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All ist **[SUFI ISLAM]** Ihsān (إحسان) is an Arabic term that means \"perfection,\" \"excellence,\" or \"doing something in the best possible manner.\" In Islamic context, it refers to the concept of performing good deeds with sincerity and excellence, often associated with a high level of faith and devotion. **Narrated by Umar ibn al-Khattab (Hadith Jabril))** *\"One day, while we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), there came before us a man with extremely white clothing and extremely black hair. There were no signs of travel on him, and none of us knew him. He sat down before the Prophet (peace be upon him), resting his knees against his knees and placing the palms of his hands on his thighs. He said:* *\'O Muhammad, tell me about Islam.* *The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: 1)\'Islam is to testify that there is no deity, but Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, 2) to establish the prayer, 3) to give zakat, 4) to fast in Ramadan, and 5) to make the pilgrimage to the House if you are able to do so.' (Five pillars of Islam)* *He said: \'You have spoken rightly,\' and we were amazed at him asking him and then saying that he had spoken rightly.* *He said: \'Tell me about Iman (faith).\'* *The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: 1)\'It is to believe in Allah, 2) His angels, 3) His books, 4) His messengers, 5) the Last Day, and 6) to believe in the divine decree, both good and bad.' (six articles of faith)* *He said: \'You have spoken rightly.\'* *He said: \'Tell me about Ihsan.\'* *The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: \'It is to worship Allah as if you see Him, for even if you do not see Him, He certainly sees you.\'* *Then he departed, and I stayed for a time. The Prophet (peace be upon him) then said: \'O Umar, do you know who the questioner was?\'* *I said: \'Allah and His Messenger know best.'* *He said: \'That was Gabriel. He came to teach you your religion.' Sahih Muslim.* *This hadith led the foundation for distinguishing Islam from Ahsan. In Sufism, Ahsan took priority over Islam (Sharia and Fiqh-Orthodox Islam)* **[Orthodox Conception of God Traditional Islamic Theology)]** **[Transcendence:]** The orthodox view emphasizes the absolute oneness and transcendence of God. Allah is seen as the Creator of the universe, beyond any human likeness or attributes. He is omnipotent, omniscient, and **completely separate** from His creation. **[Tawhid (the oneness of God)]** is a central tenet. Allah has no partners, equals, or intermediaries. Worship is solely directed toward Him, without intermediaries. **[Relationship with Humanity]**: God is seen as a master, and humans as servants. The relationship is formal, emphasizing obedience to divine laws (Shariah) as revealed through the Qur\'an and Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad).Allah is viewed as just and merciful but also a judge who will hold individuals accountable on the Day of Judgment. The literal meaning of Islam is "surrender (to God). " **Scriptural Adherence**: Orthodox Islam places a strong emphasis on following the Qur\'an and the Hadith as the primary sources of understanding God and religious practice. Scholars (ulama) play a significant role in interpreting religious texts and guiding the community on religious matters. **[Law and Rituals]**: Strict adherence to the outward aspects of Islamic law (Shariah) is emphasized, including daily prayers, fasting, pilgrimage, and other acts of worship. Religious rituals and obligations are essential in expressing faith and submitting to God. **In Orthodox Islam, Ahkaam (plural of Hukm) obligations and directives are categorized into the following terms. Actions are judged based on these categories, and individuals are rewarded or punished accordingly by God. God will always be transcendental being and** **Fard (Mandatory**): These are acts that are obligatory upon every Muslim. Not fulfilling a Fard act is sinful. There are two types: **Fard \'Ayn**: Obligatory on every individual (e.g., daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan).**Fard Kifayah**: A collective obligation, meaning if some members of the community perform it, the others are exempted (e.g., funeral prayers). **Waajib (Obligatory but Less Strict than Fard):** This is an act that is necessary to perform but slightly less binding than Fard. Missing it without a valid reason is sinful, but the sin is considered less than missing a Fard act (e.g., Witr prayer in some schools of thought). **Mustahabb (Recommended**): These are acts that are highly encouraged but not obligatory. Performing them earns reward, but not performing them doesn\'t incur sin (e.g., giving extra charity, praying Sunnah prayers). **Mubah (Permissible):** These are actions that are neutral. Neither doing them nor avoiding them earns reward or incurs sin (e.g., eating lawful food). **Makruh (Disliked):** Acts that are discouraged but not sinful. It\'s better to avoid them, and avoiding them earns reward, but doing them does not incur punishment (e.g., eating garlic/onion before going to the mosque). **Haram (Prohibited):** These are acts that are strictly forbidden in Islam. Committing a Haram act is sinful, and avoiding it is rewarded (e.g., theft, adultery, alcohol consumption, gambling, eating port, usuary, murder). This hadith , in part, has laid the foundation for mysticism/Sufiism/ (Tasawwuf) in Islam. Most Sufi or mystic scholars including Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077--1166), Al-Ghazali (1058--1111), Ibn Arabi (1165--1240) and Rumi (1207--1273), in their thought have philosophized "Ahsan" and used it as evidence in support of mysticism. Islamic mysticism focuses on **the inner, esoteric aspects of the faith, emphasizing personal experience, spiritual purification, and the direct experience of God's presence**. The goal of Islamic mysticism is to attain a deeper, more intimate connection with God. Sufism is called \"Sufism\" because it derives from the Arabic word ṣūf (صُوف), meaning \"wool,\" referring to the simple woolen garments worn by early Islamic mystics as a symbol of their renunciation of worldly pleasures and focus on spiritual devotion. The early Sufis emphasized humility, poverty, and asceticism, and their plain woolen clothing became a distinguishing mark. Another interpretation links the name to the Arabic word ṣafā (صفاء), meaning \"purity,\" reflecting the focus on the purification of the soul and seeking closeness to God through inward spiritual practices.. **[Contrast Between Orthodox Islam and Islamic Mysticism (Sufism)]** **ORTHODOX ISLAM** **SUFISM** ------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- definition Adherence to traditional Islamic law and theology as outlined in the Quran and Hadith A spiritual branch of Islam focused on inner purification and direct experience of God. Emphasis Focus on external adherence to Sharia (Islamic law), rituals, and community obligations. Focus on internal spirituality, personal experience, and union with the Divine theology Established doctrines, legalistic interpretations, and schools of thought. Esoteric interpretations of scripture, often beyond legalistic boundaries Approach to worship Stresses formal prayer (Salah), fasting (Sawm), pilgrimage (Hajj), and charity (Zakat) Stresses personal devotion, meditation (Dhikr), and practices to cultivate closeness to God. Relationship with God God as transcendent, requiring humans to follow His commandments. Seeks an intimate, personal connection with God, emphasizing immanence (Fana). Legalism High emphasis on strict adherence to Sharia law and jurisprudence (Fiqh). Lower emphasis on legalism; focus on moral and spiritual purity. Prophet (S.A.W) Seen as a model of lawgiver and the perfect Muslim for emulation through actions. Viewed as a mystic and spiritual guide, with emphasis on inner experiences. Clerical authority Scholars (Ulema) and jurists (Muftis) have authority in interpreting religious law. Sufi Sheikhs (Pir, Murshid) guide followers on the mystical path. View of the world Considers the world as a place of tests, with obedience to God as paramount. Sees the material world as a veil, seeking transcendence of worldly concerns Ritual practices Centered on obligatory rituals (e.g., prayer, fasting) prescribed by the Quran and Hadith Includes Dhikr (remembrance of God), meditation, music, dance and poetry. View on knowledge Prioritizes external, scholarly knowledge from Quranic exegesis (Tafsir) and Fiqh Prioritizes inner, experiential knowledge (Ma\'rifa) from spiritual practice Afterlife focus Focuses on earning rewards in the afterlife through good deeds and adherence to God\'s law. Seeks annihilation of self (Fana) and unity with the Divine (Baqa). Attitude towards saints Respects saints but focuses on God\'s commandments Reverence for saints (Awliya) and seeking their intercession. Spread Predominant in Islamic societies, with strong clerical establishments Sufi orders (Tariqas) exist with dedicated followings throughout the Muslim world Criticism of others Sufism is sometimes criticized for deviating from orthodox practices Sufis critique Orthodox Islam for overemphasis on external rituals **[Nine basic components of mysticism (Ahsan, spiritual excellence)]** 1. **[Inner Journey (Tariqah):]** The mystic follows a spiritual path called a \"tariqah,\" seeking closeness to God. This involves spiritual exercises, practices, including the Whirling Dervishes, Khalwa (isolation), Chilla, Sohbet, Muraqaba (Meditation/Contemplation), Dhikr (Remembrance of God) and Wird (Spiritual Recitation). **Story of Bayazid Bastami's Spiritual Journey**: Bayazid Bastami, a renowned Persian Sufi mystic, embarked on a lifelong inner journey to seek closeness to God. In one famous account, Bayazid said, **"For thirty years I sought God, and when I finally saw Him, I realized that He had been seeking me all along.**" This statement reflects the Sufi concept that the inner journey is not just about the seeker's efforts, but about realizing that **God has always been present and close**---**waiting for the seeker to discover the Divine within themselves.** 2. [**Purification of the Heart (Tazkiyah**):] Central to Islamic mysticism is the purification of the soul/heart from worldly attachments (material goods, wealth, property, sex, family) and vices (such as pride, greed, envy), to make the heart a vessel for divine light**.. Tazkiyah will undo corruption done by body.** **The Story of Ibrahim ibn Adham** Ibrahim ibn Adham was a wealthy prince who lived a life of luxury and indulgence in the royal court. One night, while lying in his palace, Ibrahim heard footsteps on the roof. Startled, he called out to ask who was there. A voice replied, \"I am searching for my lost camel.\" Ibrahim, confused, said, **\"How can you find a camel on the roof of a palace?\"** The voice responded, \"**And how can you expect to find God while living a life of indulgence and worldly pleasures?\"** 3. **Union with God (Fana and Baqa):** Sufis aim to experience Fana (annihilation of the material ego or self) and baqa (subsistence in God). This spiritual state reflects the idea that one's individual existence is absorbed into the presence of God, where only God\'s will remain. **The Story of Mansur al-Hallaj** One of the most famous events in Hallaj's life occurred when he proclaimed the words **"Ana al-Haqq," meaning "I am the Truth" (or "I am God").