Ancient Egyptian History: New Kingdom and 19th Dynasty PDF

**New Kingdom** **19^th^ Dynasty** This dynasty consisted of eight rulers of Egypt (seven kings and one queen regnant). Despite the famous rulers of the late 19^th^ dynasty, it started with a low pace. The large number of rulers by the name Ramses were the cause of the era been called the Ramessid...

**New Kingdom** **19^th^ Dynasty** This dynasty consisted of eight rulers of Egypt (seven kings and one queen regnant). Despite the famous rulers of the late 19^th^ dynasty, it started with a low pace. The large number of rulers by the name Ramses were the cause of the era been called the Ramesside era. **Ramses I** became a king only by default a he was originally a vizier, a close friend and the confidant of the pharaoh Horemheb. Horemheb had no heir and thus granted his succession to his comrade. Ramses was of no royal blood and could have been in his fifties. Originally, he came from the north- eastern Delta area of Avaris, capital of the earlier Hyksos. His father was "Seti" the troop commander while was a career 'army' officer. Due to his short reign he was unable to leave a mark in history. Of his remains only the 2^nd^ pylon at Karnak has some reliefs and a stele was found at Wadi Halfa dating back to his 2^nd^ regnal year. In 1817 Belzoni had discovered his small tomb (KV 16), in which he was rapidly buried. Its burial chamber was unfinished especially that it was intended to be the antechamber of a larger tomb. Unfortunately, the tomb had been robbed in ancient times with only a few of pieces of his burial equipment such as his granite sarcophagus and a pair of two-meter-high wooden statues. So far, the mummy of king Ramses I has not be identified. There was a belief that a mummy that was returned by one of the museums in the USA and placed in the museum of Luxor could have been his mummy. But it remains of unknown identification. As for his wife queen Sitre, also of non royal birth; she probably outlived him and started the new tradition of not being buried with her husband but instead in a separate tomb at the Valley of the Queens (QV 38). This tomb was also unfinished with only a small number of paintings on the walls of the 1^st^ chamber. She is believed to be the mother of Seti I on the basis that of her being shown with Seti I and Ramses II in the temple of Abydos. Ramses was probably advanced in age at his accession, and he ruled for less than two years (16 months). He may have served for most of his reign as co-ruler -- first with Horemheb, then with the son Seti I. Seti I is clearly stated to be Ramses I's son on several monuments. The royal titles of Ramses I were modeled after Ahmose, the founder of the 18^th^ dynasty, clearly, he wished to mark the beginnings of a new dynastic tradition followed by both his son and grandson. He had built temples in Nubia and Palestine, beside the building activities throughout Egypt. The largest and most famous is that of Karnak, where he began work on the great hall of columns. Like most of his other construction activities they were completed by, and in the name of his successors. Ramses I was buried in a small tomb in the Valley of the Kings opposite that of Horemheb. His most well-known monument is the small mortuary chapel erected for him at Abydos by Seti I (now in the MMA in NY). Ramses I's major accomplishment was the founding of an enthusiastic dynasty, for which he was honoured by later dynasties. **Seti I**, held the same titles of Vizier and Troop commander as his father, Ramses I. In order to restore Egyptian fortunes after the instability under the Amarna kings, he inaugurated a policy of major building at home and a committed foreign policy abroad. During the 13 years of reign of Seti I Egyptian art and culture achieved a maturity and sophistication that was rarely equaled in later periods. Seti married Tuya, daughter of a lieutenant, Raia. They give birth to a boy that died and then a girl named, Tia. Their third child was another boy that took his grandfather's name and later became Egypt's mightiest ruler, Ramses II. **Seti I's military campaigns** included Syria where he led troops into Canaan during his father's reign but after his death he imposed authority over the Levant without delay. At Karnak the scenes depict he is represented sweeping along the Sinai coast road to Gaza in the 1^st^ year of his reign following the same tactics of Tuthmosis III swift movement into Gaza, thus securing his supply lines by sea into the Phoenician ports. Fortresses are shown being attacked and Syrians captured, bound and carried off before god Amun. Other campaigns took place against the Libyans of the western desert, and there was a renewed attack upon Syria and Lebanon where, for the first time, the Egyptians met the Hittites for battle. At Karnak there is a scene of a battle that took place at Kadesh during the reign of his son Ramses II. **Egyptian Art during Seti I's reign** A large number of construction works had taken place under his reign with high quality reliefs in both his cult temples and his tomb. At Karnak he began the work at the hypostyle hall which was later completed by his son Ramses II. The scenes of Seti I are found on the northern side and very obvious in style in comparison to those of the later periods. At Abydos, the centre of the cult of Osiris has a remarkable decorated temple. This building is a proof of Seti I's determination to demonstrate his devotion to Egypt's most popular god, and to try and connect himself to the ancient Egyptian monarchy. It is an unusual temple with seven sanctuaries, one of which dedicated to Seti I himself as a diety, Ptah, Re- Horakhet, Amun- Ra, Osiris, Isis, and Horus. In the desert behind the temple, a most mysterious structure known as the Osirion was built. It is set at a lower level than the main temple (affected by the subterranean water table. It was entered through a long tunnel that had its walls covered with scenes from the Book of the Gates. The whole structure, underground with a central mound surrounded by canal water, reflected the origins of life from the primeval waters. At the Valley of the Kings, he owns one of the largest and finest tombs (KV 17) which was discovered by G. Belzoni in 1817. One of the most remarkable translucent alabaster, unique alabaster was found in his tomb. His mummy was found among other mummies in the Deir el Bahari cache in 1881. Unfortunately, the mummy was damaged and restored during the reign of the high priest Herihor. Queen Tuya, outlived her husband by many years. During the reign of her son Ramses II, she appeared as the queen- mother on the façade of Abu Simbel temple and several statues of her were placed in the Ramassseum, as well as his new capital "Piramesses in the Delta. She died in her 60s and was buried in a large tomb (QV 80) **Ramses II** Ramses II became king at the age of 25, thus allowing him to gain the title Ramses the Great. During his long reign of 67 years, he had the chance to do everything on a large scale. There was no other king that constructed do many temples or erected so many temples or so many colossal statues and obelisks. Moreover, there was no other ruler to have such a large number of children. The victory of Ramses II in the battle of Kadesh against the Hittites was recorded in so many Egyptian texts. By the time he died, around the age of 90, he had left a great deal of monuments and a big trace in the Egyptian history. When he was a young prince, he was involved with the military tradition just as his grandfather, which he was named after. He was the hope to enlarge and establish the dynasty. By the age of 10 he gained the title "Eldest King's son" especially that his elder brother had died long before that and there were no other brothers. Interestingly, at Karnak he was found represented in his mid-teens with Seti in one of the Libyan campaigns. Clearly Ramses was allowed several times to join Seti's campaigns against the Hittites in Syria. This had increased his experience for his state craft. In many inscriptions Ramses was found overseeing and cutting obelisks from the granite quarries at Aswan, even joined in Seti's great building projects especially the inauguration of his temple to Osiris (smaller) at Abydos. **The royal wives** Ramses had two royal wives, the famous queen Nefertari and Istnofret, at least ten years before the death of Seti I. Thus, Seti was able to see his grandchildren, at least 5 sons and 2 daughters and maybe even about another 15 children from his harem. He was famous to have boasted to have had over a 100 children to an extent that they were not numbered. Little is known of the full royal queens except that Nefertari remained the chief queen until she died in the 24^th^ year of the reign of Ramses II. Her tomb (QV 66) was recently restored in is considered a major ancient wonder of Thebes. The total number of principal wives reached eight, even though Nefertari was his 1^st^, yet his favourite one. Her titles found her tomb were "The Deceased Great Royal wife", she was represented with goddess Hathor greeting her. Later, Istnofret took Nefertari's place but only for the next 10 years because she also died in the year 34 of the reign of her husband. Nefertari's son Prince Amenhrkhopshef became the crown prince along with another three sons. Istnofret's sons named Ramses, Khaemwaset and Merenptah (Ramses' II successor). A royal custom was followed by Ramses II when he took many of his other and later wives from immediate family. They included Henutmire, his younger sister, and three of his daughters: MerytAmun, Bint- Anath (Syrian name but strange because she was daughter of Istnofret) and Nebettawy. However, agreeing upon the 1^st^ peace treaty ever in history, he cemented the alliance by marrying a Hittite princess that changed to an Egyptian name "Maathhrneferrure" Seven years later, a 2^nd^ Hittite princess joined a court, and even more Syrian and Babylonian royal ladies caused Ramses' harem to become cosmopolitan. **The Hittite Wars** On the Egyptian- Syrian frontiers, relations were not so good since the times of his father Seti I. The southern Phoenician coastline ports were part of the Egyptian influence, while the northern city of Kadesh was kept by the Hittites. By the 4^th^ year of the reign of Ramses, a revolt took place in the Levant and by his 5^th^ year he led his army off to control the revolt. One of the largest Egyptian army troops was gathered by Ramses II, 20 000 men divided into four troops of 5 000 men, each troop named after a god; Amun, Ra, Ptah and Seth. He followed Tuthmosis III's attack that took place about 200 years earlier. He moved along the Gaza strip, about 10 miles away from the