilage growth Back: ○ Appositional growth: New layers are added to the surface. ○ Interstitial growth: Chondrocytes divide and secrete matrix within the cartilage. 4. Front: List each type of bone cell Back: ○ Osteoblasts: Build bone. ○ Osteocytes: Maintain bone. ○ Osteoclasts: Break down bone. 5. Front: Explain the structural differences between compact and spongy bone Back:  ○ Compact bone: Dense, organized into osteons, found in diaphyses. ○ Spongy bone: Lattice-like, made of trabeculae, found in epiphyses. 6. Front: Classify bones according to their shape Back: Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones. 7. Front: Label the parts of a typical long bone Back: Diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, medullary cavity, periosteum, and endosteum. 8. Front: Describe the steps of endochondral ossification Back: ○ Cartilage model forms. ○ Cartilage calcifies. ○ Primary ossification center develops in the diaphysis. ○ Secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyses. ○ Growth continues at epiphyseal plates. 9. Front: Outline and explain the steps in bone repair Back: ○ Hematoma formation. ○ Fibrocartilaginous callus forms. ○ Bony callus forms. ○ Bone remodeling. Chapter 7 1. Front: Define the anatomical terms for bone features Back: Terms include foramen (opening), process (projection), condyle (rounded protuberance), etc. 2. Front: List the bone shapes Back: Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones. 3. Front: Name the bones of the skull Back: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid, mandible, maxilla, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, etc. 4. Front: Describe the girdles that make up the appendicular skeleton Back: ○ Pectoral girdle: Clavicles and scapulae. ○ Pelvic girdle: Hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis). 5. Front: Identify the bones that make up the pectoral girdle Back: Clavicle and scapula. 6. Front: Name and describe the major bones of the upper limb Back: Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. 7. Front: Name the bones that make up the hip bone. Distinguish between the male and the female pelvis Back: ○ Hip bones: Ilium, ischium, pubis. ○ Male pelvis: Narrower, heavier.  ○ Female pelvis: Wider, lighter, larger pelvic inlet/outlet. 8. Front: Identify and describe the bones of the lower limb Back: Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges. Chapter 8 1. Front: Describe the two systems for classifying joints Back: ○ Structural: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial. ○ Functional: Synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), diarthrosis (freely movable). 2. Front: Explain the structure of a fibrous joint Back: Bones joined by dense connective tissue; no joint cavity (e.g., sutures). 3. Front: Contrast the two types of cartilaginous joints and give examples Back: ○ Synchondrosis: Hyaline cartilage (e.g., epiphyseal plates). ○ Symphysis: Fibrocartilage (e.g., pubic symphysis). 4. Front: Illustrate the structure of a synovial joint Back: Bones covered with articular cartilage, enclosed in a joint capsule, with synovial fluid. 5. Front: Demonstrate the difference between the following pairs of movements: Back: ○ Flexion/Extension: Decreasing vs. increasing angle. ○ Plantar flexion/Dorsiflexion: Pointing toes vs. lifting toes. ○ Abduction/Adduction: Away from vs. toward midline. 6. Front: Distinguish between rotation and circumduction Back: ○ Rotation: Bone turns on its axis. ○ Circumduction: Circular motion combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction. Chapter 9 1. Front: Summarize the major characteristics of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle Back: ○ Skeletal: Striated, voluntary. ○ Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary. ○ Cardiac: Striated, involuntary. 2. Front: Describe the components of a muscle fiber Back: Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T-tubules.  3. Front: Relate the types of myofilaments and describe their structures Back: ○ Actin: Thin filament. ○ Myosin: Thick filament. 4. Front: Produce diagrams that illustrate the arrangement of myofilaments in a sarcomere Back: Z-line to Z-line; includes A band, I band, H zone, and M line. 5. Front: Describe how the sliding filament model explains the contraction of muscle fibers Back: Myosin heads bind to actin, pulling filaments together, shortening the sarcomere. Chapter 10 1. Front: Define the following and give an example of each: origin, insertion, agonist, antagonist, synergist, fixator, and prime mover Back: ○ Origin: Fixed attachment point (e.g., humerus for biceps brachii). ○ Insertion: Movable attachment point (e.g., radius for biceps brachii). ○ Agonist: Primary muscle for a movement (e.g., biceps brachii in flexion). ○ Antagonist: Opposes agonist (e.g., triceps brachii). ○ Synergist: Assists agonist. ○ Fixator: Stabilizes the origin. 