** On the day of his execution, al-Hallaj was brought out in front of a large crowd in Baghdad. He was brutally tortured before being put to death. Reports indicate that he was first whipped, and then his hands, feet, and tongue were cut off, as part of a process of slow dismemberment. Despite the intense suffering, al-Hallaj is said to have remained calm and in a state of divine ecstasy, reciting prayers and praising God throughout the ordeal. He was finally crucified and behead in Baghdad in 922 under the directive by the Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadir. Bastami was immersed in deep contemplation and mystical prayer, seeking closeness to God. As he progressed in his spiritual journey, he reached a point where the ego or self completely vanished, and only the Divine presence remained. At this moment, Bayazid felt that there was no distinction between his self and God, and thus, in this heightened state of spiritual ecstasy, he exclaimed: **"Subhânî mâ aʿẓama shânî!\" (\"Glory be to me, how great is my majesty**!"). 4. **Love and Devotion (Ishq):** Love is a dominant theme in Sufi thought. Mystics often describe their relationship with God as one of intense love and yearning, seeking God not for reward or out of fear, but purely out of devotion and affection. **The Story of Rabia al-Adawiyya and Her Divine Love**: Rabia al-Adawiyya was born into poverty and later sold into slavery, but even in her difficult circumstances, her heart was filled with a profound love for God. After gaining her freedom, she lived a life of **asceticism,** dedicating herself entirely to worship and devotion. Her love for God was so pure that she sought no rewards like paradise, nor did she fear punishment in hell. One of the most famous anecdotes about her devotion involves Rabia walking through the streets of Basra carrying a burning torch in one hand and a bucket of water in the other. When people asked her what she intended to do, she replied: \"I **wish to burn down the gates of paradise and douse the fires of hell, so that people may no longer worship God out of the desire for reward or the fear of punishment, but simply out of love for God."** *"O my Lord,* *if I worship you* *from fear of hell, burn me in hell.* *If I worship you* *from hope of Paradise, bar me from its gates.* *But if I worship you* *for yourself alone, grant me then the beauty of your Face."* By Rabi'a, *Khudi ko kar buland itna ke har taqder se pehle* *Khuda bande se khud pooche bata teri raza kya hai,* - **Iqbal** *My love for God leaves me no room for hate. I am too busy loving Him to think of anything else.* *"The existence of two in one heart is not possible; the heart is for the One*." **Rabia** 5. **Remembrance of God (Dhikr):** Sufis practice dhikr, the repeated invocation of God\'s name or certain phrases of praise, as a way to **maintain awareness of God\'s presence and to purify the heart.** **The Story of Bahauddin Naqshband and the Silent Dhikr**: One of Bahauddin\'s disciples, approached him one day with a question. The disciple had been practicing dhikr aloud, repeating the names of God and phrases of praise, but he felt that something was still missing in his spiritual practice. He asked his master, \"Why do we practice dhikr so often, repeating God's name over and over again, **but still find it difficult to feel His presence?"** Naqshband responded with a gentle smile and said, \"Let me show you the true essence of dhikr." He took the disciple for a walk to a nearby river. As they walked in silence, the master reached down, cupped his hands in the flowing water, and let it run through his fingers. Then he looked at the disciple and asked, \"Do you hear the water? It flows constantly, whether we listen to it or not. **Likewise, the remembrance of God must flow in your heart at all times, even when your tongue is silent.\"** The disciple was puzzled and asked, \"But master, how can I remember God without uttering His name? \"Bahauddin explained, \"**True dhikr is not just the repetition of words with the tongue. It is the remembrance of God in the heart**. **The heart must be constantly aware of God\'s presence, just as water flows constantly in the river**. Words are the beginning of remembrance, but true dhikr happens when the heart is filled with the love and awareness of God, without the need for words. \"**To teach this, Naqshband introduced the practice of silent dhikr**. Instead of reciting God\'s name aloud, the disciple was instructed to sit quietly in meditation, focusing inward, and to repeat God's name within the heart, without moving the lips or uttering a sound. This silent dhikr was meant to purify the heart and bring constant awareness of God\'s presence, regardless of external distractions. After several days of this practice, the disciple returned to Bahauddin with a radiant smile and tears in his eyes. \"Master,\" he said, \"now I understand. God's presence fills my heart, and I feel His love within me all the time, even when I am silent." Bahauddin smiled and replied, \"This is the essence of silent dhikr. 6. **The Story of the Young Dervish and the Power of Loud Dhikr** It is said that a young dervish (Sufi seeker) once came to Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani, seeking spiritual guidance. The young man had been practicing silent dhikr (khafi dhikr) for many years, diligently remembering God in the quietness of his heart. Despite his dedication, he felt no spiritual advancement, and his heart remained heavy with worldly distractions and anxieties. Sheikh Abdul Qadir, seeing the young man's inner struggle, told him, "**Your heart is like a locked door, and the key to open it requires not only subtlety but strength**. **You have been knocking quietly, but sometimes the heart needs to hear the roar of God's name to awaken it."** He then instructed the young dervish to join the Qadiri congregation in their loud dhikr session that evening. The practice of loud dhikr in the Qadiri order often involves the **communal chanting of God's names**, especially "Allah" and "La ilaha illallah" (There is no god but God), with intensity and devotion. That evening, the young dervish joined the group as they gathered for dhikr. As the chant began, the sound of dozens of voices echoing "Allah, Allah, Allah" filled the space. The vibration of the names of God reverberated through the air, and the power of the collective loud dhikr seemed to penetrate the very walls of the room. The young dervish, initially overwhelmed by the intensity of the sound, began to feel something shift within him. As the dhikr grew louder, he felt as though his inner barriers were breaking apart. By the end of the session, the young dervish was weeping. His heart, which had felt like stone for so long, had softened, and he experienced a deep sense of spiritual presence for the first time. The loud dhikr had pierced through the layers of his ego and worldly distractions, allowing him to connect with the Divine in a way that silent dhikr had not been able to achieve. The next morning, the young dervish returned to Sheikh Abdul Qadir and expressed his amazement at the power of the loud dhikr. "Master," he said, "I had been practicing in silence for so long, but it was the loud dhikr that finally opened my heart." Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani smiled and replied, "Both silent and loud dhikr are paths to God, but for some hearts, the sound of God's name must be heard aloud to shake them awake. Just as a person in deep sleep may not wake up with a whisper but will rise with a shout, so too does the soul sometimes need the call of loud dhikr to awaken it to the reality of the Divine." This story is often shared within the Qadiri tradition to highlight the importance of loud dhikr, especially in communal settings. The power of the spoken name of God, when chanted with devotion and intensity, can break through the spiritual veils that cloud the heart. It serves as a reminder that different forms of dhikr, both silent and loud, have their place in the spiritual journey, with loud dhikr being especially effective in awakening those who struggle with inner distractions. 7. **Direct Experience of the Divine**: Unlike the external observance of religious laws and rituals, mysticism in Islam emphasizes direct and personal experience of God, often described as ma'rifa (gnosis or inner knowledge) or mushahada (witnessing) **The Story of Sheikh Ahmad al-Ghazali, the younger brother of the famous theologian and mystic Al-Ghazali, and the Vision of the Rose: Ma\'rifa** One day, while deep in contemplation, Sheikh Ahmad sat in his garden, surrounded by roses in full bloom. As he gazed at a single rose, its beauty overwhelmed him. He became absorbed in its delicate form, its fragrance, and the intricate pattern of its petals. Lost in thought, he began to reflect on how every part of creation, including this simple rose, reflects the majesty and beauty of God. **The Sheikh's heart became so full of this realization that the boundary between the rose and himself dissolved. It was as though the rose, with all its perfection, was a mirror of the Divine, and in that moment, he felt himself standing directly before God**. In that profound state of **ma\'rifa, the rose was no longer just a flower.** It became a symbol of God's divine presence, His love, and His beauty, reflected in every aspect of creation. Al-Ghazali felt a deep and overwhelming awareness of the Divine. **It was no longer a theoretical or intellectual understanding of God, but a direct experience that transformed his heart and soul.** Tears filled his eyes as he whispered, \"O Beloved, You are in everything. You are the beauty of this rose. You are the fragrance in the air. You are the light in my heart.\" In that moment, **Sheikh Ahmad al-Ghazali experienced fana**, the annihilation of his ego, where there was no longer a separation between him and God. His heart was united with the Divine. 8. **Ilham and mysticism** In Sufism, the concept of Ilham (إلهام) or divine inspiration is an important aspect of spiritual experience, and many Sufi saints (Awliya) are believed to have received this form of direct, inner knowledge or intuition from Allah. It is said that during his early years in Baghdad, **Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani** was deeply immersed in his studies and spiritual practices. He lived a life of extreme austerity, often fasting for long periods and spending his nights in prayer. One day, while engaged in a period of deep meditation and devotion, he received a powerful spiritual vision. In this vision, he saw the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), who addressed him directly and said, \"**O Abdul Qadir, you are the pole (Ghawth) of your time, the spiritual axis around which the world will revolve. You are destined to guide people toward the path of righteousness and to lead them to the knowledge of God."** **Hazrat Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti (1141--1236 CE), also known as Gharib Nawaz.** One night, while in deep contemplation and prayer, Khawaja Moinuddin experienced a powerful vision. In this vision, he saw the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) instructing him to travel to India and spread the message of Islam and Sufi love among the people there. In the vision, the Prophet (PBUH) pointed toward the Indian subcontinent and said, **\"O Moinuddin, the land of India awaits you. Go there and spread the message of peace, love, and the remembrance of Allah.\"** This divine inspiration left a deep impression on Khawaja Moinuddin's heart, and he knew that this Ilham was not merely a dream, but a direct command from Allah through the Prophet (PBUH). 