site of Kadesh. The large army, the baggage trains and camp followers, progress was slow and extended over a large area. A couple of spies were captured and interrogated to indicate that the Hittite army was 100 miles to the North. Thus, Ramses confidently moved forward with the Amun division to cross the Orontes River and camped west of Kadesh, a city that appeared to be an island because of the diverted water canal. However, two more spies were captured and tortured to confess the truth that the Hittite army was just on the other side of Kadesh and that the previous spies were planted for such ambush (trap). The Hittite king Muwatallis had a larger army of 18 000 and 19 000 in two divisions, plus 2500 chariots, an incredible force that attacked the Ra division that was coming up to join Ramses. The Hittite chariots crashed through the Egyptian troops until they were able to enter the Egyptian camp. Ramses II found himself alon with only his guard and Menna, his shield bearer. Being quick witted he resisted the attack and was saved from being captured because he took a different route were he was able to attack Muwatallis and the Hittites who retreated and left Ramses settled at the battlefield. The next day, the Egyptian troops had reunited to attack but the outcome was a tie causing Ramses to remember his father Seti and how he was not able to capture Kadesh. Thus, Ramses proposed a peace treaty. There were many temples that documented the heroic battle of Ramses, and his bravery were all inscribed and decorating the temples of Karnak, Luxor (3 times), the Ramasseum (2 times), Abu Simbel, and Abydos. Some of these interesting scenes include the charging chariotry, mercenaries with their hands being cut off for counting reasons, the escape of the prince of Aleppo (Halab) who fell into the Orontes River, who was extracted and placed upside down so as to drain him. There also Hieratic accounts on papyri that were written by schoolboys as exercise with drawings of horses. There were many other campaigns against the Hittites in the following years, especially that he could not control the northern limits of Syria, just like they could not control the south. In the east the Assyrians started to cause internal troubles and thus, the next Hittite king Hattusilis III decided to settle for non-aggression and support to the Egyptians. This treaty has survived on the walls of Karnak, the Ramasseum and even on clay tablets from Hattusas the Hittite capital. (These sources do not agree. The Hittite sources suggest that Ramses is the one that asked for peace). The two royal families exchanged gifts. The Hittite king offered his daughter to marry. Sit awkward because Ramses asked for a larger amount of dowry to be offered with the princess because he was poor? But the problem was solved, and she joined the court. Seven years later, the older daughter was offered to join her sister. This new connection was a marriage celebration that was documented on stele at Karnak, Elephantine, Abu Simbel and Amara West. **The Pharaoh of the Exodus** It is believed in several religions that the Hebrews escaped the Pharaohs tyranny by escaping and getting lost for 40 years in Sinai to reach the Promised Land. They had lived in the Nile Delta in peace for 400 years. This changed when a new Pharaoh that was thought to probably be Seti I who was strict in labour. This continued furthermore during the following ruler's reign Ramses II who ordered his people to work on his massive temples and his new city Pr Ramses. It is thought that Moses asked the pharaoh for the pardon of his Hebrew people to be freed. A total number of 10 times the freedom petition was denied, and this was followed by disasters such as the river stank, the fish died in the river because it had blood running. \[Bible\]. One night all of the 1^st^ born Egyptian children died and Ramses kicked out the Hebrews but he regretted the loss of this large work force and went out to re- capture them. He went along his army to the Red Sea and God had sent help to the Hebrews by parting the waves to allow the Hebrews to cross but then it closed behind them and engulfed the pursuers. There are no Egyptian records of these events, probably because it was a minor affair in the Egyptian annals (archives). +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | The Battle of Kadesh | | | | Traditionally, the story of the Battle of | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm) begins with the | | [army](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/war.htm) of [Ramesses | | II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) advancing upon the city of | | Kadesh in four troops. Ramesses II himself was with the lead element | | of the corps, known as Amun. While crossing the River Orontes | | (Arnath) to begin the approach to the city from the south, two | | Bedouin tribesmen, secretly in the employ of the | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) king, | | led what appears to have been a gullible Ramesses the Great into | | believing that the Hittite army was many miles away to the north. | | Ramesses II, believing he had stolen a strategic advantage, having | | arrived on the battle grounds early, ordered the army of Amun onward | | without delay. | | | |   | | | |   | | | | Ramesses II firing arrows from his chariot, often depicted without a | | driver | | | |   | | | |   | | | | However, after making camp to the northwest of Kadesh, Ramesses II | | was rather alarmed to discover from captured enemy spies that the | | Hittite army had already arrived. Located behind the Kadesh tell, | | they were even now ready for battle. Hearing this news, Ramesses II | | sent his [vizier](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/vizier.htm) | | to the army (really, more of a division) of Re some miles back to | | hurry them forward. However, they were ambushed by 2,500 Hittite | | chariots as they crossed the plain of Kadesh and so were overcome. | | This force then wheeled north and attacked Ramesses II\'s encampment, | | overrunning them as well. Though many of Amun\'s troops panicked and | | abandoned Ramesses to his fate, the Pharaoh donned his armor and from | | his chariot, almost single handedly held off the Hittite | | [chariotry](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/chariots.htm) | | inflicting heavy losses on them. However, [Ramesses | | II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) may really have been saved | | by the vision of booty within his camp, which seems to have occupied | | the enemy troops. | | | |  Overseeing the battle and observing the fate of his original chariot | | attack, the Hittite king ordered a further 1,000 chariots into the | | battle arena. However, just as these additional warriors reached the | | battle front, Ramesses II was saved by the arrival of the Ne\'arin. | | This was a second body of troops that Ramesses II had detached from | | the main campaign and ordered to approach | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm) from the north. | | With the aid of these troops, Ramesses II was able to fend off the | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) | | attack and win the battle, leaving many of the enemy dead on the | | battle field and the survivors faced with the humiliation of having | | to swim back across the Orontes River to escape the wrath of the | | Pharaoh. | | | |  | | | |  Some accounts of the battle have the two warring parties facing off | | once again the next day, but the ultimate results of the contest was | | a truce or a peace treaty, after which the Egyptians and Hittites | | withdrew to their respective homelands ([Ramesses | | II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm), having crushed his | | enemies). | | | |  The above is basically the Egyptian account of the Battle of Kadesh, | | and it probably does provide a framework for the overall action, | | though over the years, hardly any detail has escaped the attention of | | analysts. Though the battle may indeed be the earliest military | | action recorded in detail, there are many specifics that are either | | missing or are subject to considerable debate. In fact, Ramesses II | | certainly presented the battle with an obvious prejudice, | | particularly towards his own actions and deeds, but indeed, even the | | main three sources that we have of the battle, consisting of a poem, | | bulletin and reliefs, even disagree on some of the facts, and the | | scattered information derived from Hittite sources only confuse the | | matter additionally. | | | | **Prelude to the Battle of Kadesh** | | | | The Battle of [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm) | | fought by Ramesses II was a [long time in the | | making](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/kadesh1.htm), and not | | the first to be fought between the Hattities and Egyptians over this | | small, but strategically located vassal state. [Ramesses | | II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) had probably accompanied | | his father, [Seti | | I](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/seti1.htm) on [one similar | | campaign](http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/masterindex.htm) prior to | | his ascending the throne of Egypt. However, though Seti I may have | | taken Kadesh, by the time of Ramesses II\'s reign, it was back in the | | hands of the Hattities. From the onset of Ramesses II\'s reign, it is | | apparent that he intended to renew the struggle for domination in | | southern Syria, and so almost immediately he began preparing for the | | coming hostilities. He added a fourth field army to his military | | establishment, and expanded the eastern Delta city of | | [Pi-Ramasses](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/qantir.htm), | | his new capital, to act as a staging point for operations in the | | Levant. | | | |  In his fourth year, during the spring of 1301 BC, Ramesses led his | | army into southern Syria for the first time as king, reaching as far | | as Simyra and succeeding in returning the Amurru kingdom to the | | Egyptian fold. | | | | Map of the General Region**  ** | | | | **Map of the General Region** | | | |  It soon became evident to the | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) king, | | Muwatallish, that in order to protect his holdings in Syria, he would | | have to confront the Egyptians in a major military campaign. The | | venue of this coming battle was never in doubt by either party. They | | would meet beneath the walls of Kadesh in order to settle once and | | for all the future of their respective empires in Syria. | | | |  In fact, it is likely that the Hittites and