Anatomy Exam Review Notes PDF

Anatomy Exam Review Notes Week Review Infinatthem study ofanatomyandphysiology I chp2 b Orientationandrules oflegislatedrequirementsforwo...

Anatomy Exam Review Notes Week Review Infinatthem study ofanatomyandphysiology I chp2 b Orientationandrules oflegislatedrequirementsforworkingwithhuman cadaveric specimensassetoutbytheAnatomyActof0 Microscopic Structures 1Howthebodyisfunctionally arranged intobodysystemsstartingwith cells tissuesand organs I chp3 I chp9 Week I a Human anatomy is thestudyofthebody's largemacroscopicandsmallmicroscopic structures isthestudyofthechemistryand physicsofthe ofthebody and thewaystheywork Physiology structures b Anatomy ActofOntario allowsforthelegalrecievingofbodiesdonated orunclaimedtoacademic institutions forresearch purposes Eachschoolneedstohavecertaindocuments certificatesrecieptsnoticesofdisposalphotosandfingerprintsofthebody approved bytheMinister ofhealth C thebodycanbearrangedinto cellswhichmakeuptissuethatmakesuporgansand getarrangedintosystems hebasicstructuralandfunctional unitoforganismsconsidered buildingblocksoflife 2Tissue groups ofcells performinga commonfunctionbywhich theyare classified by Epithelialtissue Muscle functionprotection sensory secretionabsorption made ofspecializedcellsthatcontract andexcretion has3formsskeletalvoluntarycontrol smooth involuntaryctrl membranous formingcoveringsand linings andcardiacinvoluntarycontrol glandular producessecretionformssecretaryunits of humanshavethemostskeletal endocrine and exocrine glands Tissue Nervous ConnectiveTissue ofdifferent andintergenerates activities regulates mostwidespread and variabletissues inthebody parts ofthebody exists inmanyformselasticsheetstoughcords delicate cells ofnervtisneuronsareadaptedforelectrical websreticularfibers rigidbonesandfluids bloodlymph andconductivitytoconductmessages excitation  3Organs Made of2ormoredifferenttissues Eachorganhasaspecificfunctionandshape a Systems Agroupoforgansactingtogethertofulfill aspecialized function not Most.it all systemshaverelationshipstoanothersystem meek 2 Review Anatomical orientation aUnderstand anatomicalposition 1chp7 b Demonstrate use proper of anatomical directionalterms anddirectional terms.li.ch abodtphlifdgdniyaif.gs dUnderstandhowthebodyisstructurallyarrangedintobodycavities 1chp eIdentifythecontentsofeachcavity Axial Appendicularskeleton f Identify anatomical andcomponentsofaxialandappendicularskeleton orientation Vchp2831VIchp3438 Week 2 a Anatomicalpositionrefers toa specificstance a personstandingupfacingforwardfeet slightlyapartupperlimbs attheside palms facingforward Directionaltermsarebasedonthisposition b Anterior Directionalterm Definition Example ventral thefront or thefront ofbody directiontoward to toesareanterior feet Posteriordorsal thebackor thebackofbody directiontoward popliteus is topatella posterior Superior cranial aboveorhigherthananotherpartofthebody orbits aresuperiortotheoris Inferior caudal partofthebodynearortowardtail below lowerthananother or pelvisisinferiortoabdomen Lateral thesideorthedirectiontowardthesideofthebody thumbislateraltothedigits Medial themiddleorthedirectiontowardthemiddleofthebody hallux medialto is thetoe Proximal limbthat'scloser positionon tothepointofattachment brachium isproximaltotheantibrachium Distal onlimbthat'sfartherfrompointofattachment position crusisdistal tothefemur Superficial positionclosertothesurfaceofthe body skin is superficialtobones Deep positionfartherfromthesurfaceofthebody brainisdeeptoskull C Planesareimaginary 2 that Dimensionalsurfaces passthrough thebody thereare3 SaggitalPlanesplitsthebodyintorightandleftsidesanevensplitthroughnaveliscalled midsaggital Frontal Plane splitsthebodyanteriorlyand posteriorly TransversePlane splitsthebodyintoupperandlowerportions commonly referred toas a crosssection d The bodyhasmembranes sheathsetc inordertoseparatecompartments Caritisprotectinternalorgansandallow forchange inthesizeoforganswhen they'reworking e Pottebral Fit iiiiihh fftlf.tt can cavity by protected skullvertebral fluid columncerebrospinal extraction ftp.ffi Ym ftp.fipit.ogan Theabdomencanbedividedinto 4quartersor9regions f AxialSkeleton formsthecentralaxisofthebodyincludingbonesoftheheadneck chestandback 80bones theskullhead has22bonesandanadditional 7headassociated bones thevertebralcolumnhas 22bonescalledvertebrae 7cervicalbones 12thoracicand5lumbar thethoracic cagehas29ribsandthesternum Appendicular Skeletonformstheupperandlowerlimbsincludingthebonesthatattachtotheaxialskeleton 126 bone thepectoralgirdlehasonly 2 bones clavicleandscapula theupperlimbshave30bones armhumerus forearmradiusulnahand8carpals 5metacarpalsinpalm19phalangesinfingers thepelvicgirdlehas5boneshipboneiliumischiumpubis sacrumandcoccyx tibia foot 7tarsals 5metatarsals19phalanges toes thelowerlimbs have29bonesthighfemur legfibular in week 3Review Integumentary System aThemain functions oftheintegsystem IVchp25 bHowthe accessorycomponents ofthe intey system contribute to systemprotection IVchp29 c Howtheskin contributes to homeostasis ofbodytempIVchp25 dThe locationstructure andfunction of mucousserousand synovial membranes 11chp9 Week 3 a Protection againstabrasionsmicroorganisms andwaterloss Sensation detectheatcoldtouch sensory receptors pressure and pain Vitamin 1 skin producesVit whenexposed toUVlight D TempRegulation