9. **Importance of Waseela in Sufism** In Sufism, the idea of Waseela is often associated with seeking the **intercession of saints (Awliya)** or spiritually elevated individuals. Sufis believe that pious individuals, due to their closeness to God, can act as intermediaries to bring supplications closer to Allah. **This practice is grounded in the Sufi understanding of spiritual hierarchy and the belief that the souls of righteous people continue to have influence even after their death**. **The Story of Hazrat Abdul Qadir Jilani, Ghaus-e-Azam and His Washerman** Among the many people who served him was a simple washerman who used to clean his clothes. This washerman, though not particularly known for any great piety or religious learning, considered it a tremendous honor to serve the great saint. He carried out his work diligently, always with the intention of pleasing Allah by serving one of His most beloved servants. Day in and day out, the washerman would carefully wash the clothes of Hazrat Abdul Qadir Jilani, taking great care with each piece of clothing, as if it were a sacred duty. One day, the washerman fell seriously ill, and despite his best efforts, he could no longer carry out his work. Eventually, he passed away in his simple home, known only to a few people as the man who cleaned the clothes of the great saint. At the burial, many people witnessed extraordinary signs of divine grace and mercy surrounding the washerman's grave. It became evident to all who were present that this simple man had been blessed with a high spiritual rank. When one of Hazrat Abdul Qadir Jilani's disciples asked him, \"O master, why do you show such honor and respect to this man? He was just a washerman, not known for any acts of worship or religious scholarship,\" Ghaus-e-Azam replied: \"**This man was a true servant of Allah. His work may have seemed humble to the world, but in the eyes of Allah, his sincerity and service to one of His friends (Awliya) earned him a special place in the Hereafter.** **His devotion to me, not out of pride but out of love for Allah and His saints, became his Waseela for salvation.** Allah does not look at a person's status in the world; **He looks at the heart and the intentions**. This man's heart was pure, and through his service to me, he attained divine blessings.\" 10. **Sufism and Karamat** In Islamic Sufism, miraculous powers (known as Karamat) hold a significant but nuanced place. **Karamat** refers to extraordinary feats or miracles performed by Sufi saints (also known as Awliya, or friends of God) as a manifestation of their close relationship with Allah. In Islamic theology, a distinction is made between miracles performed by prophets (known as mu'jizat) and miracles performed by saints known as Karamat. **Mu'jizat** are signs of prophecy while Karamat are signs of spiritual purity. One day, a group of villagers came to **Sheikh Ahmad al-Kharqani** in great distress. Among them was a man named Yusuf, whose only son had fallen ill and died suddenly. He had heard tales of Sheikh Ahmad's miraculous powers and hoped that the saint could somehow intervene, even though the boy had already passed away. With tears in his eyes, Yusuf approached the saint. "O Sheikh Ahmad," he cried, "you are known as a friend of Allah, a man of great spiritual power. My son has died, and my heart is broken. Is there anything you can do? Can you bring him back to me?" The villagers who had gathered around were shocked by Yusuf's bold request. After all, reviving the dead was something that even the prophets had rarely done. Many doubted that even a saint could perform such a miracle. Yet, they waited anxiously, hoping to see something extraordinary. Sheikh Ahmad looked at Yusuf with great compassion. He knew that the power to give life and take life belonged only to Allah, but he also understood the depth of Yusuf's grief. He closed his eyes for a moment and whispered a prayer under his breath. After a long silence, Sheikh Ahmad opened his eyes and said to Yusuf, **"I am nothing but a humble servant of Allah, and only He has the power to give life. But if it is His will, perhaps He will show us His mercy today."** Sheikh Ahmad then walked to the house where the boy's lifeless body lay, followed closely by the villagers. The boy's mother was weeping beside him, her face pale with sorrow. The saint knelt beside the child, placing his hand gently on the boy's chest. He whispered words of prayer, invoking the name of Allah, beseeching Him to grant mercy. Moments passed, and nothing happened. The villagers, watching intently, began to lose hope. Some even turned away, convinced that no miracle would occur. But Sheikh Ahmad remained still, his heart focused entirely on Allah. Suddenly, the boy's chest rose with a shallow breath. Then another. His eyes fluttered open, and life returned to his body. The boy sat up, as if waking from a deep sleep, and looked around at the astonished faces of those gathered. **[The following Ayat have been used to defend sufism in Islam]** 1. Surah Al-Baqarah (2:186):\"And when My servants ask you concerning Me, **indeed I am near. I respond to the invocation of the supplicant when he calls upon** Me. So let them respond to Me \[by obedience\] and believe in Me that they may be \[rightly\] guided." 2. Surah Al-Anfal (8:24):\"O you who have believed, respond to Allah and to the Messenger when he calls you to that which gives you life. And know that **Allah intervenes between a man and his heart** and that to Him you will be gathered." 3. Surah Al-Ma'idah (5:35):\"O you who have believed, fear **Allah and seek the means \[of nearness\] to Him** and strive in His cause that you may succeed 4. Surah Ash-Shu\'ara (26:88-89) \"The Day when neither wealth nor sons will avail, except him **who brings to Allah a sound heart.** 5. Surah Al-A\'raf (7:205):\"**And remember your Lord within yourself in humility and in fear without being apparent in speech**, in the mornings and the evenings. And do not be among the heedless." 6. Surah Al-Hadid (57:16):\"Has the time not come for those who have believed that **their hearts should become humbly submissive at the remembrance of Allah** and what has come down of the truth?" 7. Surah Qaf (50:16):\"And We have already created man and know what his soul whispers to him, and **We are closer to him than \[his\] jugular vein.\"** 8. Surah Al-Hijr (15:29), \"So when I have fashioned him and **breathed into him of My spirit**, fall down prostrating to him.\"(Qur\'an 15:29). 9. Surah Al-Isra (17:85) \"And they ask you about the soul. Say, **\'The soul is of the affair of my Lord,** and mankind has not been given of knowledge except a little. 10. Surah Yusuf (12:97-98), \'O our father, Ya\'qub (Jacob), ask for us forgiveness of our sins; indeed, we have been sinners.\' He said, **\'I will ask forgiveness for you from my Lord.** Indeed, it is He who is the Forgiving, the Merciful.' 11. Qur\'an 18:60--82: The story of Musa (Moses) and al-Khidr is a key narrative referenced in the discussion of mystical interpretation. This narrative is used to explore deeper, allegorical meanings beyond the literal story. Al Khidr has been interpreted as Awliya or Wali or Saint. 12. Qur\'an 24:35 (Surah An-Nur, Ayat 35):\"**Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth.** The example of His light is like a niche within which is a lamp: the lamp is within glass, the glass as if it were a pearly \[white\] star lit from \[the oil of\] a blessed olive tree, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil would almost glow even if untouched by fire. **Light upon light**. **Allah guides to His light whom He wills. And Allah presents examples for the people,** and Allah is Knowing of all things." 13. If all the trees on the earth were pens and the **sea seven seas** after it to replenish it, the words of God would not be depleted (31:27). The image of the Quran as an ocean is a particularly popular one in Sufi interpretations. Quran 3:7 describes two ways in which mankind responds to the ambiguous verses (mutashabihat) in the Quran such as \"**Huruf al-Muqatta\'at\" (حروف المقطعات)) or metaphorical verses**. Those in whose hearts there is a turning away try to create discord by means of these verses, whereas those who are firmly rooted in knowledge have faith in God's message as a unified whole. **Following hadiths have been used to defend Sufism in Islam.** 1 **Hadith of Ihsan** (**The Hadith of Gabriel**):Narrated by Umar ibn al-Khattab: \"One day while we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), a man came, and after asking about Islam and Iman, asked the Prophet: \'What is Ihsan?\' The Prophet replied: **\'It is to worship Allah as though you see Him**, for even if you do not see Him, He sees you.\'\"(Sahih Muslim, Book 1, Hadith 1) 2\. **Hadith of Qudsi** -- **God\'s Nearness to the Servant**: Narrated by Abu Huraira: The Prophet (ﷺ) said: \"Allah the Almighty said: \'I am as My servant thinks I am. I am with him when he remembers Me. If he remembers Me in himself, I also remember him in Myself. And if he remembers Me in an assembly, I remember him in an assembly better than it. If he draws near to Me a hand's span, I draw near to him an arm's length. **And if he comes to Me walking, I go to him at speed.\'\"** (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 93, Hadith 502). 3 **Narrated by Abu Huraira:** \"The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: \'Indeed Allah does not look at your bodies, nor your appearance, but **He looks at your hearts and your deeds**.\'\" (Sahih Muslim, Book 32, Hadith 6220) **Hadith on the Love of Allah** :Narrated by Abu Huraira: \"The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said, **\'When Allah loves a servant, He calls Gabriel and says: Indeed, I love so-and-so, so love him. Then Gabriel loves him**. Then Gabriel calls out in heaven, saying: Allah loves so-and-so, so love him. Then the inhabitants of heaven love him. He is then granted the acceptance of the people on the earth.\'\" (Sahih Muslim, Book 45, Hadith 6472). **Hadith on Remembrance of God (Dhikr):Narrated by Abu Musa**: \"The Prophet (ﷺ) said: \'The example of the one who remembers his Lord and the one who does not remember his Lord is like that **of the living and the dead**.\'\" (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 75, Hadith 39). **Ibn Mas\'ud Hadith**: A central hadith often cited by Sufi commentators, The messenger of God said, "The Quran was sent down in seven ahruf. Each harf has a back (zahr) and and belly (batn). Each harf has a border (hadd) and each border has a lookout point (muttala). It suggests that the Qur\'an has both an exoteric (zahir) and an esoteric (batin) meaning. The hadith refers to multiple layers of interpretation, such as the \"back\" (zahr), the \"belly\" (batn), the \"border\" (hadd), and the \"lookout point\" (muttala\'). Al-Ghazali mentions the Ibn Masud hadith in his defense of Sufi exegesis in his work. **Hadith of Abu Sa\'id al-Khudri**: This hadith describes the Prophet Muhammad addressing a group of poor emigrants, praising their patience and their illuminated faces. It exemplifies the notion of spiritual light possessed by believers who endure hardships. **Hadith Qudsi:** A hadith where God says, \"Whoever treats a friend of Mine as an enemy, on him I declare war\...and when I love him, **I become his ear with which he hears, his eye with which he sees**\...