the Egyptians agreed on | | the site, as well as the time of battle in advance. Certainly, there | | is an inference of this considering that the two sides arrived on the | | scene of Kadesh at about the same time during the month of May, 1300 | | BC. It should be noted however that this was not an ideal | | battleground for the Egyptians. The Hittites were operating in a | | region that was under their control where their supply lines were | | short. They probably staged their campaign out of | | [Carchemish](http://www.touregypt.net/support/Carchemish.htm), not | | far from Kadesh at all. Furthermore, the city of | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm), currently | | under their command, was large enough to accommodate the Hittite army | | should matters go awry. It provided a good defensive position, | | surrounded by both a mote and the Orontes River itself. | | | | [Ramesses II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) would also have | | to contend with one of the largest armies ever assembled by the | | kingdom of Hatti. Though no substantiating sources have ever been | | unearthed, Ramesses speaks of the Hittites having eighteen allied and | | vassal states providing some 3,700 chariots and 37,000 infantry. We | | know that these included Aleppo, Khatti, Naharin, Arzawa, Dardany, | | Keshkesh, Masa, Pidassa, Arwen (?), Karkisha, Luke, | | [Carchemish](http://www.touregypt.net/support/Carchemish.htm), | | [Ugarit](http://www.touregypt.net/support/ugarit.htm), Dedy, | | Nuhashshe, Mushanet, | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm) as well as the | | country of [Kizwadna | | (Kizzuwadna)](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kizzuwadna.htm), whom | | he commissioned to: | | | | \"\...send one hundred horses equipped (with chariots) and a thousand | | foot soldiers to the army of the Sun, who will provide for | | them.\"Throughout the months of March and April, | | [Pi-Ramasses](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/qantir.htm) | | must have been a beehive of activity, as individual units were | | mustered into the four field armies (also sometimes referred to as | | divisions in some texts). One sign of times to come was the notable | | increase in the number of foreign troops in the regular Egyptian | | army. These included | | [Nubians](http://www.touregypt.net/historicalessays/nubia.htm), | | [Sherden](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/seapeople.htm), | | [Libyans](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/enemies.htm) and | | Canaanites. The four armies were each made up of about 5,000 troops, | | for a total of 20,000 combatants. While no mention is actually made | | of the army\'s chariot strength, by this date the Egyptians should | | have been able to muster a significant force. | | | | Ramesses left Egypt in April, probably taking the coast road to | | [Gaza](http://www.touregypt.net/support/gaza.htm). It was there that | | Ramesses sent the Ne\'arin, probably an elite unit, northward from | | Gaza along the coast road to Canaan, probably to secure the loyalty | | of the Canaanite coastal cities. On a specific day, they were | | probably ordered to arrive at Kadesh by way of the Eleutheros Valley | | in [Amurru](http://www.touregypt.net/support/amurru.htm). The main | | body of his forces followed the route inland through Canaan, | | traversing the eastern side of Lake Galilee afterwards entering the | | Bekaa Valley in order to reach Kumidi. | | | |   | | | |   | | | |   | | | |  | | | | Ramesses II had arrived near | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm) and was | | encamped with the army of Amun about one day\'s march south from | | Kadesh. The location of their camp has been identified as a high, | | conspicuous mound known as Kamuat el-Harmel. We are actually not | | certain about the day that Ramesses II arrived at this location, but | | rather that he was at the camp on the ninth day of the month of Shemu | | (late May). The other three armies, named P\'Re (Re), Ptah and Sutekh | | (Set), lay to the rear of the army of Amun, each separated by a | | distance of about 10.5 kilometers (one iter). While Ramesses II has | | been criticized for this division of his forces, it was standard | | operating procedure to distance the armies in this manner. | | | | Unfortunately, we have no further specific references to time within | | the accounts of the battle, and many military analysts believe that | | the following events may have occurred over a broader length of time | | than what the fluid accounts of the battle might lead us to believe. | | | | **First Encounters with the Enemy** | | | | [Ramesses II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) and the Army of | | Amun began to strike camp on the ninth day in order to cross the | | Orontes probably by the ford at Shabtuna (or nearby). It must have | | taken some considerable period of time for this to have been | | effected. Five thousand men, perhaps along with additional (and | | probably, considering the retinue that followed the King, | | substantial) support personnel, their equipment, including chariots, | | had to move down the ridge through the Labwi (Robawi) forest and | | ponderously cross the Orontes. This all probably took a great deal of | | time and even if the Army of Amun broke camp (a major undertaking in | | itself) early on the ninth day, they probably did not complete the | | crossing until at least mid-afternoon. | | | |   | | | |   | | | | The initial approach onto the Plain of Kadesh | | | | Shortly after the crossing, two Shasu Bedouin were encountered and | | brought before the pharaoh. It has been generally assumed that they | | were a deliberate plant by the | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) king | | to misinform Ramesses II, and indeed, they informed him that the | | Hittite army was some distance to the north in the land of | | [Aleppo](http://www.touregypt.net/support/aleppo.htm). | | | | In bronze age encounters, this would have given Ramesses II | | considerable advantage. One of the most important aspects of such a | | battle, after a long march by opposing armies, was a period of rest | | and reorganization for battle readiness. Ramesses obviously took | | considerable assurance that he was in a superior position to the | | Hittite forces, and even the Egyptian accounts of the campaign do not | | attempt to hide his gullibility on this matter. However, historians | | may be too quick to lay blame on Ramesses II. The king clearly | | followed normal army operating procedures, and it was common for a | | screening force of chariots or horsemen to move ahead of the marching | | army. This advanced element was either absent, or may have shared the | | overconfidence of the pharaoh, but in any event, it would not have | | been the task of the king to oversee every operation of his army, for | | he had senior officers for that purpose. | | | |  At any rate, the Army of Amun arrived in a somewhat casual manner at | | their campsite on the plains of | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm), northwest of | | the city, perhaps late on the ninth day, not realizing that the | | entire Hittite army was camped on the opposite side of the Kadesh | | mound. While we do not know the precise location of his camp, it is | | likely that he used the same site as that of [Seti | | I](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/seti1.htm) some years | | before. The Egyptian\'s no doubt set up camp with the expectations of | | an extended stay, for at the center of the camp they erected a shrine | | to the [god](http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/) | | [Amun](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amun-re.htm), together | | with the great tent of the pharaoh where [Ramesses | | II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) \"took his seat on a throne | | of gold\". | | | |   | | | |  Certainly, it seems that if reconnaissance of any manner was ordered | | previously it was ineffectual, but now the Egyptian scouts made good | | by returning with two prisoners found lurking near the Egyptian camp. | | Refusing at first to talk, they were beaten before being dragged | | before Rameses II. The historical documents record that: | | | |  \"Then said His Majesty, \'What are you\'? They replied, \'We belong | | to the ruler of Hatti! He sent us out to see where Your Majesty | | was.\' Said His Majesty to them, \'Where is he, the Ruler of Hatti? | | See, I heard it said that he was in the land of Aleppo, north of | | Tunip.\' They replied, \'Behold, the Ruler of Hatti has already come, | | together with many foreign lands that he brought as allies\...See, | | they are poised armed and ready to fight behind Old Kadesh?\'\" | | | |  It must have been a great shock to Ramesses II, who, only moments | | before, had figured he held an advantage to his adversary, having | | arrived on the plain of Kadesh first. As the full implications of | | this new information sank in, Ramesses must have understood that he | | and his army stared absolute disaster in the face. Not only was the | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) army | | rested and ready for battle, but he had arrived at Kadesh with only a | | small part of his overall forces. A conference was quickly called | | with his senior staff, where the king revealed to them their dire | | predicament. This resulted in the realization that all would be lost | | unless their forces could be quickly consolidated, and therefore, the | | king\'s [vizier](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/vizier.htm) | | was quickly sent south in order to implement a rapid advance by | | Egypt\'s other forces. However, at this point the events that follow | | become somewhat difficult to recount. | | | |  | | | | If indeed the Egyptian Army left their camp and crossed the Orontes | | River on the ninth day, then it must have been somewhat late that day | | that the Hittite scouts were discovered, and even later by the time | | they were handed over to Ramesses after being tortured. Some | | authorities believe therefore that the vizier would not have reached | | the closest forces to Ramesses, the Army of Re, until the morning of | | the tenth day. However, that army had probably advanced northward | | just as the Army of Amun had, camping perhaps in the same location | | that the Ramesses II had occupied previous to his crossing of the | | Orontes. Hence, it is very possible that the vizier did in fact reach | | the southern forces late on the day of the ninth. | | | | ** ** | | | | ** ** | | | | **The Forces Engage** | | | |  We know that the