sweat glandsandblood forregulatetempbyblood vessel dilationconstrictionandsweatproduction heatlossfromslai Excretion small amounts ofwasteproductsarelostthrough skinandglandsecretion Includes skinnailsand hair b Hair Hair isfilamentsofdead byhairfollicles theshaftprojectsfromtheskinandtherootisembeddedintheskin keratinized cells produced Functions maintainwarmthalerts thebodytothepresenceofinsects guardsthescalpagainstphysicaltrauma heat loss sunlight Nails Scale like modificationsofthe epidermis onthedistal dorsal surfaceof fingers toes theyaremadeofdenslypackeddead Keratinocytes Protects the ends ofourfingers andtoesbecausethey experiencethemost mechanicalstress C Theskinisthelargestorganinthebodyandmadeof3parts Epidermis theoutermostsuperficial layeriscomposedofKeratinizedKeratinisonthesurface stratified squamous alayeroflayeredthinflattene epithelialcellsepithelium contains adistinct cells keratin Keratinocytesproduce cellsepidermalmacrophagesthatactivateimmunesystemresponse Langerhans melanocytesproducepigmentmelanin merkelcellstouchreceptors associatedwithsensorynerveendings contains Aorb layers stratumbasale basallayer isthedeepestlayeryoungest keratinocytesattached todermishasmerkelcells stratum cellsaredispersedhereacting macrophages spinosum Langerhans as alotofKeratinandKeratohylincelldeathoccurshere stratumgranulosum becauseKeratinocytes appearsgrainy are producing Stratumlucidum only found inthickskinpalmssolesanddigitscontainsdeadkeratinocytes Stratumcorneumoutermost up of layermakes most the epidermishelps andprotectfromphysicalchemicalandbiologicalassolts waterproof Dermis madeofstrongandflexibleconnectivetissuecontainsbloodandlymphvesselsnerveshairfolliclesandsweatglands celltypesinclude fibroblastscells thatcreateconnectivetissue cells macrophagesimmune mastcellsimmunecells contains 2layers Papillarymade ofalveolarconnectivetissue containscollagenandelasticfibersitssurfacehasdermalpapillae Reticularmakes up80 of thickness oftheskincontainscollagenandelasticfibers  Hypodermis subcutaneous to layerdeep skin made ofadiposeandconnectivetissue Homeostasis During strenuous physicalactivitydermalbloodvesselsdilateandsweatsecretionincreasestoincreaseheatlosstokeepyour core tempfromgettingtoohigh Whenexposed tolower temperaturesyourdermalbloodvesselsconstricttominimizeheatloss d Mucousmembrane location anycavity that opens totheoutsideof thebodynasaloralcavity tubesofthedigestiveurinary respiratoryand reproductives structure contains 3layers epithelium laminapropria and muscularismucosal function secretesthickfluid mucous Serousmembrane location lineswallsoforgans thethoracicandabdomino in pelviccavity structure made ofmesothelium has2partsvisceralserosacoverstheorganandparentalserosalinesthetrunk function reducesfrictionbetween andbodywall organs Synovialmembrane location innerlining ofjointcavitiesbetweensynovialjointsfreelymovable on endsofeachbonethewholejointiscontainedina holdssynovialfluidatjointcavities articularcartilagecanbefound the structure articularcapsule madeofhyalinecartilage function reduces frictionbetweenbones to allowingthem movesmoothlythismembrane secretes synovia Skeletal System eThemainfunctionsofthe skeletalsystem 11116 f Howthestructureofbone cartilageanddenseconnectivetissuecontributetotheirfunctions11116 Thedifference between spongyandcompactbone11118 gThe h macroscopic structureof atypicallongbone11118 i theprocessofboneformation growthandremodeling111.19 C 1 Supports rigidframeworkforsupportandattachments 2 Protection theskullvertebralcolumnribcageandpelvicgirdleencloseand protect vitalorgans 3 Movementbones to leverswhenattached musclesthatcontracttheycause movementaboutjoints actas a Hematopoiesis redbloodcelland plateletproductionoccurin thebonemarrow Mineral EnergyStorage differentparts ofthebonecontain calciumphosphorusmagnesiumsodium andlipidswhichcanbeusedforener f Bones supply arigid framework thats oftert issuesand attach organscan totocreatemovement asaprotectivebarrierforfrictionduring Cartilageproducesflexibilityacts movement Denseconnectivetissuefibershold andprotectbonesmusclesandothertissuesandorgans without alltheabovethehumanbodywouldhavenolegtostandonloooodseewhatIdidthere SpongyBonecontainahoneycomb oftrabecularwhichcontain foundmoredeep tocompactbone g osteocytes CompactBonevery denseandfound inouterlayer of thebone h Has5parts of diaphysis hollowshaftmade compactbone cavityrefers medullary tothespacedeeptothediaphysishasyellowbonemarrowenergy foradultsrbcproductionforinfants storage periosteumoutercovering ofdiaphysismadeoffibrous connectivetissuecontainsosteoclasts andosteoblasts containbloodvessels endosteumdelicateconnectivetissuethat coverstheinternalsurface ofthebones epiphysisenlargedends ofthebonecompactexteriorspongyinteriorjoint covered inarticularcartilageallowingformuscle attachment i Compactbone ismadeofosteocytesthesmallestunitofa bone Osteoblasts areboneformingcells Osteoclasts arebonedestroyingcells makenewboneandbecomeosteocyteswhenthose Osteogeniccellsdifferentiateintoosteoblaststhat inthematrix destroythem osteoclasts gt trapped tomakeroomformorenewbone Joints thedifferencebetweenfibrous andsynovialjointsV11.4043 jThe cartilaginous 4 macroscopic structureof a typical synovial 1Thetypesofbodymovements possibleat selectedjity 1,9143 areimmovablebonesendsareunited by collagen j Fibrousjoints