\" This hadith is widely cited in Sufi texts as it illustrates the mystical union between God and His beloved servants. **Muhammad ibn al-Zubayr (d. 728--38)** on the clear and ambiguous verses (muhkamat wa mutashabihat), which states that the muhkamat (clear verses) are verses that can only be interpreted in one way, while **the mutashabihat are verses that allow for various interpretations**. However, al-Tabari rejected this interpretation and claimed that the knowledge of ambiguous verses (future events) is only known to God, but Imam Ghazali defended Ibn al Zubayr's interpretation. **Uwais al-Qarani (594--657 CE):** Background: Uwais al-Qarani was a contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad, though he never met him in person. He is considered by many to be a model of spiritual devotion and asceticism. Contribution to Sufism: Uwais is revered in Sufi tradition for his deep spiritual connection with the Prophet Muhammad, despite not having direct contact with him. He is often cited as an early example of tasawwuf (Sufi mysticism) because of his life of humility, detachment from worldly matters, and his intense love for the Prophet. Legacy: **The \"Uwaisi\"** path in Sufism refers to those who claim to have received spiritual knowledge without direct contact with a living master, based on the example of Uwais. **Hasan al-Basri (642--728 CE):** Background: Hasan al-Basri was a well-known Islamic scholar and ascetic from Basra, Iraq. He is widely regarded as one of the foundational figures in Islamic mysticism. Contribution to Sufism: Hasan al-Basri is considered an early Sufi due to his emphasis on inner piety, fear of God, and ascetic lifestyle (zuhd). He spoke frequently about the ephemeral nature of the world and the importance of focusing on the afterlife, ideas that became central to Sufi teachings.Legacy: He did not establish Sufism as a formal tradition but greatly influenced later Sufi thought through his teachings on spiritual reflection, self-discipline, and the purification of the heart. **Jafar al-Sadiq (702--765 CE):** Background: Jafar al-Sadiq was a prominent scholar and the 6th Imam in Shia Islam. He was also highly regarded by Sunni scholars for his deep knowledge of both Islamic jurisprudence and spirituality. Contribution to Sufism: Jafar al-Sadiq\'s teachings on spiritual insight, inner knowledge, and asceticism significantly influenced the development of Sufi thought. He is credited with developing ideas related to the mystical interpretation of the Quran. Legacy: His ideas on marifah (gnosis or inner knowledge) and the purification of the soul were integral to the spiritual practices adopted by later Sufis. **Metaphysics/theory of (Islamic) mysticism/sufism** 1\. Mysticism posits a clear and opposite distinction between the body and the soul (or heart). The soul, seen as a divine element within humans, is thought to be trapped or tainted by the physical body. While desires for wealth, possessions, family, and negative traits like pride, greed, and envy stem from the body, the heart\'s yearning is to return to God and become a good Muslim. However, most people are swayed by the body\'s desires rather than the soul\'s. The heart is meant to be a vessel for divine light, but the body disables it. 2\. The soul, or heart, is eternal and survives after the body dies. Since it was created out of the Spirit of God, it naturally inclines toward goodness. 3 Heart is equated with love for God while intellect is equated with the understanding of Islam. Love for God is considered a higher virtue than knowledge. 4\. God is closer to human beings than anything else. To find God, one only needs to look within their hearts, where God resides. 5 As long as duality exists, one cannot achieve union or true love. **[Contrast Between Orthodox Islam and Islamic Mysticism (Sufism)]** **ORTHODOX ISLAM** **SUFISM** ------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- definition Adherence to traditional Islamic law and theology as outlined in the Quran and Hadith A spiritual branch of Islam focused on inner purification and direct experience of God. Emphasis Focus on external adherence to Sharia (Islamic law), rituals, and community obligations. Focus on internal spirituality, personal experience, and union with the Divine theology Established doctrines, legalistic interpretations, and schools of thought. Esoteric interpretations of scripture, often beyond legalistic boundaries Approach to worship Stresses formal prayer (Salah), fasting (Sawm), pilgrimage (Hajj), and charity (Zakat) Stresses personal devotion, meditation (Dhikr), and practices to cultivate closeness to God. Relationship with God God as transcendent, requiring humans to follow His commandments. Seeks an intimate, personal connection with God, emphasizing immanence (Fana). Legalism High emphasis on strict adherence to Sharia law and jurisprudence (Fiqh). Lower emphasis on legalism; focus on moral and spiritual purity. Prophet (S.A.W) Seen as a model of lawgiver and the perfect Muslim for emulation through actions. Viewed as a mystic and spiritual guide, with emphasis on inner experiences. Clerical authority Scholars (Ulema) and jurists (Muftis) have authority in interpreting religious law. Sufi Sheikhs (Pir, Murshid) guide followers on the mystical path. View of the world Considers the world as a place of tests, with obedience to God as paramount. Sees the material world as a veil, seeking transcendence of worldly concerns Ritual practices Centered on obligatory rituals (e.g., prayer, fasting) prescribed by the Quran and Hadith Includes Dhikr (remembrance of God), meditation, music, dance and poetry. View on knowledge Prioritizes external, scholarly knowledge from Quranic exegesis (Tafsir) and Fiqh Prioritizes inner, experiential knowledge (Ma\'rifa) from spiritual practice Afterlife focus Focuses on earning rewards in the afterlife through good deeds and adherence to God\'s law. Seeks annihilation of self (Fana) and unity with the Divine (Baqa). Attitude towards saints Respects saints but focuses on God\'s commandments Reverence for saints (Awliya) and seeking their intercession. Spread Predominant in Islamic societies, with strong clerical establishments Sufi orders (Tariqas) exist with dedicated followings throughout the Muslim world Criticism of others Sufism is sometimes criticized for deviating from orthodox practices Sufis critique Orthodox Islam for overemphasis on external rituals **[AL-GHAZALI]** Al Ghazali (1058-1111) studied under influential scholars, particularly Imam al-Juwayni, a prominent Ash\'arite theologian, at the Nizamiyya Madrasah in Nishapur. Here, he gained expertise in Shafi\'i jurisprudence, Islamic theology, philosophy, and logic, which would later form the foundation of his scholarship. Around 1091, al-Ghazali was appointed as a professor at the prestigious Nizamiyya Madrasah in Baghdad by Nizam al-Mulk, the Seljuk vizier. During this period, he produced critical works on theology, philosophy, and Islamic jurisprudence, including his famous book Maqasid al-Falasifa (The Aims of the Philosophers), in which he clarified and outlined the philosophical arguments of major thinkers like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and al-Farabi. Despite his academic success, al-Ghazali experienced a profound personal and intellectual crisis. In 1095, he abandoned his position in Baghdad, citing a loss of spiritual purpose and an inability to reconcile his intellectual knowledge with his faith. Al-Ghazali embarked on a lengthy period of ascetic withdrawal and self-reflection, traveling to Damascus, Jerusalem, and Mecca. This period marked a significant turning point, as he devoted himself to Sufism, seeking spiritual clarity and inner transformation. During his period of withdrawal (approximately 10 years), al-Ghazali authored several key texts that would leave an indelible mark on Islamic thought. His most famous work, Ihya\' Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), blends theology, philosophy, and Sufism, emphasizing the importance of inner spirituality alongside outward religious practices. In this work, he addressed ethics, ritual, and spiritual purification, making it widely accessible and revered among both scholars and laypersons. In Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), he critically examined the metaphysical aspects of Greek-influenced Islamic philosophy, particularly those of Avicenna and al-Farabi, challenging views that he felt contradicted Islamic doctrine. His critique marked a significant philosophical shift, leading to the decline of classical Islamic philosophy in favor of a more theological and mystical approach. After several years of solitude, al-Ghazali returned to his hometown, where he continued teaching and writing until his death in 1111. Because of his works and influence he is called **Hujjat al-Islam (Proof of Islam)** and **Zayn al-Din (Adornment of the Faith**). His work Al-Ghazali's **Ihya' Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences)** is the most influential work. It is reported by supporters of Ghazali's thought that his work, *Ihya' Ulum al-Din*, is the most widely read after the Quran and Hadith literature. His supporters also report that the Prophet introduced Imam al-Ghazali to Moses during the Miraj as a representative of the Muslim community's ulema. One of the central argument developed in Ihya' Ulum al-Din is the integration of orthodox Islam with sufism. He convinced several orthodox scholars that sufism is an integral part of Orthodox Islam. After his work, a term was introduced in Islamic theology and literature, "**Sharia based sufism.'** Al-Ghazali has been influential because of his strong background in philosophy, logic, theology, and religious studies. He often employed a **methodology of internal critique**, where he would accept an opponent\'s arguments for the sake of argument, draw out possible implications or consequences, and ultimately reveal internal inconsistencies either among the implications or between the implications and the central argument. This technique has proven highly effective because he refrained from introducing his own counter-arguments, instead relying on the internal inconsistencies within the opponent\'s argument. **Examples of internal critique (the Ghazalian critique)** **Refutation of al-Farabi's Argument for the Eternity of the Universe** **Example 1** **Al-Ghazali**, for the sake of argument, accepted the basic premise of al-Farabi's claim that the universe eternally coexists with God, implying that God did not create the universe at a specific point in time. However, he identified an internal inconsistency within al-Farabi's conception: if God is both all-powerful and free, then He does not need cause to create the universe at a particular time. **Example 2** Al-Ghazali accepted, hypothetically, the idea that the Imam is divinely appointed through Ilham (inspiration), intuition, or a divine message. He explored the implications of this premise, noting that if God indeed appoints the Imam, and given the critical role of the Imam for the Muslim community, there should logically be no disputes over the Imam's lineage. Moreover, Al-Ghazali highlighted a logical inconsistency between the concept of a divinely appointed Imam and the notion of occultation. **Examples of internal critique (the Ghazalian critique)** **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** **Integration of Sufism with Orthodox Islam: tripartite preconditions** A person who lacks intellectual knowledge and does not follow Sharia (outward religious practices) and Islamic moral values cannot attain spiritual knowledge. Understanding and adhering to Sharia, along with upholding moral values, set the stage for attaining spiritual insight and enlightenment. **If any of these three elements---understanding and adhering to Sharia, and upholding moral values---is missing, one cannot achieve spiritual knowledge.** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_- **Concept of the Heart as divine and mystical entity** Al Ghazali used the following verse of Light (Q. 24:35): "Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. His light (**the light of guidance in the heart of the believer**) is like a niche in which there is a lamp, the lamp is in a crystal, the crystal is like a shining star, lit from ˹the oil of˺ a blessed olive tree, ˹located˺ neither to the east nor the west, whose oil would almost glow, even without being touched by fire." Q. 17:85: "They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ about the spirit. Say, "**Its nature is known only to my Lord**, and you ˹O humanity˺ **have been given but little knowledge**." Surah Al-Hijr (15:29), \"So when I have fashioned him and **breathed into him of My spirit**, fall down prostrating to him.