Anatomy 1 Exam Review PDF

Anatomy 1 Exam Review Introduction Video notes – Anatomy→ ana-: up and -tomy: cutting; the study of body structures – Physiology studies how the body functions – Protons→neutrons and electrons → atoms→ molecules(lipids) →cells→tissues→ organs→ body systems→ human body – The study of cells...

Anatomy 1 Exam Review Introduction Video notes – Anatomy→ ana-: up and -tomy: cutting; the study of body structures – Physiology studies how the body functions – Protons→neutrons and electrons → atoms→ molecules(lipids) →cells→tissues→ organs→ body systems→ human body – The study of cells is cytology and the study of tissues histology – There are 11 body systems- integumentary, skeletal, muscular, lymphatic, endocrine, nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive – Life processes include metabolism (a chemical process), growth (there are 3 different types of growth size of cell, number of cells, and space between the cells), responsiveness (stimulus from the environment), movement (organ, walking, arm), differentiation (specialized cells), and reproduction (within cells or a new person) – Noninvasive diagnostic techniques include: inspection( looking into the mouth or ears), palpation pushing the stomach), auscultation (listening to the heart or lungs), and percussion (tapping a part of the body and listening) – Supine is lying down face up and prone is lying down face down – Sagittal plane divides right and left sides – Coronal plane divides anterior and posterior – Transverse plane divides upper and lower – Oblique plane divides the body at an angle – The dorsal cavity includes cranial and vertebral – The ventral cavity includes thoracic – The abdominopelvic body cavity includes the abdomen and pelvis – Parietal is the wall of a cavity – Visceral is the covering of an internal organ In class notes – Hallux is the big toe and pollex is the thumb – Mesenteries hold organs in a specific spot – The popliteal region is behind the knee – The antecubital region is the forearm (where blood is drawn) – Cubital is the elbow – Brachial is arm Cells Video notes – Histology is the study of cells – Cells become tissue – There are 4 major tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous – Cells becoming different is known as differentiation – Cell junctions include: tight, adhering, gap, desmosomes, and hemidesmosomes – Tight junctions are weblike proteins that stitch 2 plasma membranes together they are responsible for sealing off passageways between 2 cells and keep the proteins from moving laterally, they are found close to the apical surface of cells – Adhering junctions are proteins that click between 2 cells, which is called intercellular space like velcro, they also connect with actin filament – Desmosomes have keratin, they’re like buttons and keep muscles together like when the heart is beating – Hemidesmosomes are half a desmosome clicks with a laminin and are found in the basal surface of the cell – Epithelial tissue is avascular and tightly packed – There are 2 types of epithelial tissue surface epithelium and granular epithelium – They can be simple or stratified epithelium, and squamous , cuboidal, or columnar in shape – Transitional epithelium can be relaxed or stretched – Microvilli are shorter than cilia and make the cell have more absorption – Surface epithelium lines and covers surfaces internally and externally – Keratin protein makes the skin stronger – The internal epidermis(the inside of our cheeks) is non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium – Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium are found in the respiratory tract – Pseudostratified non-ciliated columnar epithelium are found in the epididymus – Simple cuboidal epithelium can be found where urine is formed – Simple squamous epithelium can be found in blood vessel lumen – Granular epithelium are exocrine and endocrine glands – Endocrine glands do not have ducts but they have secretion product hormone while exocrine glands are the opposite where they have ducts but they secrete everything but hormones(mucous, saliva,…) – Endocrine glands→ PTSP (parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, suprarenal gland, and pituitary gland) – Exocrine glands→ TOP (testes, ovaries, and pancreas) – Holocrine glands leave a hole behind due to the whole cell exploding like sebaceous glands – Apocrine glands release secretions by pinching off the apical portion of the cell like mammary glands  – The epithelial tissue functions include protection, secretion, excretion, absorption (microvilli), and sensory In class notes – Glands are composed of epithelial tissue – The stratum lucideum is not found in thin skin – Hair grows in the lucideum layer of the skin Connective tissue Video notes – Connective tissue is present all over the body – It supports structurally and connects the other tissues – Characteristics of connective tissue include cells with extracellular matrix and highly vascularized – Types of connective tissue include: dense, loose, elastic, adipose, bone, cartilage, blood, and lymph – Dense (fibrous) connective tissue are like fibroblasts made up of collagen tissues – Dense regular connective tissue is found in tendons and