Cartilaginous joints areslightly movabletheirbonesendsareunited bycartilage Synovial jointsarefreelymovable coveredwitharticularhyaline cartilageenclosedwithin anarticularcapsulelinedwithsynovial membrane jointcavitycontainssynovialfluidknown assynovia 4 Synovial jointsarefreelymovable coveredwitharticularhyaline cartilageenclosedwithin membrane jointcavitycontainssynovialfluidknown anarticularcapsulelinedwithsynovial assynovia  1 0Pivot roundedportionofaboneisenclosedwithin aringformedpartiallybyarticulationwithanotherbone axialjoint between CiatlasantCaaxis allowsforrotationoftheheadlookleft extheatlanto andright Hinge convexendofonebone articulates withtheconcaveendofanother bendingonsingleaxis ex elbowjointkneeankle Condyloid shallowdepression attheendofonebonearticulateswitharoundedstructurefromadjacentbone exbetween radiusandcarpalsofwrist Saddle botharticulatingsurfacesforboneshave asaddleshapeoneconcaveoneconvex ex metacarpalatbaseofthumband trapcarpalboneboneinpalm Plane articulatingsurfacesare flatorslightlycurvessobonesslideagainsteachother exbetweentarsalbonesbetweencarpals BallandSocketgreatestrangeofmotion roundheadfitsintoconcave articulation socket exhipandfemurjointshoulderjoint 4 Week Review Muscular system aThemainfunctionsofmuscles inthebody V11.97 bThelocationofmajorskeletalmusclesofthebodyV1148 cThesimilaritiesanddifferences betweenamongskeletalsmoothandcardiacmusclebasedonlocationtypeof nervouscontrol andexamples ofmovements produced V114853,54 dTheprocess ofskeletal musclecellcontractionoutlininghowskeletalmusclecellsinamotorunitarestimulated V1199 c Neuromuscularjunction VIII 48 fMuscle attachment tendons g Ligaments Joints Hriare g K fromweek3objectives Movement 1Describeand demonstrate thetentypesofmovements in thebody V1199 eek 4 a 1Movement 2Maintainposture 3Respiration a ofbodyheat s Communication aHeartbeat Production vessel Organ contract There are3types Skeletal to musclemultinucleatecanshorten contractibility responds nervestimulus stretchextensability and excitabilitycan canrecoilelasticity Smoothmuscleuninucleatemovementsc ontractions are inwallsofholloworgans involuntaryfound slowsome selfexciting rhythmic releases contracts are Cardiac muscleuninucleate involuntarycontractions of networks fiberscontract unit asa selfexcitingrhythmiconly intheheart found b Sternodeido mastoid alongsidesofneck flexhead lookattoes rotates head Trapezius extends theneckand headlooking at ceiling along backandneck Triceps brachii extendselbow has likenamesuggests 3heads Biceps brachii flexes elbowandshoulder has likenamesuggests 2 heads Deltoid abduction attheshoulder thinkofthewayyoumoveyourarmwhendoingajumpingjack Pectoralis major internalrotationthrowingfrisbed adduction of the arm from bringing armdownafterraising Gluteus maximus buttocks extendship swing legposteriorly abducts thigh legswhenjumpoutofjumpingjack Gluteus medius abducts rotates thigh hips thigh Quadriceps femoris rectusfemorisfrontthigh extends knee flexeship vastus lateralis extends knee vastusmedialis extends knee ItffFffiFtFfFt.fi vastusintermedius extends lane pexten.in ififfjfiii Hamstrings bicepfemoris membranous worktogethertoflexkneeand extend hip semi semitendinosus Gastrocnemius calf flexes footand leg standing on toes plantarflection Rectus abdominis abdominal wall muscle has 4 pairedmuscles flexand rotate abdomen Erector spinal illocostalis deepmuscles that assistin backextension andcore stability longissimus spinalis  d d e Orderofevents Anactionpotential comes in from ThemusclemembranehasAChreceptors motor neuron This causes calcium onthesodiumchannels soAChbinds channelsonneuron toopen tothosereceptors openingthem Theincreased concentrationofcalciumin Sodium ionsin synapticclet diffuse or themotorneuron stimulate acetylcholineto moveintothemuscleresultingin an enterthe synaptic cleft action potentialmusclecontracting f Origin tothesiteofmuscleattachment refers Insersionwherethemuscletendonattaches tothemoremovablebone ActionTerms Prime mover isthemainmusclethatcausesa movement isthemusclethat Agonist acertain accomplishes movement Antagonistis themusclethat movement p roducesopposite ofmusclesthatworktogetherto a Synergistisagroup produce desiredmovement Fixators muscles are tothebodywhileamoredistalbonemoves thatholdoneboneinplacerelative connectsbone tobone g Ligament Tendon Connects muscletobone A Fibrousjoints areimmovablebonesendsareunitedby collagen Cartilaginous joints areslightly movabletheirbonesendsareunited bycartilage Synovial jointsarefreelymovable coveredwitharticularhyaline cartilageenclosedwithin anarticularcapsulelinedwithsynovial membrane jointcavitycontainssynovialfluidknown assynovia i Synovial jointsarefreelymovable anarticularcapsulelinedwithsynovial coveredwitharticularhyaline cartilageenclosedwithin membrane jointcavitycontainssynovialfluidknown assynovia angeatajoint Flexion bendingmovementthatdecreasesthe j Extensionmovement thatincreasestheangleofajoint straightens thejoint oncoronalplanethatmoveslimblaterallywayfromthebody Abductionmovement Adductionmovement oncoronal planethatmoveslimbmedially thebody toward Rotationmovement ofa bonearoundcentarlaxisorarounditslongaxis circularmotionofthe handthighthumborfinger bythe of Circumduction arm produced c ombo flexion sequential andadduction abductionextention Pronation forearmmotion thatmovesthepalmofthe