\"(Qur\'an 15:29). Hadith "**The heart is between the two fingers of the All-Merciful**. He turns it from state to state and gives it whatever form He wishes" (Ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad, vol. 2, no. 17). **Quran 83:14** --- "Nay, but **on their hearts is a covering** because of what they have earned." **Quran 2:74** --- "Then your **hearts became hardened** after that, being like stones or even harder... **Quran 39:22** --- "Is one **whose heart Allah has expanded** to \[accept\] Islam and he is upon a light from his Lord **Quran 57:16** --- "Has the time not come for those who have believed that their **hearts should become humbly submissive** at the remembrance of Allah and what has come down of the truth? **Heart as Mirror Analogy:** Al-Ghazālī likens the heart to a mirror that must be polished through ascetic practices to reflect divine truths and realities. This metaphor emphasizes the process of internal purification as essential for mystical insights, like how a polished mirror reflects images clearly. **Heart as Pond analogy**: Compares the heart to a pond filled with divine knowledge, accessible through an internal opening to the spiritual realm rather than external sensory experience. **Intelligence as one of the faculties of heart** Role of Intelligence ('aql): Defined as a unique human quality that enables comprehension of knowable objects, intelligence is seen as an intrinsic feature of the heart. It functions similarly to the \"polish\" on the mirror, allowing the heart to receive intelligible forms and divine inspiration. Understanding is precondition for unveiling. **Conception of the Quran** If **all the trees on the earth** were pens and the sea **seven seas** after it to replenish it, **the words of God would not be depleted** (31:27). Quran 3:7 describes two ways in which mankind responds to the ambiguous verses (mutashabihat) in the Quran such as \"Huruf al-Muqatta\'at\" (حروف المقطعات)) or metaphorical verses. "Those in whose hearts there is a turning away try to create discord by means of these verses, whereas **those who are firmly rooted in knowledge** have faith in God's message as a unified whole." Surah Al-Imran 3:7 \"He is the One who has revealed to you the Book. Some of its verses are precise \[muhkamat\]---they are the foundation of the Book---**while others are ambiguous** \[mutashabihat... **But no one knows its interpretation except Allah**. And those firm in knowledge say, \'We believe in it; all of it is from our Lord.\' But none will be mindful except people of reason.\" Muhammad ibn al-Zubayr (d. 728--38) on the clear and ambiguous verses (muhkamat wa mutashabihat), which states that **the muhkamat (clear verses) are verses that can only be interpreted in one way, while the mutashabihat are verses that allow for various interpretations**. Ibn Mas\'ud Hadith: The messenger of God said, "The Quran was sent down in seven ahruf. Each harf has a back (zahr, exoteric) and and belly (batn, esoteric). Each harf has a border (hadd, limit) and each border has a lookout point (muttala, broader goal). **Example** \"And establish prayer and give zakah\...\" (Quran 2:43). **Zahir Interpretation**: The verse instructs believers to perform the ritual prayers and give the obligatory charity (zakah). **Batin Interpretation**: Beyond the physical acts, this verse is seen as urging believers to cultivate a deep, personal connection with God through prayer and to purify their wealth and souls by sharing with those in need. **Hadd (Limit):** This represents the boundaries or specific rulings derived from a verse. **Muttala\' (Lookout Point):** This signifies the broader perspective or ultimate purpose behind a verse, guiding believers towards higher understanding or spiritual goals. **Non-Prophets can have intuition and Ilham** Quran: 18:65 There they found a servant of Ours **(Khizr),** to whom We had granted mercy from Us and enlightened with knowledge of Our Own. Surah Maryam 19:16--21 Then **We sent to her Our Angel**, and he represented himself to her as a well-proportioned man. Surah Al-Qasas 28:7 --- "**And We inspired (Ilham/intuition) to the mother of Moses**, 'Suckle him; but when you fear for him, cast him into the river and do not fear and do not grieve. Indeed, We will return him to you and will make him \[one\] of the messengers. Surah Luqman 31:12-13 --- "And We had **certainly given Luqman** wisdom \[and said\], 'Be grateful to Allah.'" **Stages of Intelligence**: Al-Ghazālī describes stages in human intellectual development **Discernment**: Acquired around age seven, allowing basic reasoning. **Full Intelligence:** Reached by adolescence, equipping a person to engage in logical reasoning and rational contemplation. It can be acquired by anyone, no matter whether one is pious or atheist. **Prophetic Knowledge**: A rare, higher form of intelligence achieved by prophets and saints, resulting in divine inspiration and foresight. **Stages of attaining spiritual knowledge** **1 Concept of Tasting (Dhawq):** Al-Ghazālī uses \"tasting\" to describe a direct, personal experience of spiritual truths, which goes beyond intellectual understanding. This approach emphasizes that some aspects of knowledge, particularly mystical insights, can only be truly comprehended through personal experience rather than theoretical knowledge. He explains that just as the sweetness of honey cannot be truly known through description alone but must be tasted, so too the realities of faith and the divine cannot be fully grasped through theoretical knowledge; they require personal, experiential engagement. **2 Witnessing (Mushāhada) as Intellectual Vision**: The term \"witnessing\" represents a deeper, more immediate form of cognition than mere logical understanding. Al-Ghazālī describes it as a direct intellectual vision or encounter with the divine, akin to seeing an object face-to-face rather than inferring its presence from shadows. At this stage, the individual experiences an immediate and intimate awareness of God\'s presence, surpassing theoretical knowledge. This experience is akin to seeing the sun directly, as opposed to merely understanding its existence through the warmth it provides. **Highest form of knowledge** **3 Unveiling\" (kashf), or (Mukāshafa):** Al-Ghazālī introduces \"unveiling\" as a key component of his noetic (knowledge-related) system, which reveals divine truths through **purification and spiritual practices**. The process of unveiling is considered esoteric, reserved for those who have purified their hearts through asceticism. **Analogy of Incommunicable Knowledge**: Al-Ghazālī illustrates the idea of dhawq using analogies, such as a child unable to understand the pleasure of certain experiences until personally encountering them. This underscores the idea that some truths, especially those related to divine or mystical experiences, are beyond intellectual grasp unless directly experienced. **[Ibn-Taymiyyah]** Ibn Taymiyyah (1263--1328) developed his thought during a turbulent period in the Islamic world, marked by political instability, invasions, and religious diversity. Born in 1263 in Harran (modern-day Turkey), he moved to Damascus as a child to escape the Mongol invasions. His formative years were shaped by the devastation of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, which destabilized the Islamic heartlands and created an environment of fear and crisis across the region. The political landscape was fragmented, with the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and Syria striving to hold off Mongol advances while also facing threats from Crusader forces. This era of conflict prompted a strong defensive posture within the Muslim community, fostering a return to foundational Islamic principles to rebuild society\'s moral and social fabric. Ibn Taymiyyah responded to these challenges by advocating a return to the Qur\'an and Sunnah, promoting the Salaf (pious predecessors) as a model for authentic practice, and emphasizing a literalist interpretation of scripture over speculative theology. His thought emerged as both a reaction to external pressures on the Muslim world and a response to internal doctrinal conflicts. He sought to unify Muslims by grounding them in what he considered a purer, unadulterated Islam, an approach that would later influence Islamic reformist movements, including Wahabism/Salafism/Ah la Hadith. His focus on returning to authentic, original Islam---as practiced by the Salaf---led him to reject taqlid (unquestioning adherence to one of the schools of Sunni jurisprudence: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi\'i, and Hanbali). Although he respected these schools of thought, he criticized their rulings when he found them inconsistent with authentic Hadiths. Thus, he encouraged ijtihad (independent reasoning) based on the Qur\'an and authentic Hadiths, rather than taqlid. While his thought was influenced by Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, he identified himself and his school of thought as Ahl al-Hadith or Salafi. He also criticized some of Imam Ahmad's rulings, pointing out their inconsistencies with authentic Hadiths. He was **imprisoned multiple** times in Egypt and Damascus for his beliefs, including his criticism of the veneration of saints and his rejection of practices he viewed as inconsistent with the Quran and Sunnah. Ibn Taymiyyah **died** on September 26, 1328, in the Citadel of Damascus, **where he was imprisoned** due to his continued opposition to certain religious practices. He passed away at the age of 65. His funeral was attended by thousands, demonstrating the profound influence he had on his followers despite his contentious life. **[Reliance on Bukhari and Muslim's compilations]** Ibn Taymiyyah frequently used **Hadiths from Sahih al-Bukhari** in his writings and rulings. He considered Sahih al-Bukhari, along with Sahih Muslim, to be among the most authentic collections of Hadith. It is important to note that the early four Sunni Imams (Abu Hanifa, Malik, Shafi\'i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal) formulated their legal methodologies based on the Hadith traditions available in their time. During their lifetimes, the later compilations of Bukhari and Muslim were either not available or had not yet been completed. Ibn Taymiyya had the advantage of access to the most authentic compilations of Hadith in Sunni Islam, which had been compiled, critically analyzed, and widely accepted by his time. This provided him with a robust foundation for his reformist approach to Islamic theology and jurisprudence. One of the leading and prominent followers of Ibn Taymiyyah or Ah la Hadith is **Zakir Naik.