ligaments – Dense irregular connective tissue is found in the sclera, dura matter,… – Loose (areolar) connective tissue is made up of fibroblasts, macrophages, and is reticular – Loose connective tissue is the most abundant, very supportive, and packages materials – Elastic connective tissue can be found in the walls of large blood vessels, like the dermis, aorta,… – Adipose connective tissue is fat tissue made up of adipocytes – Cartilage tissue is vascular made up of cartilage cells known as chondrocytes – Elastic cartilage is found in the outer ear – Hyaline cartilage is tough but flexible found in the front of the nose – Fibrous cartilage is the toughest and found in intervertebral disks – Mast cells cause inflammation – Mast cells are activated with pain which secretes histamine – Histamine increases the lumen in blood vessels which is why it becomes erythematous In class notes – Epithelial tissue is highly vascularized with the exception of cartilage – Fibroblasts build fiber – Cartilage takes longer otherwise heal because it is avascular and is depleted of nutrients – Exocrine glands can be classified as holocrine, apocrine, and merocrine – All exocrine glands are epithelial tissue – For a substance to be considered a hormone it need to be released  – directly into the blood stream so all exocrine secretions exclude hormones Integumentary system Video notes – Integument includes the cutaneous and subcutaneous layer which holds the hair, nails, skin, and sensory receptors – Its functions include protection, vitamin D production(sunlight), temperature regulation (sweating), excretion and secretion of substances (lotion), and sensory information (touching ice) – The cutaneous layer is made up of the epidermis (keratinized stratified squamous epithelium which is 4 layers) and dermis (dense fibrous irregular connective tissue (vascular) where nutrients are found) – The subcutaneous layer is composed of areolar and adipose connective tissue(fat) – Thin skin is 4 layers and has hair and thick skin is 5 layers and doesn’t have hair like the palms of your hands – The 5 layers of thick skin are stratum corneum, … lucideum(hair), … granulosum(lipids), … spinosum, and … basale(base layer) Come Lets Get Sun Burned – Keritanocytes travel up the epidermis and loose nutrients as they travel but gain keratin – Every 8 weeks all the layers of the epidermis are renewed – Water does not go in our skin due to the lipid layer – Calcitrol is the most active from of vitamin D – Melanocytes make melatonin which determines skin color and how much you get is determined by genetics – Melanin protects our skin from UV rays found in the basalt layer – Autoimmune diseases can cause your body to attack melanocytes which cause vitiligo(white patches) – Pipilla is a nipple shaped structure on the skin known as a dermal papilla or papilla if there are multiple – When you get a blister it means your dermis and epidermis have separated and interstitial fluid has accumulated in-between – The top part of the dermis is the papillary layer and below is the reticular layer – The portion of the hair that sticks out the skin is the hair shaft, below is the hair follicle, and the bottom part is the hair bulb – The arrestor pili muscle sticks our hair up and becomes errect(goosebumps) – Sebaceous glands secrete sebum – Sudifourous glands are swear glands more specifically eccrine glands  – Apocrine sweat glands are modified sweat glands more specifically scent glands – Both are released via exocytosis – The meissner's corpuscle/tactile corpuscle detects minor touch(mechanoreceptor) – The laminated corpuscle is activated with greater pressure(mechanoreceptor) In class notes – Melanocytes and keratin are found in the stratum basal layer of the epidermis – Hard core keratin cells and lipids and found in the stratum granulosum layer – Remember Come Lets Get Sun Burned for the layers of the epidermis Skeletal system Video notes – Joints are the places were bones come together – Osteoprogenitor cells come from the embryonic skeleton – Osteoblasts are born to build bone and are responsible for bone deposition – Osteocytes are born to build calcium – Osteoclasts crush bone and put calcium into the blood stream they’re responsible for bone resorption/ reshaping the bone – The mesenchymal skeleton appears around the 6th week of embryonic development – 2 different processes can happen intramembranous ossification(bone formation within) and endocondrial ossification – Calcification happens within ossification – Ossification/ bone formation happens in four different situations including initial formation of bones, growth of bones, remodeling (old bone tissues into new), and repairing fractures – Intramembranous ossification has 4 steps: development of the ossification center→calcification→ formation of bone trabeculae→ development of periosteum – Endochondrial ossification has 6 steps: development of cartilage→ growth→ development of the primary ossification center→ medullary cavity→ development of the secondary ossification centers→ formation of articular cartilage and growth plate – Osteoprogenitor cells/ osteogenic cells – All bones below the skull go through endochondrial ossification except the clavicle