hand from facingforwardtofacingthe backward Supinationforearmmotionthatmovesthepalm ofthehandfrom facing backward tofacingtoward Inversionfootmovementwherethebottom ofthefootisturnedtowardthemidlineinward Eversionfootmovementwhere thebottomof thefootisturned laterallyoutward flexionmovementat Dorsi theanklethatbringsthetopotfhefoottowardtheanteriorlegflexingfoot at anklewhereheelsareliftedoffthegroundpointingfoot Flexion movement the Plantar Elevationupward superior ofthemandibleorscapula movement Depression me Iamdepression ofthemandibleorscapula downward inferior movement Hyperextension excessive flextion ofjointbeyondnormalrangeofmovement Week5 Review Structureandfunction aComponentsoftheCNSBrain Spinalchord bSkull spinalcord cBraindissectionanatomy dBrain fluid cerebrospinal eCNS PNS  5 Week a The CentralNervous System CNS is theintegration andcommandcenterofthebodyIt of consists thebrainand thespinalcord jiff ordlosum Brain Oneofthelargest has4 cerebrumand brainstemdiencephalon cerebellum organs majorregions fissuréithe partofthebrain Cerebrum largest intorightlefthemispheres divided isseparatedbyalongitudinal which valley'sarecalledsulciandthehillsarecalledsulci ofthebodyviadecussation the Lefthemisphererelievessensoryinputandcontrolsmusclesontherightside crossing overofinformationprocessesspeechlanguagemathnumbersscienceandlogic leftsideofthebodyviadecussation involved increative Righthemisphererelievessensoryinputandcontrolsmusclesonthe processes and intuitionmusic artawareness3Dandspacialperception Commissure bundles ofnerveswherethetwohemispheresmeetlargestoneisthecorpuscallosum Brainstem connects spinalcordtothe restofthebraincontainsnucleithatcontrolheartrateBP andrespirationHas 3 maincomponentsponsmidbrainandmedullaoblongataAlsohousesthereticularformationnuclei that role arousal play inour andsleepwakeeye Ponsfunctions breathingswallowingandbalance in asarelaycenterforaudioandvisualreflexescoordinatingeyemovementpupildiameterandturning Midbrainfunctions head toward n Medulla for responsible nerveinformation processingcranial Diencephalon foundbetweenbrainstemand andhas components cerebrum 3 thalamusepithalamusandhypothalamus onthewaytocerebralcortex Thalamus largestcomponent mood influences inputpassesthroughhere sensory Epithalamus tothalamusbutsmallerinvolvedinemotionalandvisceralresponsestoodorhousespinealglandthatinfluencespubert Superior inferiorcontrols hormones secretedfrom Hypothalamusmost thepituitaryglandmaintainshomeostasisplaysroleinsensationslikefear relaxationandemotional nervoussmeats rage responses Cerebellumfound posterior tothebrainstemonly11ofbrainmassmaintainsbalanceresponsibleformuscletoneandcoordination motor andperiteralinformation compares b i Spinalcord Majororgan oftheCNSthatisspecializedintospecificregionsasawholetheposteriorregionsareresponsibleforsensoryfunctions andtheanteriorwithmotorfunctionsprovidestwo communication toandfromthebrain sac way of Thelength thecordcanbedividedintoregionsthatcorrespondwiththeregionsofthevertebralcolumncervicalthoraciclumbar Meninges Thesecoverthebrainand spinalcordforprotectionmadeof3layers Duramatermostsuperficiallayerfoundundertheskullitstheinner ofthecranium layer periosteum itstough like leather Arachnoid materdelicatecobweb likelayerunderdeeptotheduramater Piamater innermost deepestlayeradhereslightly tooutersurfaceofthebrain spinalcord  Skull c Frontal Bites Prystal TemporalLobe responsibleforspeechmotoractivityand of laterdsides headresponsibleforprocessing thoughtprocesspersonality development auditorysignalslanguageand themeaningof emotional andbehavioural expression words ParietalLobe Occipitallobes liesatthetopofthebrainresponsible i shown not atthebackofthehead responsible for forprocessinginfoaboutpressurepaintouchtasteheatandcold receivingand processingvisual information Precentral gyrus Postcentral consists gyrus of somatosensorycortextouch constitutes the somatic area primary d Cerebrospinal fluidCSFcirculates serousfluidtoprotectthebrainandspinalcorditsproduceddaily itsproductionismonitoredbythebrainsuchasanychangesintheinternalenvironment it circulates in the subarachnoid aswellasinventricles in the brain space Ventricles 4 fluidfilledspaceswithinthebrainwhereCSFflowsas follows starts thelateral in v tothethirdventriclethroughthe interventricular foramen Movesthrough to Moves cerebralaqueductthatconnects to theforthventricle Thenflowstothesub arachnoidspace Functionsprotectionfrombutteringfriction influidExcretiononewayflowotCSFtobloodwithwaste buoyancybrainfloats endocrinemedium CSF transports hormones  CentralNervousSystemCNS e ofbrainandspinalcord Consists Theintegrationandcommandcenter PeripheralNervousSystem AllnervoustissueoutsideCNS withspinal cranial Paired Carries toandfronspinalcordandbrain messages Contains and ganglia nerves Week6 Review Nervous System fNeuron Impulsetransmission gBrain cerebrospinalfluid 4 1CranialNerves Spinalnerves j SNS PeripheralNervousSystem ANS SpecialSenses KTerminology relatedtothespecialsenses 1 ofearseyesandmouth Anatomy Physiology mInvolvementoftheCNSinvisionhearing smellandtaste Week6 f onthenextpage  EEit soso.sn e i IIaEiI IIII.I.si hf I TheNeuron EEE 1e1 i EEEEE.EE iiiiiiiiiii.fi aaIfi iitiffiiiiiiiiiii Dendrites arethe branching ofaneuronthat extension appffy cell arethehair lil f fromthebodyofthe l Carriesimpulse livemessages yfft EÉE