** **[Uses and abuses of Ibn Taymiyya\'s thought ]** **The radical group led by 'Abd al-Salām Faraj**, responsible for **assassinating Egyptian President Anwar Sadat in 1981**, used Ibn Taymiyya\'s writings as justification. Faraj\'s text, al-Farīḍa al-ghā'iba (**The Neglected Duty),** is a compilation of Ibn Taymiyya's quotations distorted to support violent rebellion against governments deemed non-Islamic. **Misinterpretation of the Mongol Fatwas**: Faraj and similar groups took Ibn Taymiyya\'s anti-Mongol fatwas, which declared it permissible to fight the Mongols because they failed to implement Islamic law fully, out of context. These fatwas originally targeted the Mongols, who claimed to be Muslim but continued to violate Islamic tenets. Faraj generalized these rulings to justify rebellion against modern states like Egypt, which he claimed did not follow Islamic law. **Groups like al-Qaeda have cited** Ibn Taymiyyah\'s legal opinions on jihad. Specifically, his fatwa that justified attacking Muslim bystanders who shielded non-believers in battle has been distorted to support indiscriminate violence and terrorism. **Ibn Abd al-Wahhab** adopted Ibn Taymiyyah\'s emphasis on returning to the pure teachings of the Qur\'an and Sunnah, rejecting practices and beliefs he viewed as innovations (bid'a) that had corrupted Islam. This formed the theological basis of Wahhabism, which emphasized strict monotheism (tawhid) and vehemently opposed practices like grave visitation and saint veneration, practices that Ibn Taymiyya had also criticized. **Saudi Arabia officially adopted Wahhabi Islam in the 18th century through the alliance between Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and the founder of the First Saudi State, Muhammad ibn Saud. This partnership was established in 1744** and formed the basis for the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under a single religious and political authority. **[Demolition of Jannat al-Baqi]**, located in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is one of Islam\'s oldest and most revered cemeteries, serving as the burial site for many key figures, including the Prophet Muhammad\'s family members---**Fatimah Zahra (according to some traditions), his son Ibrahim, and his wives Aisha and Hafsa---as well as prominent companions like Uthman ibn Affan, Abbas ibn Abdul Muttalib, and Hasan ibn Ali**. Established during the Prophet's lifetime, the cemetery has faced two major demolitions. The first occurred in 1806 under the Wahhabi movement **who used Ibn Tamiya\'s ruling**, which viewed the construction of mausoleums and elaborate tombs as shirk (idolatry) and sought to enforce simplicity in burial practices. The second demolition in 1925-1926, under King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud, destroyed Ottoman-era structures, leaving only unmarked graves in line with Wahhabi doctrine. **[Most critics of Ibn Taymiyya ignore his position of the Khawārij]** Ibn Taymiyya's strong condemnation of the Khawārij, an early Islamic sect notorious for declaring other Muslims as apostates and engaging in violence against them, is an essential aspect of his legal **thought that extremists have deliberately overlooked or misrepresented**. He considered the Khawārij\'s practice of takfir (declaring fellow Muslims as infidels) and their violent actions **as a grave error** that disrupted the unity and peace of the Muslim community. **[The concept of Taqlīd]** in Islamic law refers to the practice of following established legal interpretations and rulings from recognized scholars without engaging in independent reasoning (ijtihād) and questioning the ruling. Taqlīd gained prominence after the foundational period of Islamic jurisprudence, when the major Sunni schools of law (madhhabs) were established. It marked a transition from independent legal reasoning to adherence to the legal precedents set by these schools. The practice of raising the hands during Salah (prayer), **Hanafi School:** The Hanafi school holds the position that raising the hands **(Raf' al-Yadayn)** is performed only at the start of the prayer (Takbir al-Ihram) and not during other parts of Salah, such as before and after bowing (Ruku'). Although the Hanafi school recognizes the authenticity of Hadiths in Bukhari and Muslim that support the Hanbali position, they argue that this practice was later abrogated. They cite the Hadith of Ibn Mas'ud, who said, "Should I not show you the prayer of the Prophet?" He then demonstrated the prayer without raising his hands except at the beginning (Sunan Abi Dawood, Sunan al-Tirmidhi). Furthermore, the people of Iraq during the time of Abu Hanifa were observed raising their hands only at the start of the prayer. **Shafi\'i and Hanbali Schools**: These schools of thought maintain that raising the hands should be performed not only at the beginning but also before and after the ruku and in the third rak'ah. **The followers of these schools of thought do not question these rulings and trust that they are sound and grounded in the Quran and Sunnah.** **[Three Reasons for Taqlīd]**:. The increasing complexity of legal matters, the demanding criteria needed for issuing rulings, and the necessity for stability and uniformity in Islamic jurisprudence prompted scholars to support the practice of Taqlīd. It provided a structured framework that ordinary Muslims and less-qualified scholars could follow, thus maintaining unity in legal practice. Moreover, **individuals were not permitted to mix and match rulings from different schools of thought**. One had to strictly adhere to a single school, such as Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi\'i, or Hanbali, and could not simultaneously follow multiple schools. While, in theory, each school acknowledges and respects the differing rulings of other schools **as a matter of Fiqh,** in practice, the followers often attribute religious significance to these rulings. In some extreme cases, this can even lead to declaring others' practices as bid\'a or labelling them as disbelievers (takfir). Initially, the founders of the Sunni legal schools **endorsed a flexible approach**, tolerating a range of opinions based on strong textual evidence. However, over time, **Taqlīd became more entrenched**, and **strict adherence to a single legal school was often emphasized.** This shift **resulted in a decline of ijtihād, as the legal focus turned towards refining existing doctrines rather than exploring new interpretations**. Consequently, during the Ottoman era, specifically from the 15th to the early 20th century, four separate prayer sessions were conducted, each led by an imam from one of the four schools of thought. Separate places were designated for the prayers to each school of thought. If all four Sunni Imams---Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi\'i, and Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal---reach agreement on a particular ruling**, that ruling holds a highly significant status within Sunni Islam**. **This consensus is known as Ijma' (scholarly consensus**), and it is considered a strong source of Islamic law. **The status of such a consensus is binding** and carries a high degree of authority. It means that **the ruling is considered definitive**, and **there is no/little room for dispute among later scholars**. Muslims are generally obligated to follow Ijma' when it has been established on an issue, as it represents a unified interpretation of Islamic law by the most authoritative scholars. **[Ibn Taymiyyah: Challenging the foundations of Orthodox Islam (Four Sunni Schools of thought).]** 1 Challenging the notion of Taqlid (mere imitation): **"Whoever considers the doctrines of an individual scholar or jurist, or one of the mystics and the ascetics, to be above those of the Companions ( Quran, Authentic Hadiths, Sunnah and Salaf), is an innovator who is leading people astray."** **2 Ijima (consensus): Taymiyyah redefined the concept of Ijima, instead of scholarly ijma among the four schools of thought, he considered Ijima among the Salaf only legitimate and authoritative.** **3 Ibn Taymiyya does not reject taqlīd as such**, certainly not for laymen, and even jurists are allowed attachment to a school of law in all legal questions or in a particular one, **So, the jurist or layman is not aware of evidence to the contrary.** Ibn Taymiyya, always conscious of the limitations of the human mind, grants that **most people are incapable of deriving the law from its sources**. But **school affiliation is not obligatory.** The opinions of the school founders, or of any jurist after them, **are opinions and not proof**. He laments the current practice of legal writing**, where jurists limit themselves to citing the opinions of the founders of the schools, without mentioning the proofs from the revealed sources**. He considered evidence from the Quran, (authentic) Hadith, and Ijima as proofs, any thing else is opinion. **When a ruling is highlighted or endorsed, it must be validated by referencing the primary sources rather than attributing it to one of the four Imams. For example, the practice of Raf\' al-Yadain (raising the hands during prayer) should not simply be attributed to Imam Hanbal but should be recognized as a practice of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), as established in authentic hadiths.** **2 Ibn Taymiyya views his attachment to the Ḥanbalī school as one of choice**, based on independent criteria of legal methodology, rather than on mere imitation (taqlīd). Ibn Taymiyya also disagreed with some important rulings by Imam Hanbal such as on 1) the triple talaq. 2 Ibn Tamiya also criticized Imam Hanbal for relying on weak hadiths in his rulings. Ibn Hanbal expressed skepticism regarding the claim of absolute consensus among scholars, suggesting that it was often impossible to confirm the absence of dissenting opinions. Ibn Taymiyyah expanded on this, differentiating between explicit and tacit consensus. He suggested that explicit consensus was valid only during the early generations of Islam, while tacit consensus remained applicable but less definitive. 3 While many Hanbali scholars recognized a division between **literal and metaphorical language** in Islamic texts, Ibn Taymiyyah rejected this dichotomy. **He argued against the existence of metaphor in the Arabic language** as a valid interpretive category, basing his critique on a detailed study of its use and the supposed identity of scholars endorsing this division. 4 Some Hanbali scholars believed that the Qur\'an and Sunnah covered only a limited percentage of Sharīʿah rulings, necessitating reliance on analogy (qiyās) and other methods. **Ibn Taymiyyah rejected this view, insisting that the Qur\'an and Sunnah were sufficient for most legal matters and should not be overshadowed by speculative analogies.** 5 Ibn Taymiyyah opposed the division of Islamic knowledge into **foundational principles (usūl)** and derivative rulings (furūʿ). He argued that such a division lacked Sharīʿah evidence and introduced ambiguity, instead proposing a unified approach to understanding and applying Islamic law. **[Examples where he disagreed with the Ijima (Scholarly Ijima)]** **Divorce Pronouncements**: 1) Ibn Taymiyyah challenged the prevailing rulings on triple divorce, **where a man pronounces divorce three times in a single sitting.** Although some madhabs regarded this as constituting an irrevocable divorce, Ibn Taymiyyah argued that the authentic Sunnah indicated that such a pronouncement should count **as only one divorce**. 2\) Ibn Taymiyyah took a unique position **regarding divorce (talaq) pronounced under duress or intoxication**, arguing that it **should not be valid** because the individual was not in a proper state of mind. This conflicted particularly with the Hanafi and Shafi\'i positions, which often held that a divorce given in such a state was valid. 3\) **Conditional Divorce as an Oath**: According to Ibn Taymiyya, if a husband pronounces a divorce conditionally (e.g., \"If you do this or that, you are divorced\"), and the wife fulfills that condition, the divorce does not necessarily have to be enforced as a final act. Instead, he proposed that the husband could treat his statement as an oath (like a promise to God) and atone for breaking it **through the expiation (kaffāra)** prescribed for broken oaths in Islamic law. This ruling opened the possibility for reconciliation between the husband and wife without the marriage being automatically dissolved, provided the husband performed the necessary expiation. Ibn Tamiyya writes in response to the question **"can one recite the whole Qur'an (khatma) in honor of the Prophet's birthday**?" "The gathering of people for a banquet during the two \[canonical\] festivals or the **11th--13th of Dhū al-Ḥijja (ayyām al-tashrīq, Days of Tashrīq)** is a normative, commendable practice (sunna). These are among the rites of Islam that the Messenger of God (peace be upon him) instituted for Muslims. **Similarly, caring for the poor by feeding them during the month of Ramadan is one of the commendable norms (sunan) of Islam.** For the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: \"Whoever provides breakfast food for one who is fasting, they receive a reward akin to that of the one who is fasting.