2. Front: Explain each of the three classes of levers in the body and give a specific example of each class Back: ○ First-class lever: Fulcrum in the middle (e.g., neck muscles lifting head). ○ Second-class lever: Load in the middle (e.g., standing on toes). ○ Third-class lever: Effort in the middle (e.g., biceps flexing forearm). 3. Front: Name the muscles found in the neck and list the origin, insertion, and action of each Back: Example: Sternocleidomastoid ○ Origin: Sternum and clavicle. ○ Insertion: Mastoid process of the skull. ○ Action: Flexes and rotates the head. 4. Front: List the muscles of the thorax and give each of their actions Back: ○ Diaphragm: Increases thoracic volume for breathing. ○ Intercostals: Elevate/depress ribs during respiration. Chapter 11 1. Front: List the divisions of the nervous system and describe the characteristics of each Back: ○ CNS: Brain and spinal cord. ○ PNS: Nerves and ganglia.  2. Front: Differentiate between the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems Back: ○ Somatic: Controls voluntary movements. ○ Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate). 3. Front: Describe the structure of neurons Back: Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, axon terminals, and myelin sheath. 4. Front: Describe the functions of the components of a neuron Back: ○ Soma: Houses nucleus, integrates signals. ○ Dendrites: Receive signals. ○ Axon: Transmits impulses. 5. Front: Describe the function of the myelin sheath Back: Insulates axon, increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction. 6. Front: Explain how resting membrane potential is created and maintained Back: By ion gradients, primarily Na+ and K+, and active transport (Na+/K+ pump). Chapter 12 1. Front: Describe the general structure of the spinal cord Back: Cylindrical, extends from medulla to L2; divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. 2. Front: Name the meninges and their related spaces surrounding the spinal cord Back: ○ Dura mater: Outermost layer. ○ Arachnoid mater: Middle layer. ○ Pia mater: Innermost layer. 3. Front: Describe the components of a reflex arc Back: Sensory receptor → Sensory neuron → Integration center → Motor neuron → Effector. 4. Front: List the number and locations of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves Back: ○ Cervical (8 pairs). ○ Thoracic (12 pairs). ○ Lumbar (5 pairs). ○ Sacral (5 pairs). ○ Coccygeal (1 pair). Chapter 13 1. Front: List the parts of the brainstem and describe their structural characteristics Back:  ○ Midbrain: Processes visual and auditory information. ○ Pons: Relays signals between cerebrum and cerebellum. ○ Medulla oblongata: Regulates vital functions (e.g., heart rate). 2. Front: List the parts of the diencephalon and state their functions Back: ○ Thalamus: Sensory relay station. ○ Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis. 3. Front: Explain the role of the blood-brain barrier Back: Protects the brain by restricting the passage of harmful substances from the blood. 4. Front: List the 12 cranial nerves and their primary functions Back: Examples: ○ I (Olfactory): Smell. ○ II (Optic): Vision. ○ X (Vagus): Parasympathetic control of heart and digestive organs. Chapter 14 1. Front: List the types of somatic and visceral sensory receptors and describe their function Back: ○ Somatic receptors: Detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. ○ Visceral receptors: Detect changes in organs. 2. Front: Describe the roles of receptor potentials and adaptation Back: ○ Receptor potentials: Initiate action potentials in sensory neurons. ○ Adaptation: Decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus. 3. Front: Explain the role of the reticular activating system (RAS) Back: Maintains wakefulness and consciousness. Chapter 15 1. Front: Describe olfactory neurons and explain how airborne molecules stimulate action potentials Back: Olfactory neurons have cilia that bind odorants, triggering action potentials. 2. Front: Outline the structure and function of a taste bud Back: Contains gustatory cells with receptors for different tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami). 3. Front: Describe the differences between rods and cones Back: ○ Rods: Detect light intensity, function in dim light.  ○ Cones: Detect color, function in bright light. Chapter 16 1. Front: Explain the basic function of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) Back: Regulates involuntary body functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion). 2. Front: List the divisions of the autonomic nervous system and describe when each is more influential Back: ○ Sympathetic: Fight-or-flight responses. ○ Parasympathetic: Rest-and-digest activities. 3. Front: Describe the arrangement of sympathetic neurons and ganglia Back: Preganglionic neurons in thoracic and lumbar regions; ganglia near spinal cord. 4. Front: Explain dual innervation of the ANS Back: Most organs receive input from both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.