ftp.fffff n.fi dnfhIlhdy hi FI fifhfxo 1fg foundbetweenmyelinsheaths thatsurroundsandprotectssomenerve Neurilema ispartoftheSchwanncell thisis where theactionpot fiberswhichspeeds upthe transmission of thatsexternaltothemyelinsheathithelpsto occursduringsaltatory conduction nervefibers These regeneratedamagedaxons areonly theaxon along found inthePNSnotpictured Schwann Cells produce myelinandarefoundwithin themyelinsheath of Types Neurons Sensoryafferent transmitimpulses TOthespinalcordandbrainonlyinone direction RIP Liam variousstimulitouchtasteodouretc createimpulses Motorefferent transmitimpulsesFROMthespinalcord tomusclesorglands byeitherinterneuronsordirectlybysensoryneurons stimulated Interneuron conductimpulsesfromafferentneurons TOmotorneurons SAME Efferent AfferentMotor Sensory mind gettransmitted via a numberof synapses vein g Impulses neuronsdon'tactually touchthenextneuron in chemicalsfrom concentrationdue onegoestothenext thechangein to thesechemicals neurotransmitter a chain Yu affff a action potential results in an notethissynapsecanoccurfromoneneurontothedendritesofanother ORRthecellbodyofanotherneuron h Referto Week 5d  i SpinalNerves areasinglemixednerveoneachsideofthespinalcordwherethedorsalandventralrootsjointogetherthereare Spinalnerves 31pair Consist ofgrey matterthatlookslike anHhas2 anteriorposteriorandlateralhorns theyare made Glatter upof whitematter neuroncell bodiesdendrites synapsesandneurogliasupportivecells glue Consists ofwhitematterwhichsurrounds greymatterandismadeofmylenatedaxonstheyformsthetractthat connectsparts ofthebra hasascendinganddescendingtractsascendingsendimpulsesfromcord braindescendingsendfrombrain effectorswhich for2 allow way communica Nerverootsaretwobundlesof fibersthatprojectfromeach nerve ofspinalcord divergingfromthespinalnerve side DorsalPosterior rootcarries nerve infoSensory Afferent Dorsal sensory Ventral Anterior root nerve carriesmotor info MotorEfferent Ventral Thespinalcordhas two enlargementsofnerveswhenviewedposteriorlycervicalandlumbar Thecaudaequinais acollectionofrootsat theendofthevertebralcanal 8 Thereare cervicalnervesdespite only 1vertebraebecauseabovetheCvertebraenervesexitsuperiorlyandbelow Gtheyexitinferiorly includingcervical nerve 8 Plexus isa of bunch nervesthat out clusters c ome in wehave4 C Cs cervicalplexusincludeswert brachial plexus includes vertebrae Co T LiLs lumbarplexusincludesvert sacralplexusincludesvertebrae SS spot good for CSFremoval touching no cord spinal Thephrenicnervecomesfromthecervicalplexusandconnectstothediaphragmatthebaseofthethoraciccavityitenervatesthediaphragm CranialNerves are12pairsofcranial nerves 2ofwhichareonlysensory There OnlyOvergrownOrangutans TryToAggrevateFatVisitorsGettingVodkaAndHamburgers Some SayMarryMoneyButMyBrotherSaysBigBrainsMatterMore boring Olfactory 1only associatedwith of sense smellonly some sensory 11overgrown Optic associated withvisionsightonlysensory say Ill Oculomotor orangutans extrinsic eye musclemovementmotor mary Trochlear Nerve IVtry activates eye tomovein muscles directions motor different money Trigeminal Vtoimpulses to sent opthalmic eyemaxillaand both mandible sensorymotorbot Abducens V1aggrevate activatesrectusmuscletomoveeyemotor my FacialV11fatallows facialexpressionhas branchesboth for 5 sensory motorbrother Vestibulo cochlear V11visitors 2partsvestibularequilibriumrinnerearbalanceandcochlearhelpshearing sensorysays Glossopharyngeal IXgettingmoves withtastingbothsensory motor tongueandpharynxduringswallowinghelps big Vagus X vodkaregulateheartlungsabdominalviscera accounts for75of sensory motorbrains movementboth p arasympatheticorgan Xl andsternocleido Accessory andinnervatetraps mastoidmusclesmotor matter HypoglossalX1 hamburgers swallowingandspeakingmotormost  j th ThePeripheralNervousSystemcanbefurtherdividedintothe autonomicnervoussystemandthesomaticnervoussystemRecall thePNS isthesystemthatsendsandrelieves informationforthebrainoutsideoftheCNS TheSomaticNervousSystemdealswiththeconsciouscontrol ofskeletalmusclesrespondstoexternal e nvironmental changes andconsistsofsensoryreceptorscranialnervesandspinalnerves TheAutonomicNervous Systemgets further divided into 2systemsthat balanceeachotheroutmostlyinvoluntary impulses fightflightemergesfromspinalcord Sympathetic or at thoraciclumbar regions fromthere merge Parasympathetic restdigestemergesfrombrainandsacralregionsstimulatedbyvagusnerve anelsfrombrain jk1m SpecialSenses Theeye vision 70 ofallsensory areintheeyesover1millionnervefibers receptors The eyeis by cushionoffatsurrounding itaswellasitbeingmostlyenclosedinabonyorbit protected the isthemembranethatlinestheeyelid Conjunctiva tothesurfaceoftheeyeandsecretesmucustolobetheeye connects flowstolacrimalglandsfoundinthe Lacrimalglandsproducelacrimalfluidthat of eye outercorner the lacrimalsacs lacrimalcanals via upper lacrimalductandnasalcavity naso oflacrimalfluid purpose includesprotectingmoisteningandlubingtheeye Structure oftheeye Has3 layers Fibroustunic istheoutermostlayermadeofsclerawhiteconnective tissue ofeyesandgivesshapetotheeyeballandthecorneawhich thatmakes thewhite up allowslight topassthroughitsclearandtheonlytissuethatcanbe worejection transplanted Choroidtunic isthemiddle layerthatisrichinbloodthatprovidestheeyewithnutrients alsopreventslight fromscatteringConsists of Ciliary m uscleattached smooth body