Army of Re mustered their forces and, as soon as | | they could break camp, attempted to close ranks with the Army of Amun | | as the vizier continued south in order to warn Egypt\'s other forces. | | Soon the Army of Re was crossing the River Orontes but [Ramesses | | II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) would be disappointed if he | | expected their timely arrival. However, whether this division of the | | Egyptian army crossed the River late on the nine day of the month of | | Shemu or early on the tenth day is open to speculation. regardless, | | what transpired next could not have been as much of a surprise as the | | ancient text makes of it. | | | | The Hittite chariot forces attack the Army of Re | | | | As the Army of Re crossed the Orontes River, they were set upon by | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) | | chariotry, who emerged from the tree line to the right of the column | | about three quarters of a mile distant. However, it should be noted | | that some time must have elapsed between the dispatch of the vizier | | and the Army of Re\'s crossing of the Orontes. They, along with the | | Army of Amun under the direct command of Ramesses, had some period of | | time to prepare themselves for the ensuing hostilities, for it must | | have taken time for the | | [vizier](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/vizier.htm) to both | | have reached and warned the army of Re, as well for that division to | | have struck camp and crossed the Orontes. | | | |   | | | |   | | | | Yet, this apparently did not prevent the destruction that followed. | | Having emerged from their cover the Hittite chariots crashed into the | | Army of Re, as they had been trained, causing widespread havoc. Many, | | if not most Egyptologists disagree with Ramesses stated figure of | | 2,500 chariots, for this would have been an overwhelming force that, | | first of all, would have required a significant time to cross over | | the Orontes but having succeeded, could have very likely decimated | | all of the Egyptian forces. For this reason, many analysts believe | | that the Hittite chariot forces that attacked the Army of Re were | | much smaller, perhaps only one fifth of the size documented by the | | Egyptians. This could explain much of what happened next. However, it | | must also be remembered that by this point, half of the Egyptian | | forces, consisting of some ten thousand men, along with half of the | | Egyptian | | [chariotry](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/chariots.htm) | | were now on the plains of | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm), so the force | | of Hittite chariots may have been substantial given the initial | | destruction that was caused. Furthermore, the Hittite forces may not | | have had to cross over the Orontes proper, but rather a fairly small | | tributary. | | | | Certainly the Hittite chariots scattered the Army of Re, but probably | | did not actually decimate it. After crashing through the ranks of the | | Egyptian column, they wheeled to the north following the vanguard of | | this division as they rushed to the perceived safety of the Amun | | lines. The army of Amun had little time to secure a combat stance, | | but given the alarming information provided by the Hittite scouts, | | they must have been in a state of readiness to some extent. It is | | doubtful that the column of Re, which probably stretched on for some | | two and one half miles, was completely overcome by the | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) | | attack. As the remnants of the Army of Re approached the camp of | | Amun, followed in hot pursuit by the Hittite chariotry, lookouts | | should have seen the advancing storm, signaled by the dust plume | | created by such a disturbance, and alerted at least some of the camp | | to the impending battle. | | | |   | | | |   | | | |  | | | | Nevertheless, the Hittite chariots very quickly crashed through the | | front lines of Ramesses II\'s camp, but were quickly slowed by the | | impending obstacles of such a large camp. Even so, they created | | widespread panic amongst these troops as well, scattering the forces | | as they had evidently done with the army of Re. Yet, pharaoh had been | | alerted by this time to the attack, and in what seems to have been a | | rather cool, collected effort on his part, first instructed his | | court, which probably included a few princes, on their defense, and | | then proceeded to dress himself in armor and prepare his immediate | | guard for a battle which he would heroically lead. | | | |  By this time, the Hittite | | [chariotry](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/chariots.htm) | | forces were concentrated within the camp and perhaps at a point where | | they had become somewhat disorganized. They were probably also in a | | position where maneuverability of their much larger chariots was | | difficult because of obstacles within the camp. Further, after | | attacking the Re column and wheeling northward for the camp of Amun, | | their horses must have surely been exhausted. Doubtless, they had | | even lost a few of their kind in the running battle that was even now | | continuing. | | | | Now, it was Ramesses II who:  | | | | *\":\...appeared in glory like his father Montu, he assumed the | | accoutrements of battle, and he girded himself with his corslet\"* | | | |   | | | | However, before engaging in the battle, he sought safety for his | | family members that traveled with him, but thereafter, in a fit of | | valor, [Ramesses II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm)\'s, | | together with his personal guard, attacked the charging Hittite | | forces and, with the superior maneuverability of their chariots, | | wheeled about in successive attacks on the slower forces of the | | Hittites. | | | | We are told by Ramesses II that: | | | | *\"I found the 2,500 chariots, in whose midst I was, sprawling before | | my horse. Not one of them found his hand to fight\...and they were | | unable to shoot. They found not their hearts to seize their | | javelins.\"* | | | | The results were that the Egyptians began to pick off the | | overextended Hittite chariotry. Of course, the fact that the Hittite | | forces could be dealt with at this point by what was apparently only | | a fairly small force of Egyptians is another reason why historians | | believe that there were less then 2,500 chariots in the Hittite | | attack. However, Ramesses II tells us that he: | | | | *\"caused them to plunge into the water (of the River Orontes), even | | as crocodiles plunge, fallen upon their faces. I killed among them | | according as I willed\".* | | | |   | | | |   | | | |   | | | | Ramesses II enters the fray of the battle | | | |   | | | |   | | | | However, there may have also been a somewhat larger number of | | Egyptian forces who stood against the | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) | | forces rather than running in the cowardly manner that the reliefs | | depict. It is difficult to imagine, having been warned of their dire | | circumstances by the Hittite scouts, that the Amun camp was not | | highly alert and that the five thousand troops of that division were | | not in a state of battle readiness. It is more than somewhat likely, | | given his vanity on such matters, that Ramesses II empathized his own | | heroism on the walls of his temples at the expense of his armed | | forces. | | | | Irregardless, the Hittite forces began to lose their initial | | advantage. Overlooking the battle scene along with the nobles and | | high officials who had accompanied the Hittite army, Muwatallish | | monarch appears to have been shaken by the Egyptian recovery that he | | witnessed within the running battle at Ramesses II\'s camp. In order | | to save his dwindling forces, he ordered another thousand chariots to | | the attack. This force appears to have consisted of the high nobles | | who surrounded the king. However, several pieces of information | | should be closely examined at this point. | | | |   | | | |   | | | | First, it is argued that this second force could not have been as | | great as one thousand chariots, for the logistics of quickly sending | | that large of force immediately into battle would have been | | difficult, if not impossible. However, the fact that the nobility | | within the Hittite forces were now sent into battle also suggests | | that the initial commitment of Hittite | | [chariotry](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/chariots.htm) | | must have been substantial. Though perhaps not as many as 2,500 | | chariots, it seems to have left the Hittites with only the elite | | nobility in reserve. | | | |  | | | |  Secondly, it has been suggested by highly authoritative sources that | | the initial chariot attack was actually unintentional. Some scholars | | believe that the Hittite chariots may have simply been scouting the | | Egyptian forces, but when they broke from the scrub trees and saw the | | Army of Re, they had little choice other than crashing through the | | Egyptian column. These analysts argue that, had the attack been | | intentional with a force as large as 2,500 chariots, they could have | | and should have completely decimated the Egyptian forces. | | | | The lighter Egyptian chariot | | | |   | | | |   | | | | However, the fact that Muwatallish was in fact observing the battle | | with forces ready to reinforce the initial chariot attack, seems to | | indicate that the battle was no accident, though many questions do | | remain on this matter. For example, during the entire event, no | | [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) | | infantry seem to have ever been committed to the battle, which leaves | | us with an awkward gap in our understanding of the battle. | | | |  As the Hittite reinforcements entered the fray, the Egyptian forces | | must have themselves been exhausted from their initial encounter with | | the enemy forces. If they were aware of the second wave of Hittite | | chariotry as they charged the camp, the men surrounding [Ramesses | | II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) must have surely felt | | doomed. However, Ramesses II seems to have been a lucky man | | throughout his long life, and now he was particularly fortuitous. As | | the Hittite forces approached the Egyptian camp, suddenly, and | | seemingly out of nowhere, the Ne\'arin appeared, turning the | | impending disaster into a route of the Hittite forces. | | | |  | | | |  It is probable that the Hittites did not know about the Ne\'arin. | | This term means \"young men\" and infers that they were perhaps a | | crack Canaanite unit who\'s loyalty to Ramesses II was beyond | | reproach. It has been suggested that, rather than an elite unit, this | | may have actually been the Army of Set, though the reliefs indicate | | otherwise. It was probably no accident that they showed up at this | | point, though the exact timing was certainly lucky. These forces had | | probably been ordered to join up with the main body of the Egyptian | | army on a specific day. Nevertheless, the Hittite forces were sent | | scurrying back across the Orontes river and we are told that many | | nobles and men of importance within the Hittite confederation lay | | dead on the battle field, or were swept away by the river in their | | panicked retreat. | | | |  The next day, there may have been some additional fighting according | | to some accounts, but this may have also referenced the lashing that | | Ramesses II would give his troops for their cowardly actions. In the | | reliefs documenting the battle, Ramesses II states that: *\"None of | | you was there\...None rose to lend me his hand in my fight\...None of | | you came later to tell the story of his heroic deeds in Egypt\...The | | foreigners who saw me, praise my name to the end of all lands where I | | was not known\...Since ancient times a man was honored for his | | fighting abilities, but I will not reward any of you, as you have | | abandoned me when I was alone fighting my enemies.