\" Helping the poor \[Qur'ān\] reciters is a pious act ('amal ṣāliḥ) at any time, and whoever supports them shares in their reward. As for the establishment of a seasonal festival (mawsim) that is not among the lawful (shar'iyya) festivals, such as one of the nights of Rabī' al-Awwal---which is said to be the night of the mawlid---or one of the nights of Rajab, or the 18th day of Dhū al-Ḥijja, or the first Friday prayer of Rajab, or the eighth of Shawwāl, which the ignorant call the festival of the righteous ones ('īd al-abrār), these are among the innovations (bida') that the ancestors (salaf) neither recommended nor practiced. And God, Sublime and Exalted, knows best." **[Ibn Taymiyya's Divergent Rulings: A Departure from the Four Schools of Thought]** **Raf' al-yadayn (raising the hands)** Ibn Taymiyyah supported the practice of raising the hands in prayer, specifically at certain points: before and after bowing (ruku), and upon standing up from the first Tashahhud in the middle of the prayer. The Hanafi and Malaki schools limit the raising the hands to the beginning of the prayer. He also insisted that Saying \"Ameen\" Loudly at the end of Surah Fatiha during the prayers and feet and shoulders must be joined during the congregation prayers. **Validity of Prayer without Recitation of Al-Fatihah in Congregation**: Ibn Taymiyyah argued that reciting Surah Al-Fatihah **was obligatory for every individual**, even when praying behind an imam in congregational prayer. This position contrasted with the Hanafi school, which held that the imam's recitation sufficed for the congregation, and the Shafi\'i school, which required silent recitation for followers during congregational prayers. **Definition of Faith (Iman):** Ibn Taymiyyah's understanding of faith (iman) was different from the Ash'ari view widely accepted in the Hanafi schools. **He emphasized that faith includes belief, speech, and action, and that it can increase, and decrease based on one's deeds**. This perspective was closer to the Hanbali understanding but stricter than the Ash'ari approach, which viewed faith as a fixed entity, particularly within the Hanafi tradition. **Combining Prayers without Travel**: Ibn Taymiyyah permitted combining Dhuhr and Asr, and Maghrib and Isha prayers under circumstances other than travel, such as illness, severe weather, or other hardships. **Use of Figurative Interpretation (Ta'wil) in Divine Attributes**: Ibn Taymiyyah rejected the metaphorical interpretation of Allah's attributes, a practice adopted by Maturidi theologians, who were influential in the Shafi\'i, Hanafi, and some Maliki scholarship. He insisted that attributes like Allah's \"hand\" or \"face\" should be affirmed without interpretation, aligning with his literalist stance, which differed significantly from the interpretive methods accepted by other schools. Because of this stand, Ibn Taymiyyah was accused of **corporealism** (tajsim or anthropomorphism) by some of his contemporaries, who believed **his approach to the attributes of God implied a physical or bodily nature**. **Corporealism** refers to the belief that God possesses physical characteristics or bodily form, a concept that mainstream Islamic theology, especially Ash\'ari and Maturidi thought, strongly rejected, emphasizing that God is beyond any physical form or limitation. "Certain mawlid practitioners (observe the Prophet's birthday out of a desire to show their love of the Prophet) deserve "**a great reward** (ajr aẓīm)". Ibn Taymiyya, Iqtiḍā' al-ṣirāṭ al-mustaqīm li-mukhālafat asḥāb al-jaḥīm, ed. Nāṣir b\. 'Abd al-Karīm al-'Aql (Riyadh: Maktabat al-Rushd, 2000), 2:123, 126. To understand Ibn Tamiya\'s ruling regarding a great reward for someone participating in bid\'ah (mawlid), his methodology of evaluating an action must be understood before. Whether the practice, such as mawlid, aligns with the primary sources. Since such practices were not observed during the time of the Salaf (the first three generations of Muslims), he classified them as bid'ah. Whether the individuals participating in these practices are aware of them being bid\'ah. Ibn Taymiyyah distinguished between ignorance and deliberate innovation in religious matters. Whether the individual participates in such practices out of love and devotion to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), rather than out of a deliberate intention to alter or contradict the established principles of Islam. Ibn Taymiyyah argued that if an individual\'s intention is rooted in sincere devotion and love for the Prophet (peace be upon him) and the individual had no knowledge of such practices being bid'ah, they may still receive a reward. **[Ibn Taymiyyah did not make a blanket condemnation of sufism]**. Instead, he showed selective support for certain Sufi figures and practices, particularly those aligned with his understanding of Sharia-compliant spirituality. He respected individuals like **al-Junayd al-Baghdadi** and '**Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani**, both of whom he saw as Sufis who maintained a strict adherence to Islamic law. However, there is some debate about whether Ibn Taymiyya himself was formally associated with any Sufi order, specifically the Qadiriyya. Scholar George Makdisi suggested a possible link, **as Ibn Taymiyya spoke positively of 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani and referred to him as "our shaykh." (MF 10:455--548).** The American scholar George Makdisi (d. 2002) even claimed to have found evidence that Ibn Taymiyya was himself a Sufi of the Qadiriyya order**.** **[Ibn Taymiyya rejected several aspects of Sufism that he believed deviated from Islamic principles. ]** **Spiritual Concerts (Sama\'): Ibn Taymiyya opposed sama\' (spiritual concerts), which often included music, clapping, and dancing to induce ecstatic states**. He viewed these practices as outside the bounds of lawful worship, believing they distracted from genuine spiritual goals and could lead to moral and mental corruption. He even recounted an early experience where he declined participation in a sama\' session, later condemning it as akin to "**drinking wine**" in its unlawful nature. **Extreme Forms of Annihilation (Fana'):** While Ibn Taymiyya accepted fana' as a form of self-discipline leading to devotion to God alone, he rejected its extreme interpretations, especially the notion of becoming one with God or losing individual consciousness in divine unity. **He criticized Sufis who pursued this state to the point of neglecting religious obligations, as well as the pantheistic ideas of figures like Ibn al-'Arabi, which blurred the distinction between Creator and creation.** **Extreme forms of asceticism: I**bn Taymiyya embodied a Hanbali ideal of **moderate asceticism.** While he was devout and devoted to modest living, Ibn Taymiyya did not adopt the outward poverty often displayed by certain extreme Sufis, such as wearing ragged clothing to accentuate poverty**. Instead, he emphasized simplicity and humility, avoiding luxurious attire or excessive displays of piety.** **Rejected spiritual retreats (khalwa**): he criticized retreats conducted in isolated places like graveyards or mountain caves, where people might claim to see or communicate with deceased saints or prophets. He believed that these visions were often "**satanic impersonations**," **which could mislead individuals spiritually**. **His objection was rooted in the idea that such practices could foster idolatry by encouraging believers to seek intermediaries other than God.** **Antinomianism**: Ibn Taymiyya rejected the concept of "antinomianism" in Sufism, **where some mystics claimed they were beyond the obligations of Islamic law due to their union with God**. He found such views dangerous as they undermined the necessity of Sharia (Islamic law) for all believers, regardless of their spiritual state. He was especially critical of those who used mystical experiences as an excuse to dismiss religious duties, such as prayer **Innovative Practices in Worship (Bid'a):** Ibn Taymiyya was highly critical of what he saw as unlawful innovations (bid'a) in worship, which included certain Sufi rituals not explicitly sanctioned by the Qur\'an or the Sunnah. He believed that true worship should strictly conform to divine law, and he was wary of practices that introduced elements not established by the Prophet Muhammad. For instance, he condemned particular forms of dhikr (remembrance of God) that **involved repeating single names of God, seeing this as irrational and contrary to established worship practices.** **Celebration of the Prophet's Birthday (Mawlid)**: Although Ibn Taymiyya acknowledged that some Muslims celebrated the Prophet's birthday **out of love**, he rejected the practice itself as an innovation not supported by the Qur\'an or Sunnah. He argued that imitating non-Muslim festivals in this way was unlawful, **although he softened his stance by recognizing that those with genuine intentions might still be rewarded.** **Shrine Veneration and Grave Worship:** Ibn Taymiyya also condemned the veneration of saints and shrine worship, common among certain Sufi groups. He opposed practices like **making vows at graves, believing that such acts encouraged idolatry and strayed from monotheistic worship**. **For him, attributing any intrinsic sanctity to places or objects was a form of shirk (associating partners with God)**. **He rejected the notion that the dead, including prophets, could actively listen to or respond to the requests of the living**. **For him, seeking help from a deceased prophet or saint veered dangerously close to polytheism (shirk)**. He firmly held that direct supplication and worship should be directed solely to God. **Although he acknowledged that prophets and saints were honored by God, he believed that attributing the ability to hear or intercede after death to them contradicted the pure monotheistic principles central to Islam.** **Visiting shrines should be an act of remembrance and humility**, reaffirming one's own devotion to God and seeking His guidance without assigning divine powers to those who have passed. **[He appreciated the following characteristics of sufism]** **Ethical Discipline and Sincerity**: Ibn Taymiyya valued the ethical foundations of Sufism that encouraged sincerity in worship and moral discipline. He saw Sufism as beneficial when it promoted self-restraint, humility, and love for God. He wrote warmly about virtues such as love, fear, and hope in God, blending these with Sufi terminology like dhikr (remembrance) and fana' (annihilation) but reinterpreting them to emphasize lawful worship. **Moderate Asceticism and Zuhd (Renunciation):** Although he was cautious of excessive ascetic practices, Ibn Taymiyya supported a moderate form of zuhd that involved turning away from worldly attachments while fulfilling one's social and religious duties. He respected Sufis who practiced asceticism in a balanced manner, advocating a focus on lawful worship rather than renunciation that disregarded communal obligations, **International Sharia setters** To circumvent/avoid interest, Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions **(AAOIFI),** and International Islamic Fiqh Academy (**IIFA**), international Sharia setters, **propose that lending should be based on a tangible commodity, such as real estate, transport products, agriculture products, oil and petroleum products, livestock, coal, minerals and fertilizers.** **[Islamic financial products, asset-based financing transactions (interest free system)]** 1. **Mudarabah (silent partnership):** A partnership where one party provides the capital and the other provides expertise and management (mudarib). Profits are shared based on a pre-agreed ratio, while losses are borne by the capital provider. 2. **Murabaha:** A cost-plus-profit arrangement where the bank purchases an asset at the request of the customer and sells it to them at a marked-up price, with deferred payments. 3. **Ijarah:** A leasing agreement where the bank purchases an asset and leases it to the customer for a specified period at an agreed-upon rental rate. At the end of the lease term, the customer may have the option to purchase the asset. 