tothechoroidthat thelensis attached tolensshapechangeswhenciliary contracts body Edith Whether Irispigmentedlayerthatgiveseyecolourthepupilisthe rounded opening intheiris Lensbiconvex likestructurethatsheld placeby ligamentattachedtociliarybodyTheleasefocuseslightontheretina crystal in a  Sensorytunic istheinnermostlayeroftheeyecontainstheretina Theretinaismade ofmanylayersof cells toprocessvisualstimuli up specialized photoreceptors Rodsarethe thatrespondtodimlightusedinperipheralvisiondon'tprovidecolourhave2xmorethancones photoreceptors Cones arethephotoreceptorsthatrespondtobrightlighteachsensitivetobluegreenandred the fovea hascones contains c entralis which only notethere areno photoreceptors attheopticdisc Macula smallspot the a near ofthe retinalookslikeadivetwhenlookingatsaggitalplanesideview center posterior in centerofthemaculapartofretinawherelightismost wheneyeis directlyatanobjectonlyhascones Fovea the focused looking disk Optic white the spotwherebloodvesselsenter eyeandspreadto surface retina the also w here meet axons asopticnerveithas exiting nophotoreceptorscreatingablindspot Chambers oftheeye AqueousHumour waterysubstance a intheanteriorcavitythatliesbetweenthecornea tenserefractslightprovidesnutrientsto of innersurface theeyeandhelpsthecorneakeepitsshapeposition doesn't circulate Vitreous Humour akaposteriorcavitycontainstransparentjellylikesubstancehelpsmaintainpressurewithineyeandholdsretinainplace alsorefracts light of Control theeye TheopticnerveII transmitselectricalimpulsesfromtheretinatothebraintheopticchiasma iswhereopticnervesLrr decuss crossover byrelaxingtheciliary to shapeof for vision ThesympatheticnerveSysfight dilatesthe distant orflight pupilwhenstressed adjust muscle tense Theparasympatheticnew restdigestconstrictsthepupilwhenrelaxing when sys or for longbycontractingciliarymuscleforclosevision stressed too ExtrinsicMotorControl oftheEye 6 musclesoutside theeyefunctiontosupportandfacilitateeyemovementTheyarecoordinatedandmoveat thesametimeThey areinnervatedby theoculomotortrochlearandabducens cranialnerves VisualPathway 1Cornea 2AqueousHumour3Pupil 9Lens sVitreousHumourrodsrconesinretina 6OpticNerve Occipitallobe Register TheEarHearing Balance Theearismadeof 3parts theinner middleandouterear Outer Involved withhearingconsists of Auricle pinnawhichis composed ofthehelixrimandlobule lobe Theouterearistheexternalauditorycanalthatisshortand curvedfilledwithceruminous glands Soundtravels canalreachingthetympanicmembrane throughthis Made ofconnectivetissuethatvibratesin responsetosound italsotransferssoundenergytomiddleear  Middle tympaniccavity Asmallairfilledmucosalinedcavitycontainingtheeustachiantubewich connects themiddleeartothenasopharynxandequilizespressure in themiddle earcavitywiththeexternalairpressure Earossiclesarethe 3bonesinthemiddleearthemalleushammer incusanvil andstaplesstirrup Inner BonyLabrinth Amazeofbony chambers withinthetemporalbonecalledthe cochleavestibule andsemicircularcanalseachfilledwithperilymph earconsistsof 2 parts Inner vestibular portion semicircularcanals dealwithbalance auditoryportion cochlear dealswithhearing Equilibrium Balance associatedwith thevestibuleandsemicircularcanalsImpulsesaretransmitted throughthevestibularbranch ofthe8ᵗʰcranialnerve Pathwayofsound 1 Soundwaves 3tympanicmembrane sovalwindow 7 cochlearbranchofthe8thcranialnerve 2 externalauditorycanal aossicle 6haircellsinorganofcorti 8registertemporallobe TheNoseSmell OlfactoryReceptors sendimpulsesthroughtheolfactorynerve1stcranialnerve receptors areinthetemporallobewhichisresponsibleforauditory odours areoftenassociatedwithfeelingsandmemories Smell Chemicals thatdissolveinthemoistureofthenasaltissuestimulatereceptors These travel along olfactorynerve Interpreted assmell Sense ofSmell Sequence 1Airbournemoleculestraveltheair smallestonestravel thefarthest 2 enternoseand traveltoolfactory Molecules in numbrane nasalcavity 3Themembraneiscoveredin athickmucus 4Inthemembranearemanyreceptorcells 5Receptorcellssensitivetoparticular molecules 6Moleculesattachtothereceptorcellscreatingnerveimpulses  7 Impulses continuetothebrainthroughthecribriformplate 8Nerveimpulsesmakefirst junctionw brainatolfactorybulb 9Glomeruliintheolfactorybulb distributetheconvergingimpulsestobraininorderlyfashion 10Inthebraintheygetdecodedandodoursarepecieved Gustation Tastebuds mostonthetongue theyarefoundinthepapillaeofthetonguemucosa restfoundinotherareasofthemouthandpharynx oftastebud Structure hasabout90tastecells eachtastebodhas 3majorcelltypes Supportingcellsinsulatethereceptor basalcellsdynamicstemcells gustatorycellstastecells TasteSensation sweetsugars alcohol someaminoacids saltmetal ions sour hydrogen ions bittersalkaloids nicotine quinine umamisavory Tobe tasted achemicalmust 1must bedissolved 2mustcontact gustatory hairs 3triggeraction potential aregistersastaste Week 7 Review Endocrine System aTerminologyrelatedtoendocrinesystem bThe differencebetweenendocrine exocrine 1Varioushormones ofspecificglandsandorgans d Therelationshipbetween hypothalamusandpituitarygland cExamplesillustratingtypesofendocrine controlmechanisms asfollows anterior hormonesecretion pituitaryglandrtarget bloodcalcium levels adrenalmedulla hormonesecretion pancreatichormonesecretion Week 7 a Term Definition autocrine achemicalsignalthatelicitsa inthesamecellthatsecretedit response