\"* | | | |  It has even been suggested that, even as Muwatallish overlooked the | | scene, Ramesses II may have dispatched a number of his troops to the | | netherworld. More importantly, what happened next almost negates the | | resounding victory claimed by Ramesses II. He agreed to a truce with | | the [Hittite](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm) | | King, who we are told pleaded with Ramesses II stating: | | | |  *\"Suteh are you, Baal himself, your anger burns like fire in the | | land of Hatti\... our servant speaks to you and announces that you | | are the son of Re. He put all the lands into your had, united as one. | | The land of Kemi, the land of Hatti, are at your service. They are | | under your feet. Re, your exalted father, gave them to you so you | | would rule us. It is good that you should kill your servants?\... | | Look at what you have done yesterday. You have slaughtered thousands | | of your servants\....You will not leave any inheritance. Do not rob | | yourself of your property, powerful king. glorious in battle, give us | | breath in our nostrils.\"* | | | |  Of course, this text obviously offers a view by the Egyptians. It | | may be that both parties to the truce realized that additional | | battles might have decimated both armies to the extent that they may | | ver well have become vulnerable to other powers within the region. | | Furthermore, Ramesses II was obviously facing a crises within the | | ranks, so we are told that: *\"His Majesty turned back in peace to | | Egypt, together with his infantry and his chariotry being with him\"* | | | | Ramesses II later signed a [peace | | treaty](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/treaty.htm) with the | | Hittites which would forever place | | [Kadesh](http://www.touregypt.net/support/kadesh.htm) out of Egyptian | | hands. From this, it is evident that no real victory took place, or | | at least not one that gave Ramesses II an obvious edge over his | | enemies. In fact, it would seem that the Hittites army even shadowed | | the Egyptian forces as they headed home. | | | |   | | | |   | | | | A drawing of the reliefs at the Temple of Luxor depicting the Battle | | of Kadesh | | | |   | | | |  | | | | **A drawing of the reliefs at the Temple of Luxor depicting the | | Battle of Kadesh.** | | | | **The bottom register shows Ramesses II single-handedly charging the | | enemey** | | | | Eventually, what [Ramesses II](http://www.touregypt.net/19dyn03.htm) | | failed to do to the Hittites would be accomplished instead by the | | [Sea People](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/seapeople.htm), | | who would infiltrate the Hittite lands and eventually cause that | | empire to collapse. But for now, the Hittites were no longer Egypt\'s | | great enemy, for later, Ramesses II would take perhaps several of | | Hattusilis III\'s (successor to Muwatallish) daughters [as his | | queens](http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ramesses2squeens.htm) | | and there would be much correspondence between the two courts. | | | | ** ** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Ramses' constructions** He added to the temples of Karnak and Luxor, completed his father's mortuary temple at Qurna (western Thebes), completed the Abydos temple, besides building one for himself. At western Thebes he built a massive mortuary temple, the Ramasseum. At the site of Gebel el Silsila, there are inscriptions in the sandstone quarries that document that 3000 workmen were employed to cut the stone for only the Ramasseum temple. There were other mortuary temples built in Nubia, at the sites of Beit el Wali, Gerf Hussein, Wadi el Sebua, Derr and even all the way south at Napata. His greatest construction was that of Abu Simbel temples. The grandeur of the Great temple is over- whelming, with four colossal 18m high statues of the king that flank the entrance. The smaller temple was dedicated to Hathor and Ramses' favourite wife Nefertari. Abu Simbel temple was only discovered in 1813 by Burkhardt and entered in 1817 by G. Belzoni. An ancient engineering happened twice a year when the rising sun at the equinox on both the 22^nd^ of February and October when the sun shines all the way through the temple and into the sanctuary to illuminate most of the statues in the sanctuary. Nefertari was alive in the 24^th^ year of the king when these temples were inaugurated but apparently she died the following year. The payment of the construction of these temples was obviously in gold. This precious metal was represented in the Theban nobles' tombs of the 18^th^ and 19^th^ dynasty. In the Turin Museum there is a papyrus that has a map dating back to the reign of Seti I showing the gold mines in the eastern desert. Unfortunately, little remains of the fine new Pr- Ramses city that was filled with great buildings and obelisks. **Death and Burial** In the year 67 of Ramses II, around the age of 92 years, he joined the gods in the west. Luckily, his tomb had been long before prepared in the Valley of the Kings (KV 7), and was larger than his fathers but not that beautifully decorated as that of Seti I. Unfortunately; nowadays it is inaccessible and damaged. The contents of this tomb must have been splendid in comparison to the boy king Tutankhamun who ruled for a short reign of about 10 years. There are a few items of the funerary furniture that survived; a wooden statue (British Museum), Canopic jars (Louvre), flattened bronze *Ushabti* (Berlin) and two more *ushabtis* (Brooklyn and British museums). As for the mummy of Ramses II, it was found in 1881 in the Deir el Bahari cache (DB 320). In 1976 the mummy was flown to Paris, France for examination, conservation and exhibition. He was greeted at the Paris airport by a full Presidential Guard of Honour. **Merenptah** Ramses II's 13^th^ son had succeeded his father who ruled for a long period of 67 years. Thus, causing his son Merenptah to be probably in his 60s when he got to the throne and ruling for only ten years. This reign was found documented in more than one resource; the Amun temple at Karnak, a stele in the Delta, and the Victory stele of Merenptah that was found by F. Petrie at the site of the ruins of the mortuary temple of Merenptah. These document and complement each other about his military campaigns. During the last years of the reign of Ramses II the frontiers remained in peace. However, times changed and a revolt took place in southern Syria that was quickly crushed. The Hittite king thus suffered attacks and famine in his northern territory causing a plead for the old treaty asking for grain. Merenptah responded by sending grain -- proving what is in the Bible concerning that Egypt remained the granary of the Near East. The western borders with the Libyans remained unrestful and quietly infiltrated the Delta by the 5^th^ year of the king there was an attempt of an invasion a revolt both Nubia and the oases. At Karnak, there are inscriptions describing the valour of the king against the heavy strike of the Libyans that were defeated and his rapid swift turn south crushing rebels. The records document over 6000 Libyans were massacred (slain). Even though Merenptah was old he still made sure that the security of Egypt is untouchable. Merenptah's old age was a major reason for him to start construction of both his mortuary temple on the edge of the floodplain and his tomb at the Valley of the Kings on Western Thebes. Like previous rulers he also used earlier buildings such as the nearby temple of Amenhotep III, removing quite a lot of it, including the large stele that was turned round to become Merenptah's victory Hymn. At the Valley of the Kings (KV 8) his tomb lies close but on a higher level than that of his father; thus, was not affected by the floods that got to Ramses' tomb. There are only pieces that remain of his funerary furniture, such as ushabitis, curiously several sarcophagi of different materials including alabaster, rose and black granite. Psusennes took the granite sarcophagi and reused it in his intact tomb at Tanis. Merenptah's mummy remained unfound as it was not one of those that were hid in the 1881 Deir El Bahari cache. The later caused the scholars to assume that he might be the pharaoh of the exodus who drowned in the Red Sea; therefore, his tomb must have been a cenotaph. But this theory changed in 1889 when his mummy was found amongst 16 other bodies in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV 35). As for his wife Isisnofret, she had died before him and was not buried at the Valley of the Queens but instead it is assumed she might have been also placed in KV 35. However, her mummy has not yet been identified. **From Amenmesses to Queen Tausert** Around the year 1200 BC Merenptah died and an interruption of succession happened because instead of the crown prince Seti-Merenptah the reign was passed on to **Amenmesses**. The disappearance of Seti-Merenptah remains a mystery and a lesser prince, son of a minor queen Takhat took over. Little is known of Amenmesses except that he had a short reign of only four years and naturally an unfinished tomb at the Valley of the Kings (KV 10). There is a possibility that his mother, Takhat and wife, Baktwerel could have buried with him in his tomb. The