bone which goes through intramembranous ossification – Bone tissue is made up of 50% calcium and phosphate salts that crystalize(calcification), 30% of collagen fibers, and 20% of water  – Red bone marrow is found in restricted areas within the spongy bone – Yellow bone marrow is fatty and made up of adipose cells(adipocytes) and are found in the shafts of long bones – Osteoclasts →crush up old bone tissue resorption – Osteoblasts →bone deposition – Bone organ functions include support, protection, movement, mineral storage and release (osteoclasts), production of blood cells, and fat storage – Flat, irregular, long, short, seamoid, pneumatized, and sutural are all types of bones – Flat bones are thin and flat like the frontal, parietal, occipital, ribs, scapula,… – Irregular bones are complex and irregular in shape like the temporal, vertebra, calcaneus,… – Long bones have diaphysis and epiphysis like the humerus, radius, femur, clavicle, metacarpals and metatarsals,… – Short bones are nearly equal in length, width, and depth like carpal, tarsal, and calcaneus – Sesamoid bones develop within tendons like the patella – Pneumatized bones are lined with mucous membranes like the ethmoid bone – A foreamen is a hole – A fissure is an elongated hole – A fossa in an indentation – A sulcus is a depression or groove – A meatus is a canal – A condyle/ epidondyle are rounded smooth articular surfaces – A facet is a smooth non rounded surface – A head is a rounded top and neck – A crest is an elongated projection – A line is a narrow long ridge – A trochanter is a big bump that sticks out and a tubercle is a small bump – A spinous process is sharp and sticks out – A tuberosity is a rough bump In class notes – The transverse foramen is the bone feature present in all cervical vertebrae – Temporal and parietal cranial bones are paired – Facial bones remember PEST OF 211 211 which means 2 parietal, 1 ethmoid, 1 sphenoid, 2 temporal, 1 occipital, and 1 frontal – The coronal suture is on the top of your head like a corona – The temporal bone is near your ear to hear the tempo  – Tongue is gloss – Bumps are processes – Lacrimal bone is the tear bone (lagrima) Axial skeleton Video notes – The adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones and in a child there are more because they are fused together – The skeleton is divided into 2 the axial and appendicular skeletons – The axial skeleton is every bone is the vertical central axis – Appendicular skeleton includes your upper and lower limbs – Our bones have surface markings that give us hints as to what functions the bones have – There are 8 cranial bones, 24 facial, 6 ear ossicles, 1 hyoid bone, 26 in the vertebral column, and 25 in the thoracic cage – Sutures separate cranial bones – The sagittal suture in the the middle of the skull separating left and right – The coronal suture in the the middle separating anterior and posterior – The lambdoid suture is for the occipital bone section – The squamous suture is for the temporal bone which is near your ear – The supraorbital foramen is a small hole located above your eyes Frontal bone – The hole that opens for the brainstem under the skull is known as the foramen magnum in the occipital bone – The 2 rounded smooth surfaces around the foramen magnum are occipital condyles and sit on the first vertebra C1(atlas) – There is a canal in the foramen magnum that is the hypoglosso canal because it has a root that leads to the tongue Temporal bone – The temporal bone is an irregular bone – The cheekbone is the zygomatic bone – The styloid process in under the external acoustic meatus(ear canal) – The bone behind your ear is the mastoid process – The mandibular fossa and condyle make your temporalmandibular joint (TMJ) – The canal next to the styloid process on the left from the inside view in the carotid canal – Under the carotid canal there is a bigger hole which is the jugular foramen – The sphenoid bone touches all the cranial bones – The hyoid bone is in the upper neck and does not connect to bone – To remember the ear ossicles remember Music InSide which is malleus, incus, and stapes The vertebral column – C1-C7 are the cervical vertebrae (7), T1-T12 are the thoracic (12), L1-L5 are the lumbar (5), and then the sacrum and coccyx – Scoliosis occurs from over curvature laterally – The spinous process is pointing outwards which is what you feel when you pass your fingers on your back – Facets are flat smooth surfaces used for articulation – C1 (atlas) has no body and no spinous process it connects to the occipital bone, helps move the head and the joint between the two is the atlantoccipital joint (allows for the yes motion) – C2 (axis) has no motion – The dens is the axis of rotation held by the transverse ligament – The spinous process is split into 2 (bifid) – The ribs connect to the thoracic vertebrae – ribs=costal – The thoracic cage is made up of 12 ribs and the sternum – There are 3 types of ribs 7 vertebrosternal , 3 vertebrochondral and 2 vertebral – Chondral= cartilage – Vertebral ribs T11 and T12 are false ribs – The sternum has 3 sections the manubrium, body, and xyphiod process – Above the manubrium is the jugular notch and to the sides is the clavicular notch