endocrinegland atissueororganthatsecreteshormonesintothebloodandlymphwithoutductssotheycantravelfurtherthan fromwhere were they madeofglandularepithelium secreted cellstissuesorgansthatsecretehormones asaprimaryorsecondaryfunctionand in endocrine system playanintegralrole normalbodilyprocess exocrinesystem cellstissue thatsecretehormones directlytotargettissuesviaglandularducts organs hormone a ofanendocrineorganthattravelsviabloodstreamorlymphaticstoinducearesponseintargetcellstissueelsewhere secretion may inasingleorganorthroughoutthebody cells target specifiedbyhormonesmultiple exist Typeof Function hormones 1Growth development 1Tropichormones targetotherendocrineglandsandstimulatetheirgrowth a Reproduction 2 Sexhormones targetsreproductivetissue 3Mobilizationofbody 4Anabolic hormonesstimulatesanabolismintheirtargetcells defenses 4Maintainanceofhomeostasis 5Regulationof metabolism Control ofhormonerelease negativefeedback detected 1conditionsinthebodychangefromsetpoint I change 2 thecorrectivemechanismsare activated 3 conditionsreturnedtosetpoint acorrectivemechanismsareturnedoff Major glands 1pituitarygland 3 5Pancreas 7Pinealgland Parathyroid glands 2thyroidgland 4Adrenalglands 6Thymus 8Gonadsovaries testes Hypothalamus controls processes associated withthirsthungerfatiguebodytempand circadianrhythms controls secretions in theanterior pituitarygland Pituitarybrainballs connects tohypotalamus and has 2 regions ILsEIn FFÉÉ Anterior pituitary produces 6hormones GHTSH ACTHFSHLH andPRL Posterior pituitary significantlysmallerstoreshormonesproduced antidiuretic oxytocin byhypothalamus c Hormone Function Placeof Production Target location GrowthHormoneGH stimulates growth ofmusclesand bones Anteriorpituitary bones muscles role plays inmetabolism ThyroidstimulatinghormoneTSHpromotemaintain of anddevelopment thyroidgland growth Anteriorpituitary thyroid Adrenocortitropichormone maintain ACTH promotes anddevelopment growth of adrenal Anteriorpituitary adrenal gland cortex cortisollevels regulates Follicle hormone stimulating FSH stimulates maturation growth of follicles ovary Anteriorpituitary ovaries LH hormone Luteinizing the stimulates formation of ractivity luteum corpus of Anteriorpituitary ovaries testes or theovary breasts Anteriorpituitary PRL stimulates rmaintainsmilkprod.by mammaryglands Proffy 0 stimulates of contraction uterus l abour during Hypothalamusstored in uterus glands mammary formilkletdown breastductsduringlactationproduced posteriorpituitary allows in inresponseto uterinestretchingand infant s uckling Antidiuretichormone ADH inhibits urine production kidney hold p romotes to Hypothalamusstored in kidney inresponseto saltimbalancecauses water moisture posteriorpituitary vasoconstriction toincreasedbloodpressure leading d the hypothalamuscontrols thesecretionsintheanteriorpituitaryglandand producesthehormonesthatare stored inthe posterior pituitarygland e Anterior PituitaryandTargetGlandSecretion Thehypothalamussecreteshormonesstimulatetheanteriorpituitarygland tosecretehormones thatwill stimulateother endocrineglands to secretehormones Blood calcium levels Thethyroidglandlocatedintheneck iscomposedofstructuralunitscalled follicleswhichisthesiteofthyroidhormonesynthe There are3hormonesitsecretes Triiodothryronine 13 growth tempheart developmentmetabolismbody rate Thyroxine T1 vitalroleindigestionheartmusclefunctionbraindevelopmentandbonemaintenance Calcitonin Ct conttight of breakdown osteoclasts fithtindiiai nthroughactivatingosteoblastsrinhibitingbone iny.mbore.at p.at ontk tins t in inigt.ir I catewr.to qggi aay The parathyroid isembeddedonthe posteriorsurfaceofthethyroidglandtheyworktogether Produces parathyroidhormone PTH Parathyroid hormoneacts onbonesandkidneycellstoincreasethereleaseofcalcium inblood phhirolhea.msiitiniiT.tt Pancreatic Hormone Secretion Eif th.iT items in Thepancreas isanelongatedgland thatsitsbehindthestomach Itisinvolvedinboth endocrineandexocrinefunctions endocrine portionishormonalandconsistsofcellsscatteredaroundtheorgancalledisletsof Langerhanscells alphacellssecreteglucagon raisesbloodsugarlevelsbybreakingdownglycogen glucose tells toturn liver glucagon to glycogen g lucose betacellssecreteinsulin lowerbloodsugarlevels stimulating glucose andproteinmetabolism fat by glycogeninsulin controlcarb helps deltacellssecretesomatostatinthatinhibitsreleasinggrowthhormone AdrenalMedulla Hormone Secretion of Theadrenalcortexistheouterportion theadrenalglands composed of endocrinetissue Produces 3classificationsofhormones inthebody Mineralocorticoids regulatehowelectrolytesareprocessed ExAldosteronewhichregulatessodiumlevelsintheblood inmetabolismofcarbsproteinsandfatsalsohaveantiinflamactivity Glucocorticoids involved ExCortisolsuppressesinflammationregulatesBP releasedwhenstressedmern Gonadocorticoid produce sexhormones ExDehydroandrosterone DHEAandandrogenicsteroids areconverted inovaries testes tomakeestrogens testosteroneandprogesterone ovariesproduceestrogenprogesterone testesproducetestosterone Theadrenalmedulla istheinnerportionoftheadrenalglandsTheycontainneurosecretory tissueand produce catecholami Epinephrine These mimictheaction ofthe of sympatheticnervoussystemdilationconstriction pupilsbronchi orbronchioles Norepinephrine heartrateincreasedecrease GItractincreasedecreases Week Review8 CardiovascularSystem