bodies were not identified to an extent that they were tought to have belonged to the wife and mother of Ramses IX. The successor of Amenmesses was **Seti II**, who could have been a previous expelled crown prince. Definitely he usurped (*damnatio memoriae* = damaged the memory) his predecessors monuments by adding his name. The names of three of his queens are known: Takht II, Tausert, the mother of the eldest son and heir to the throne, Seti-Merenptah, and Tiaa, the mother of Ramses- Siptah. Obviously, the heir to the throne died before his father Seti II, and the younger son inherited the throne taking the name of Siptah. The older queen, Tausert, effectively ruled in her stepson's name along with the chancellor, Bay, "the King maker"; he was granted a tomb at the Valley of the Kings (KV 13). By the year six of his reign **Siptah** died and ended up being buried in the upper part of the Valley of the Kings (KV 47) in a tomb that was prepared for both him and his mother Queen Tiaa. His large red granite sarcophagus remains in his unfinished burial chamber but his body, was laid in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV 35) that was discovered in 1898. Interestingly, after his burial the tomb was disturbed and his cartouches erased but later were restored in paint, most probably by his chancellor Bay. After the death of Siptah, his step-mother **Tausert** declared herself Queen and used all the royal titles just like Hatshepsut had done about 300 years earlier. At the Valley of the Kings, her tomb (KV 14) has a confusing history; it was started in the 2^nd^ year of the reign of Siptah, enlarged by Tausert so as to be able to occupy both herself and her husband **Seti II**. However, it was later usurped by Sethnakht, the first king of the 20^th^ dynasty. In 1908, a small burial pit was discovered containing second-rate jewellery of an infant daughter of Tausert and Seti II. **Late 19^th^/ early 20^th^ dynasties SETHNAKHT** The Late Ninteenth dynasty ended with a lot of confusion, especially with the female ruler Tausert. Maybe there was a few chaotic months, between the end of the sole reign of Tausert and the accession of her successor Sethnakht is doubtful. It is unknown how did Sethnakht get to the throne or even what is his origin. The best source to the beginning of the 20^th^ dynasty was documented 65 years after the beginning of the dynasty. The **Great Harris Papyrus** is the longest known papyrus. Measuring 40.5 meters and consists of 117 columns. It dates back to the reign of Ramses III. It was found with another four papyri in a private tomb at Deir el Medina. Its name is derieved from the name of the buyer Mr A. C. Harris from Alexandria. The text praises and expresses the qualities (virtues), good works for the gods by Ramses III, which were written by his son Ramses IV to place it in his father's tomb. It is a social document that charts the annual temple festivals and the gifts that were presented by Ramses III during his 31 year reign. A balance sheet for Egypt during the reign of Ramses III, a unique and priceless document; must have been part of the archives of the Medinet Habu temple. It still remains a mystery as to how did it move to KV 11 and then to the nobleman's tomb in Deir el Madinah. In this papyrus, the last four pages describe how Sethnakht arose and put down the rebellions that were started by the Asiatics: he relieved surrounded (besieged) cities, had the people that were hiding return, restored the temples, and restored the revenues. Sethnakht only ruled for three years. His son -- Ramses III- by Queen Tiy- merenese was surely connected to a short co- regency. Sethnakht was buried with full royal honours, which were documented in the papyrus: "he had crossed to the west". At the Valley of the Kings, Sethnakht had usurped and enlarged the tomb of Tausert (KV 14), which was already taken over by Seti I. He did start another tomb (KV 11), but it was intruded by that of Amenmesses (KV 10) and then abandoned; later used by his son Ramses III who had altered its plan. Sethnakht's coffin was found in Amenhotep II's tomb (KV 35) in 1898, and it is possible that his may be the unwrapped and unidentified body found on a wooden boat in the tomb. **Ramses III** Ramses III, the 2nd king of the 20^th^ dynasty, ruled for about 31 years during the period known as the New Kingdom. He ruled during a time when the rest of the Mediterranean World was unstable. The fall of Mycenae and the Trojan War caused many displaced peoples to relocate. But Egypt was not about to give up and sink into void. \[Mycenae: is an [archaeological site](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology) in [Greece](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece), located about 90 km south-west of [Athens](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens), in the north-eastern [Peloponnese](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnese). [Argos](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argos) is 11 km to the south; [Corinth](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinth), 48 km to the north. From the hill on which the palace was located one can see across the [Argolid](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argolid) to the [Saronic Gulf](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saronic_Gulf). In the second millennium BC Mycenae was one of the major centres of Greek civilization, a military stronghold which dominated much of southern Greece. The period of [Greek history](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Greece) from about 1600 BC to about 1100 BC is called [Mycenaean](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece) in reference to Mycenae. Trojan War: In [Greek mythology](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology), it was a war against the city of [Troy](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy) by the [Achaeans](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaeans_%28Homer%29) ([Greeks](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks)) after [Paris](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_%28mythology%29) of Troy took [Helen](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen) from her husband [Menelaus](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menelaus), the king of [Sparta](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta). The war is among the most important events in Greek mythology and was narrated in many works of [Greek literature](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_literature), including the [*Iliad*](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad) and the [*Odyssey*](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey) by [Homer](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer). \"The Iliad\" relates a part of the last year of the siege of Troy, while the *Odyssey* describes the journey home of [Odysseus](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus), one of the Achaean leaders.\] During the first few years of his reign, Ramses III consolidated the work of his father, Setnakht, by bringing unity to the country. There were no problems in the south, in Nubia that was subdued and became a colony. Trouble started by the fifth year when the Libyans attacked from the west, Egypt was well prepared. It had been twenty-seven years since Merenptah had repulsed their last offensive, now again; an organized and efficient Egyptian army easily defeated them. But this was nothing compared to the second and much greater threat, which came three years later. The Sea People were on the move. It was all recorded on the walls of his mortuary temple at Madinet Habu, on the western bank of Thebes. They had, by now, desolated much of the Late Bronze Age civilizations and were ready to make a move on Egypt. They were a huge group; a nation of women, children, animals and family possessions marching south with a huge fleet at sea supporting the progress on land. Their intentions were to force their way into Egypt and settle. It is recorded in the longest know papyrus, the Great Harris Papyrus, that many people throughout the region were made homeless. It says "*The foreign countries plotted on their Islands and the people were scattered by battle all at one time and no land could stand before their arms."* This great movement of people was well armed and desperate. Known as the Sea Peoples, they destroyed the Hittite Empire and for a while threatened Egypt with extinction also. These people were groups of people that formed an alliance of which the following names were listed the Peleset (Philistines), Tjeker (possibly from Troad), Shekelesh (possibly Sicily), Weshesh (unknown origin), and the Denyen or Dardany (Danaoi). Together they were called the Sea People. Rameses III thrashing the Sea Peoples To respond to this threat Ramses acted quickly. He established a defensive line in Southern Palestine and asked every available ship to secure the mouth of the Nile. Ships were sent to frontier posts with orders to stand firm until the main army could be brought into action. The clash, when it came was a complete success for the Egyptians. The Sea Peoples, on land, were defeated and scattered but their navy continued towards the eastern Nile delta. Their aim now, was to defeat the Egyptian navy and force an entry up the river. Although the Egyptians had a reputation as poor seamen they fought with the persistence of those defending their homes. Ramses had lined the shores with ranks of archers who kept up continuous arrows into the enemy ships when they attempted to land. Then the Egyptian navy attacked using grabbing hooks to pull the enemy ships. In the brutal hand to hand fighting which ensued the Sea People are completely defeated.  The power of the Sea Peoples was broken in the Nile delta but some, the biblical Philistines, settled in Palestine. With the exception of one more conflict with the Libyans, the rest of Ramses III\'s long reign was peaceful. Trading contacts were revived with the Land of Punt, law and order was reestablished throughout the country. There was a major program of tree planting and building, the finest example of which is the temple at Madinet Habu. **Further campaigns of Ramses III** The following three years Egypt was quiet but then came once again the Libyans allied with the Meshwesh and another five tribes causing a small infiltration or immigration. However, this had changed to an invasion in the 11^th^ year of the king's reign. Once more Ramses III crushed all opposition. Over 2000 were killed while their possessions and cattle became offerings to Amun. **Family** Ramses III had two principle wives of which Isis, but for some unknown reason the cartouches at the Madinet Habu temple were left blank. Possibly she was Asiatic origin especially that her mother's name was Habadjilat, a non-Egyptian name. It thought that he had at least ten sons, of which many of them died before him and were buried at the Valley of the Queens. The most famous and opened to the public were the tombs of princes Amenherkhopshef (QV 55) and Khaemwaset (QV 42). There are several other unnamed tombs of princes and princesses in the area, a number of which appear to date from the reign of Ramses III's reign and may belong to some of his other children. One of the larger tombs, which of Queen Titi (QV 52), lacks any proper indication of her royal status, but an analysis of her titles suggests that she was possibly a daughter and then, became his wife that outlived her husband. **The Harem conspiracy Papyrus & the conspiracy to kill Ramses III.