4. **Sukuk:** Islamic bonds that represent ownership in a tangible asset or service. Sukuk holders receive a share of the profits generated by the underlying asset. 5. **Islamic Home Financing (Musharakah Mutanaqisah):** A partnership contract between the bank and the customer to jointly own a property. The customer gradually buys the bank\'s share, making periodic payments, until full ownership is achieved. 6. **Takaful:** Islamic insurance that operates on the principle of cooperation and shared responsibility. Policyholders contribute to a pool of funds, and in the event of a loss, compensation is provided from this pool. 7. **Wakalah:** An agency agreement where the customer appoints the bank as an agent to manage their funds, and the bank charges a fee for its services. 8. **Islamic Microfinance:** Provides financial services to low-income individuals and small businesses based on Shariah principles. It often includes Qard Hasan (benevolent loan) and other participatory arrangements. 9. **Islamic Investment Funds:** Funds that invest in Shariah-compliant assets, such as stocks, real estate, and commodities. Profit and loss are shared among investors based on the fund\'s performance. 10. **Musharakah:** A partnership where all partners contribute capital, share profits, and bear losses based on their capital contribution ratio. 11. **Salam** (peace/safety) is a type of Islamic contract in which the buyer makes an advance payment for goods to be delivered at a future date. The seller undertakes to supply specific goods with agreed-upon specifications at a later date. Salam is commonly used in agricultural transactions where the buyer provides funds upfront, and the seller agrees to deliver the agricultural produce upon harvest. 12. **Istisna** is a contract in which a party places an order for a specific asset to be manufactured or constructed by the other party. The price and other terms are agreed upon at the time of the contract. Istisna is often used for financing the construction or manufacturing of assets such as real estate or machinery. The buyer can make progress payments as the work is completed. **Modern Islam** Many modern Muslim thinkers and scholars advocate for a contextualized or progressive interpretation of Islamic texts. They may emphasize **the adaptability of Islamic teachings to contemporary circumstances** and often challenge traditional interpretations considering modern knowledge, science, and global realities. For example, Rashid Rida redefines Ijima, Rida expands this to encompass a more diverse and representative group of decision-makers, including rulers, scholars, and other public figures. This broadening dilutes the exclusive authority of the \'ulama\' in defining religious consensus. He also rejected the scholarly consensus (ijma) that a Muslim who renounces their religion (Apostasy) should be put to death. He argued that an individual should have right to adopt or renounce a religion. Abduh argued that Islamic law should be interpreted with a focus on the spirit (maqasid) rather than the literal application of certain practices. In traditional Islamic jurisprudence, slavery was considered permissible, with certain regulations governing the treatment of slaves. However, Muhammad Abduh argued that the maqasid or underlying goals of Islamic law---such as justice, equality, and human dignity---should guide the interpretation of these practices. **Is it necessary to have Islamic economics? M. Umer Chapra** **1** Economics is the social science (positive science) that studies how individuals, businesses, governments, and societies allocate resources to satisfy their wants and needs. It analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in the context of scarcity (for example, since IBA has limited seats for each program; it cannot offer admission to all students) ---where resources are limited, and choices must be made to allocate them efficiently (hence, the admission policy has been created to allocate its limited seats efficiently). 2 Since resources are scare and insufficient, Chapra argues that Muslims need to develop economics. So, the question arises on what grounds such as IBA frames its admission policy. Can IBA frame its admission policy without presuming any conception of "good" and "goal"? How the conception of good and goals are to be determined? For example, IBA might define the \"good\" in terms of producing graduates who contribute to societal development, or it may focus on fostering individuals who can innovate in the business world. The goals, therefore, could be determined through a deliberation of what kind of social, economic, and ethical outcomes the institution aims to achieve. These goals are often influenced by broader philosophical, economic, or cultural considerations, such as whether the goal is to foster **individual success** or **to contribute to collective societal welfare**, and whether the admission policy should emphasize **pure** **merit-based criteria or prioritize diversity and inclusivity. The IBA admission policy shows that it is shifting from purely merit-based criteria to a policy focused on inclusivity and diversity. So, in other words, the IBA admission policy is not value-neutral.** Chapra argues that, like IBA's admission policy, economics as a part of social sciences, is not value neutral. **It assumes a conception of good and value.** 2 Conventional economics is largely driven by a liberal conception of good and value. Economics is dominated by market rationality, profit maximization, and a minimal state, which prioritize individual freedoms, competition, and efficiency over social welfare and collective well-being. Economic laws such as **the Law of Supply and Demand** (when the supply of a product is high and demand is low, prices drop, and when demand is high and supply is low, prices rise.), **The Profit Maximization Principle** (businesses aim to make the most money by producing goods or services where their costs to make them are as low as possible compared to the price they can sell them for.), **The Invisible Hand** (individuals acting based on their own self-interest unintentionally contribute to the overall economic good), **Ricardian Comparative Advantage** (countries should specialize in producing goods where they have a comparative advantage), **The Laffer Curve** (an optimal tax rate that maximizes revenue ) and **Hayek\'s Theory of Spontaneous Order** (a complex economic and social order arises naturally from the decentralized actions of individuals, without the need for central planning or government intervention) 3 The goals of economics are determined by the overarching purpose of society and individuals. While both Islamic and developed societies strive for the well-being of human beings, their notions of well-being are fundamentally contrasting. 4 Islam does not share the liberal conception of good and value; additionally, liberal and global economic order has relative success and created **Economic Inequality, Environmental Degradation, Financial Crises and Instability, Loss of National Sovereignty, Cultural Homogenization** and **Unemployment and Precarious Labor (contract-based work).** **Differences between Conventional and Islamic Economics** 3.1 **Spiritual Fulfillment vs Materialism:** Liberal societies often prioritize hedonistic pleasures, while Islamic emphasize spiritual connection and moral living. **Consumerism vs Community Welfare:** Consumer-focused values dominate Liberal societies, contrasting sharply with Islamic societies' commitment to communal well-being and ethical standards. **Ethical Prosperity vs Indulgent Success:** In Islamic cultures, prosperity stems from ethical behaviors; Liberal societies associate it with personal indulgence and material wealth. 3.2 Conventional economics (liberalism) views human beings as **inherently driven by self-interest and unlimited wants**, applauding the pursuit of profit without condemning these aspects. In contrast, Islamic economics **regards humans have both good and evil tendencies, without central authority and control, humans are likely to pursue self-interest at the expense of society**. Islam **emphasizes simplicity, temperance, and moderation.** 3.3 While conventional economics wholeheartedly supports a free-market economy, viewing it as most aligned with liberalism and its objectives (such as individual autonomy and the accumulation of wealth**), Islamic economics does not endorse a free-market system that is entirely profit-driven.** 3.4 Conventional economics advocates for a limited role of government/state in the economy, asserting that the market is self-regulating and ultimately serves the general interest. In contrast**, Islamic economics places a central emphasis on the role of the state or government in economic policies**, as it recognizes that the market can lead to inequalities, environmental degradation, and economic crises such as the great depression and **2008 financial crises**. 3.5 While conventional economics asserts an **individual\'s absolute right to private property**, Islamic economics maintains that an individual\'s property rights are safeguarded as long as they do not harm the collective interests of society. Consequently, under certain circumstances, **governments in Islamic economics may have the authority to take away private property, as exemplified by instances of nationalization in the 1970s**. 3.6 Conventional economics focuses on achieving individual welfare, whereas Islamic economics prioritizes values such as **brotherhood, humanism, justice, mental peace, family sustenance, and social solidarity.** It strives to attain these objectives without causing harm to the ecosystem, nature, or the well-being of others. Islamic economics is more comprehensive than conventional economics, encompassing moral, psychological, social, and historical factors. 3.7 Conventional economics adopts an **instrumental view of nature and its resources**, viewing them merely as means for profit accumulation. In contrast, **Islamic economics regards nature as the creation of God and advocates for its moderate and cautious use.** 3.8 Conventional **economics sees the market as the primary agent of social change**, while Islamic economics places equal importance **on family, religion, society, and state**, recognizing that markets cannot function without societies and families driven by considerations for others. 3.9 Conventional economics deems \"**interest/riba\" as a legitimate form of profit**, whereas Islamic economics views it as illegitimate. **Interest/Usury/Riba (Increase):** A sum of money is loaned today for a larger sum in the future without the transfer of the property rights over the principal from the lender to the borrower. Not only does the lender retain rights over the sum lent, but property rights over the additional sum to be paid as interest are transferred from the borrower to the lender at the time the contract of al-riba is entered into. **Islamic principles for profit and business** 1 While Islam does not impose a specific limit on profits, it advocates for exercising moderation in pursuit of profit. 2 The profit rate should facilitate the fair distribution of wealth for the societal well-being, aiming to narrow the wealth gap and benefit a larger segment of the population. 3 The acquisition of goods and services should not solely depend on purchasing power; consideration should also be given to individuals\' needs. 4 Profit is deemed justifiable when associated with risk, and profits lacking liability are considered unjust. 5 Encouragement should be directed towards business and trade involving goods and services that contribute to the broader welfare of society. 6 Business and trade activities should refrain from promoting excessive consumption of products. 7 It is recommended that business and trade avoid involvement in the production of prohibited or forbidden products such as alcohol, pork meat, gambling and illicit substances.

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