aNervousinnervationofbloodvesselsandtheirCNScontrolcenters bThelocationstructureand functionof selectedcomponents ofheart Cardiaccycle c dHowhearttissue via coronary circulation recievesblood supply eTheheartsconductionsystem fThe innervation nervousofheart g meaning of pressuresystolicand The arterial blood diastolic BP  Respiratory System bThe location structure andfunctionof oftherespiratorysystem selected organs 1 of Howthestructure of airandgasexchange therespiratory organs maintainpatency airwayfacilitates Theprocessofbreathinganditsregulationthrough nervousfeedbackmechanismsto maintain homeostasis f 4Howoxygen carbondioxideare transported intheblood Week 8 a Nervousinnervation ofbloodvesselsandtheirCNScontrolcenters Intrinsic Conduction Systemnodalsystem Thehearthasitsown conduction systemthatsetsthe pace oftheheart Thesinoatrialnodeinitiatestheimpuls throughtheatriaandthepacemaker regulates theheartrate Patway ofimpulse 1Sinoatrialnodesendsimpulse 2Atrioventricularnodeintherightatriasendsimpulsetothe 3 Atrioventricular of in bundlebundle His theinterventricularseptumand impulsetravelsthrougthebundlebranchestothe 4Purkinje fibers b TheHeart inthethoraxbetweenthelungs it has a pointedapexfacingthelefthip Located onthe diaphragm rests between 5ᵗʰand6ᵗʰribAroundthesizeoffist Coverings oftheheart isaloosesackoffibroustissuethatanchorstothediaphragmandsternum itis Pericardum serousmembranethatencases linedwith theheart thefibrouspericardium basicallytheundersideofthe pericardium Parietalpericardiumlines Iffffffiedom Visceralpericardium theheart covers ftp.ffyff thespacebetweenthelayersofthepericardiumtoreducefriction Serousfluidfills Layersoftheheart Epicardiumtheoutermostlayermadeofconnectivetissueconsistsoftheparietalpericardium allowinghearttopump Myocardiumthemiddlelayermadeofcardiacmuscle Endocardium ofendothelialcells theinnerlayermade Chambersand GreatVessels Chambers Greatvessels right atrium right Venacavainferiororsuperior Aorta ventricle leftatrium leftventricle Pulmonaryartery Pulmonaryveins  Right left sideactasseparate pumpsthereare 4 chambers Atria receivesthedeoxgynatedbloodright leftatrium Ventricles discharges oxygenatedblood rightleft ventricle Values Valuesopenandbloodpumpsthroughheld place in by chordaetendineae which connected is topapillarymusclesValuescloseto preventbackflow Atrioventricularvalues a betweenatria andventricles Bicuspidvalue onleft betweenleftatrium ventricle Tricuspidvalve between atrium ventricle onright right SemilunarValues Pulmonary semilunarvalue between ri tventricleandpulmonaryartery Aorticsemilunar valuebetween leftventricleandaorta Bloodflowthroughtheheart 1Deoxygenatedbloodfromsuperiorandinferiorvenacava 2Enterstherightatriumandgoesthroughtricuspidvalue 3Passesthepulmonarysemilunarvaluetothepulmonaryarteryto theright leftlungs 4Oxygenatedbloodpassesthroughthepulmonaryveinandenterstheleft atrium 5Passesthebicuspidvalueintotheleft ventricle 6Goes throughtheaorticvaluetotheaorta which distributes blood to arteries thatsupplybloodtothebody Coronary Circulation Hearthasitsowncirculatory system arteriesoriginate Coronary in aortaanddelivernutrientstothemyocardium arteriesbloodemptiesinto coronary therightatrium viathecoronary sinuses CardiacCycle Atriacontractatthe sametime while theyrelaxtheventriclescontract Contraction systoleventriclesempty Relaxation diastoleventricles fill StrokeVolume SV isthevolume of blood pumped byeachventricle in one contraction HeartRateHR ishow manytimes yourheatbeatspermin 60100bpm normal between is Cardiac output co istheamountof blood pumped eachsideoftheheart in 1mincoSVxHR by BloodPressure isthemeasurementofpressure in largearteriesnormally 12080 systolic pressure atpeakventricularcontraction pressure decreases thefurtherit is fromtheheart diastolic pressure whenventriclesrelax opepy.ggbypestricting bloodflowthenreleasing and it  NeuralfactorsliketheANScanmake adjustmentsForexample a decrease in arteriolardiameter mayproduce a higherBP Renalfactors caneffectBP because kidneysregulate blood volume levels Renin is a hormonalcontrol that isreleasedwhen bloodvolumegetslow it increasesBP Angiotensin is splitbyreninintoangio111theycausekidneytoretainsaltandwaterincreasingbloodvolume BP TemperaturecanaffectBP If toohotbloodvessels dilate loweringBPitcoldvesselsconstrict BP increasing Chemicalscertainchemicals cancauseincrease ordecrease in BP Diet highsaltcancause increased BP Normal HRis 135110 mmHgsystolic 8075mmHgdiastolic hypotension lowBP fallsbelow110andoften associatedwithillness hypertension highBP is above 140and canbedangerous if chronic Respiratory System Respiratory System bThe location structure andfunctionof oftherespiratorysystem selected organs 1 of Howthestructure of airandgasexchange therespiratory organs maintainpatency airwayfacilitates Theprocessofbreathinganditsregulationthrough nervous to maintain homeostasis f feedbackmechanisms 4Howoxygen carbondioxideare transported intheblood h NasalCavities Sinuses are in the mucosa on superiorsurface Olfactory receptors Theymoistenthe air trapforeign particles Para nasal Sinus function to lighten theskull resonancechamberforspeech andproduce mucus thatdrainsinto the nasal cavity Cilia hairlike extensions that movesubstancesoverthe cell surfaceandprotect the nasal passage ways by filtering and dust other particlesthat enterthe nose when breathing Larynx Thyro