** The papyrus exists in three portions, of which the largest is the judicial papyrus in Turin. He had a number of minor wives and it was one of these minor wives, Tiye, who was the cause of his destruction. She planned a conspiracy to kill him with the aim of placing her son, prince Pentwere, on the throne. She and her 14 associates that were royal officials stirred up a rebellion and used magic wax images and poison as their weapons. The conspiracy failed and the traitors were arrested but not before Ramses was greatly wounded. Fourteen officials sat in judgment and all the accused, with the exception one, the prince himself and one of the judges were found guilty and condemned to commit suicide. Ramses died before the trial was completed. The record of Queen Tiye's trial has not survived, but she was not allowed to live. There were several prosecutions. Medinet Habu temple of Rameses III\ \ Egypt now began to suffer economic problems and was unable to exploit the revolution of the Iron Age (This began around 1200 BC) because Egypt had no sources of ore. But the most important factor in Egypt's decline was a break down in the fabric of society. There were disputes between officials and governors and infighting between the north and south. The priesthood became over powerful and eventually they took control of the government. From this time onwards others would determine the destiny of the Mediterranean world. The Assyrians, Persians, Greeks and eventually the Romans were to become the lead players on the stage of international politics. **Ramses' tomb** He died before the trial was over and ended u being buried in the Valley of the Kings (KV 11), of unusual plan especially that he overtook a previously rock-cut tomb. Moreover, it has several unusual scenes; the male blind harpists that is unfortunately in a bad condition nowadays. The tomb was even named the tomb of the harpers. **Ramses IV -- Heka maat reset ep en amun - 1153-1147 B.C.** Ramses IV was the son of Ramses III. His reign lasted no more than six years. He did survive the harem conspiracy which was designed to spoil his claims to the throne. He placed a document in the tomb of his father which is now known as the Papyrus Harris I, which gives a detailed account of the reign of Ramses III. Ramses IV is thought to have been in his forties when he became king. There are two stele that were found at Abydos by Mariette that proclaim his exceptional devotion to the gods. The quarrying of the stone is said to have involved more than 8,000 people. Ramses IV caused the high-priest Mont, as well as other capable officials and scribes to visit the site. There were 5,000 soldiers that were most likely sent to haul the huge stones over the rough desert roads. He is also known for the continuation of the Khonsu temple at Karnak, which was begun by his father, Ramses III and the construction of a temple at Asasif, on the western bank of the Nile at Thebes. Ramses\' tomb was found in the Valley of the Kings and his mummy is now in the Cairo Museum. The remains indicate that Ramses was a small man who was bold, had a long nose and good teeth.  http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses4tomba.jpg The tomb of Ramses IV (KV 2) in the Valley of the Kings is rather different than most other royal tombs built here. Ramses III, had been assassinated, and when his son, Ramses IV took the thrown, he did so in a period of economic decline. Though large, his tomb is extremely simple, and unique in many ways. The tomb was known early on, and was in fact used as a sort of hotel by early explorers such as Champollion and Rosellini (1829), Robert Hay, Furst Puckler, Theodore Davis and others. It was also an important Coptic Christian dwelling, and was also frequently visited in antiquity. There was considerable Coptic and Greek graffiti on the tomb walls. Interestingly, two sketched plans of this tomb are known, the most famous and complete of which is contained within a papyrus in Turin. L ittle funerary equipment is known to have been found within the tomb itself. The sarcophagus was broken into at one end during antiquity and the lid displaced. The king\'s mummy was eventually found in KV 35. **Ramses V -- User maat re sekh ep er en re - 1147-1143 B.C**  Ramses V is thought to have reigned no more than four years. He was the son of Ramses IV and Queen Ta-Opet. His mummy was found in the tomb of Amenhotep II and is now located in the Cairo Museum. The mummy shows that he died of smallpox at about the age of 35. This contagious disease reached Europe in 710 A.D. and was transferred to America by Hernando Cortez in 1520 - 3.5 million Aztecs died in the next 2 years. In the cities of 18th century Europe, smallpox reached plague proportions and was a feared scourge - highly infectious. Five reigning European monarchs died from smallpox during the 18th century. http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses5tomb.jpg His tomb was unfinished and was in the Biban el-Moluk, and was annexed by Ramses VI. All that is found of his reign is a stela that was discovered at Gebel Silsilah. **Ramses VI - Nebmaatremeryamun - 1143-1136 B.C.** The fifth king of the 20th Dynasty usurped the throne from his nephew, Ramses V. However, the son of Ramses III allowed mortuary ceremonies to continue for Ramses V, who was only on the throne for four years. He usurped cartouches of previous kings and left his name on inscriptions in the Sinai. He built statues in Bubastis, Coptos, Karnak and Nubia. After his tomb was broken into, the priests had to pin the corpse on a board in order to provide the remains with a decent burial.  The tomb of Ramesses V (KV 9) is one of the most interesting tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Its decorations represent sort of a treatise on theology, in which the fundamental elements are the sun and its daily journey in the world of darkness. In general, the decorations provide the story of the origins of the heavens, earth, and the creation of the sun, light and life itself. The decorative plan for this tomb is one of the most sophisticated and complete in the Valley of the Kings. However, as it turns out, Ramesses VI was not much of a tomb builder, for this tomb was originally build by his predecessor, Ramses V. It was only enlarged by Ramesses VI.  Why Ramesses VI did not build his own tomb, as was certainly the tradition, is unknown to us. However, the inscriptions for Ramses V found in the first parts of the tomb were not usurped, and it is clear that the brothers probably shared a common theology. http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses6tomba.jpg  In this tomb, astronomical ceilings are found in each passage. http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses6tombc.jpg  http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses6tombd.jpg  The mummy of Ramses VI was not found in his tomb, but it was found in the tomb of Amenhotep II. This tomb is also included in the subject of the well known Papyrus Mayer B, which records the robbery of the tomb during antiquity, probably before Year 9 of Ramses IX. **Ramses VII - Usermaatresetepenre - 1136-1129 B.C.** http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses7.jpg Ramesses VII is probably the son of Ramesses VI and was the sixth king of the Twentieth Dynasty. He built a tomb in the Valley of the Kings, but there are no other monuments that he built. He did have a son that did not live to succeed him. **Ramses VIII - Usermaatreakhenamun - 1129-1126 B.C.** Ramses VIII was the seventh king of the Twentieth Dynasty and was probably Ramses III\'s son. His mummy has never been found and all that remains of his reign is an inscription at Medinet Habu and some plaques. His tomb was found but was very modest. **Ramses IX - Neferkaresetepenre - 1126-1108 B.C.**  Ramses IX was the eighth king of the Twentieth Dynasty. He is thought to have reigned for about seventeen or more years. During his reign, there was a scandal in which the tombs in the Theban necropolis were being robbed. There were also campaigns by Libyan robbers. He had a son, Montuherkhopshef, who did not live to succeed him. The tomb of Ramses IX (KV 6) is the first tomb one encounters within the modern entrance to the Valley of the Kings. It is a rather simple tomb in most respects, though the art work is interesting. http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses9a.jpg It is possible that the burial chamber was originally meant to be another corridor, as it is very small, but was converted because of the king's death. No sarcophagus has ever been found. There is little in the way of funerary equipment which was discovered in the tomb.  It appears that only decorative theme of the first corridor was completed during Ramses IX\'s lifetime, with the remainder of the artwork completed with much less care and skill after his death. http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses9wall.jpg **Ramses X - Khepermaatresetepenre - 1108-1099 B.C.** Ramses X was the ninth king of the Twentieth Dynasty. During his reign the workers went on strike for wages not paid. There are few monuments of Ramses that have survived. He also rock-cut a tomb in the Valley of the Kings.  Tomb KV18 in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (Thebes) was cut for Ramses X, the second to last ruler of Egypt\'s 20th Dynasty. It is located in the southwest wadi. The tomb was unfinished and has only recently been cleared, though apparently some amount of debris remains. No real funerary material of the owner has ever been discovered, and even the foundation deposits discovered by Howard Carter were uninscribed. The entrance to the tomb continues with the Ramesside tendency to create ever larger facades, this one being some 10 cm (4 inches) wider than that of the previous king\'s tomb. However, it is simple and has little slope. There has been some ceiling collapse at the rear of this corridor. This corridor was originally fully cut and decorated. http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses10.jpg Most of the plaster and paint have fallen away. Only a portion of the left-hand side of the design is still visible along with modern European graffiti probably dating from between 1623 and 1905 AD. Traces of other badly damaged scenes may be found in the first corridor on the east and west walls. We know that Ramses X was not put to rest in this tomb, though his mummy has never been found anywhere else, either. **Ramses XI - Menmaatresetepenptah - 1099-1069 B.C.** Ramses XI was the tenth and the last king of the Twentieth Dynasty, as well as the New Kingdom. The reign of this king was a period of disorder. Ramses was not a very energetic or vital ruler. The viceroy of Nubia, Panehsi, went from Elephantine to Thebes to try to stop the unrest that was arising from contention over the region that was between the high priest of Amun and others. At the same time there was a famine and was called the \"Year of the Hyena.\" Herihor was left in Thebes by Panehsi to control the affairs there. He soon assumed the role of the high priest of Amun and eventually became the vizier as well. This caused the eventual downfall of Panehsi. Panehsi rebelled and stopped Egypt\'s domination in Nubia. Herihor administered the affairs of Egypt while Ramesses XI remained in seclusion. Upon the death of Ramses, Herihor and Smendes divided Egypt between themselves. Ramses was technically pharaoh until his death, but Herihor was the ruler of Upper Egypt for all practical purposes. Ramses\' death marked the end of the Twentieth Dynasty and the New Kingdom. His tomb was also located in the Valley of the Kings.  http://www.crystalinks.com/ramesses11tomb1.jpg Tomb KV4, located in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor has been known and open since antiquity (though not open to the public now), and it received many ancient tourists, as evidenced by the Demotic Egyptian, Greek, Latin, Coptic and later, French and English graffiti on its walls, and was noted by the French expedition to Egypt in the late 18th century. Currently, we do not know the location of Ramses XI\'s actual burial, but it has been suggested that he may have been laid to rest somewhere in Northern Egypt. **LATE PERIOD** 25TH DYNASTY (712 - 657 BC) **Piye - 747-716 BC**  Most references point to Piye as being the first ruler of the 25th Dynasty. Different references refer to him under different names. He supposedly ruled Kush (Nubia) from about 750 to 719 BC. Piankhi was his birth name. But in various references, we see his birth name referred to as Piankhy, Piye, Piy and Piyi. However, some references point out that his true name was Piye, and that this was wrongly read as Piankhi. His Throne Name was Men-kheper-re, meaning \"The Manifestation of Re Abides\". This name too will vary, being also spelled Menkheperra. Of course, this king, as most others, had several other names which are not generally provided. Piye ascended the Nubian (Kushite) thrown (or at least its northern half) as the successor of Kashta, which explains why at least one reference refers to Kashta as the founder of the 25th Dynasty. Kashta apparently had made some earlier advances into Egypt. But it was Piye who, for the first time, consolidated the rulership of Nubia and Egypt. From the earliest dynastic periods, Nubia was always a matter of conquest for the Egyptian pharaohs, and as such, much of Nubia was often under the control of Egypt. At times, it was very much a part of Egypt, and the customs of Nubia were a reflection of those in at least Upper Egypt. This perhaps explains Piye\'s seemingly strong emotional ties with Egypt, what he considered to be part of his motherland, even though he was not from Egypt proper. So at least towards the end of the Third Intermediate Period, when Egypt seems to have surrendered to chaos with four kings claiming rule within Egypt, as well as a number of local chieftains exercising control, particularly in the Delta, Piye decided to step in and fix Egypt\'s problems. Kashta had a stele erected at the Elephantine Temple of Khnum (current day Aswan), but in the early ears of Piye\'s reign, he extended his rule toThebes itself. There, he had his sister, Amenirdis I, named as the successor of Shepenwepet I, who had the title, God\'s Wife of Amun. Shepenwepet I was the sister of Rudamun of the Theban 23rd Dynasty, and apparently both Rudamun and Piye were recognized at Thebes at the same time. After the death of Rudamun, the Theban royal line seems to have abandoned Thebes in favor of Hierakleopolis , where Peftjauawy-bast, the last king of his dynasty remained an ally of Piye. Soon, Piye was given a reason to intervene further north.Tefnakhte (a Lybian), the Prince of Western Egypt based in the Delta city of Sais extended his control south by taking the city of Memphis, as well as the old Middle Kingdom of Itj-tawy (Lisht). At first, Piye merely checked Tefnakhte\'s movement south with a pair of naval battles in Middle Egypt, though he left the Saite rulers in control of the North. However, after spending New Years in Nubia, Piye returned to Thebes in time for the great Opet Festival, and subsequently set about taking the remainder of Egypt under his control. His troops moved north, capturing three towns, and killing one of Tefnakhte\'s sons in the process. Soon, Piye attacked the city of Ashmunein which was ruled by Nimlot, once an ally of Piye. Using wooden siege towers, the city fell after five months. Further North, Hierakleopolis, ruled by Piye\'s loyal ally, King Peftjauawybast, had been threatened by Tefnakhte, but the capture of Nimlot relieved the pressure on Hierakleopolis, and soon Piye had control of every major center south of Memphis, as well as capturing another of Tefnakhte\'s sons. The only real obstacle left for Piye was Memphis, the ancient capital of Egypt. While the city was heavily fortified and defended, as well as the water of the Nile protecting its walls, Piye was able to use the masts of boats and ships in the Memphite harbor to assault the city and scale the walls. In very short order, Memphis too was bought under his control. It is said that his first act was to protect the temple of Ptah, and then to go there himself to be anointed and to worship. With the capture of Memphis, most of the Delta rulers soon yielded to the Kushite king. One notable exception was Tefnakhte, who even went so far as to mount another, but unsuccessful campaign against Piye. Finally, he to submitted to Piye\'s rule of Egypt, taking an oath of loyalty. After conquering Egypt, Piye simply went home to Nubia, and to our knowledge, never again returned to Egypt. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and alliances. He left the rule of the country largely in the hands of his vassals, but recorded his victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela, now in the Egyptian Museum) at Napata. He left few monuments in Egypt, other than an expansion of theTemple of Amun at Thebes (current day Luxor). Later, Tefnakhte would again claim kingdom and as the founder of the 24th Dynasty, rule at least the western Delta. However, later successors to Piye would consolidate their control over Egypt, at least for a time. Upon Piye\'s death, he was buried at El-Kurru, where he erected a small pyramid resembling the tall, narrow structures that had been built above many private tombs of Egypt\'s New Kingdom. **Shebaka (Shabaka) - 712-698 BC** Shebaka is consdiered by some to be the first king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. During his reign, he undertook some building projects. The Fourth Pylon at Karnak has an inscription that tells of Shebaka\'s restoration of the gate. He also started work on the second pylon in front of the temple of Thutmose III at Medinet Habu. Shebaka\'s sister, Amunirdis I held a position that was very important politically as well as religiously. She was called \"god\'s wife of Amun\" at Thebes. Her funerary temple was at Medinet Habu and was in front of the temple of Ramesses III. **Shebitku - Shabataka - 698-690 BC** Shebitku was the second king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. He was the nephew and successor of Shebaka. During Shebaka\'s reign, there was a policy of conciliation and cooperation with the Assyrians. This kept the Assyrians from coming further into Egypt. Shebitku had a different policy; resistance. A stela from Kawa tells of Shebitku asking his brothers, including Taharqa, to come to him at Thebes from Nubia. The army went with Taharqa. On another stela that is the story told that when Jerusalem was under attack by the Assyrians, that the king of Ethiopia (Kush) came against Sennacherib (of Assyria). Shebitku joined in the resistance against Sennacherib and an Egyptian army was sent to Palestine, led by Shebitku\'s brother, Taharqa. **Taharqa - 690-664 BC** Taharqa was the brother of Shebitku and was the third king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Shebitku died and Taharqa was crowned. Taharqa is responsible for building done both in Nubia as well as Egypt. He built the colonnade in the first court of the temple of Amun at Karnak. There is one column that stands twenty-one meters high and is still standing. During his reign, the Assyrians threatened Egypt once again. The Assyrians were successful in one invasion in which they captured Memphis, wounded Taharqa and stole his family and property. Taharqa survived the attack. It is thought that Taharqa died in 664 BC and was buried in his pyramid at Nuri near Napata. **Tantamani 664-657 BC** http://www.crystalinks.com/tantamani.jpg Tanwetamani (Assyrian Tandamane or Tantamani, Greek Tementhes, also known as Tanutamun) was Egypt\'s last ruler of the 25th Dynasty as well as the last Nubain (Kushite) Ruler, ruling from about 664 to 657 BC. We are told his throne name was Ba-ka-re, meaning \"Glorious is the Soul of Re\". He succeeded Taharqa, though he was probably the son of that king\'s sister, queen Qalhata. His succession to the throne is recorded in a record known as the Dream Stela, not to be confused with that of Tuthmosis IV. It was discovered along with the Victory Stela of Piye at Gebel Barkal in 1862, and now resides in the Nubian Museum in Aswan. Tanwetamani may have served as a co-regent with Taharqa, but his parentage and family relationships are difficult.  From his stela we find depicted two women, one of whom is referred to as \"the royal sister, the Mistress of Egypt, Qalhata\", while the other is \"the royal sister, the Mistress of Ta-Seti,