Air Pollution PDF

Air Pollution INFRARED SPECTROMETRY Principle: Measures the absorption of infrared radiation by molecules Operation:Infr...

Air Pollution INFRARED SPECTROMETRY Principle: Measures the absorption of infrared radiation by molecules Operation:Infrared radiation is passed through a sample, and the molecules absorb specific wavelengths of radiation. The absorbed wavelengths are analyzed to identify the functional groups present in the molecules LESSON 12: MEASUREMENT OF GASES AND PARTICULATES CHEMILUMINESCENCE DETECTORS GAS MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS Principle: Detects specific gases by measuring the light emitted during chemical GAS CHROMATOGRAPH reaction. Principle: Separates and analyzes Operation: A gas sample is mixed with a components of a gas mixture based on their reagent, and the resulting chemical reaction interaction with a stationary phase. produces light. The intensity of the light is proportional to the concentration of the Operation: A gas sample is injected into a target gas column filled with a stationary phase. Different components of the gas mixture GAS MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS travel through the column at different rates, separating them. A detector at the end of GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS the column identifies and quantifies each component Principle: Measures the mass of particulate matter collected on a filter MASS SPECTROMETRY Operation: Air is drawn through a filter, and Principle: Ionizes gas molecules and the particulate matter is trapped on the filter. separates them based on their mass The filter is weighed before and after to-charge ratio. sampling to determine the mass of the collected particles. Operation: A sample is ionized, and the ions are accelerated through a magnetic or OPTICAL PARTICLE COUNTERS electric field. The ions are then detected, and their mass-to-charge ratio is used to Principle: Counts and sizes particles based identify the molecules on the light they scatter. Operation: A laser beam is directed through a sample of air, and the scattered light from particles is detected by a sensor. Disadvantage: Higher Cost, Potential for The intensity of the scattered light is used to Sensor Drift, Limited Parameter Range determine the size of the particles INTEGRATED SAMPLING BETA-ATTENUATION MONITORS ➔ Collection of samples over a specific period, followed by laboratory Principle: Measures the mass analysis concentration of particulate matter by ➔ Samples are collected using various attenuating a beta radiation source. techniques and stored for later analysis Operation: A beta radiation source is Advantage: Lower Cost, Precise placed on one side of a filter, and a detector Measurements, Wide Range of Parameters is placed on the other side. As particulate matter accumulates on the filter, it Disadvantage: Delayed Data, Limited attenuates the beta radiation, and the Time Resolution, Potential for Sample detector measures the reduction in radiation Contamination intensity LESSON 13: AIR QUALITY MODELS NEPHELOMETERS AIR DISPERSION Principle: Measures the scattering of light by particles in a sample. ➔ Air dispersion refers to the spreading of pollutants in the atmosphere. Operation: A light source is directed through a sample, and the scattered light is FACTORS detected at a 90-degree angle. The intensity a. Wind Speed: Higher wind speeds of the scattered light is proportional to the lead to greater dispersion pollutants concentration of particles in the sample b. Wind Direction: The direction of the wind determines the direction of pollutant transport TECHNIQUES IN MEASURING c. Atmospheric Stability ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS i. Stable: Air is stratified, and vertical mixing is limited REAL-TIME MONITORING TECHNIQUE which lead to higher ➔ Continuous measurement of concentrations of pollutants environmental parameters as they near the surface occur. ii. Unstable: Air is well-mixed, ➔ Sensors directly measure the and pollutants are dispersed parameter of interest and transmit more rapidly data in real time. d. Turbulence:Atmospheric Advantage: Immediate Data, Rapid turbulence, caused by wind shear Response, Early Warning Systems and thermal gradients, enhances the mixing of pollutants. MECHANISM ➔ Suitable for large-scale simulations incorporate and can complex 12 Advection: The transport of pollutants by chemical reactions the wind FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES BEHIND Diffusion: The spreading of pollutants due DISPERSION MODELS to random molecular motion and turbulent eddies. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES TYPES OF AIR QUALITY MODELS MASS CONSERVATION AIR QUALITY MODELS Principle: Mass cannot be created or ➔ Computational tools are used to destroyed simulate and predict the dispersion, transport, and chemical Operation: Models ensure that the total transformation of pollutants in the mass of a pollutant remains constant as it is atmosphere. transported and transformed ➔ These models are essential for understanding and managing air MOMENTUM CONSERVATION pollution. Principle: The rate of change of DISPERSION MODELS momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting on it. Gaussian Plume Models ➔ Assume pollutants disperse in a Application: Models simulate the Gaussian plume shape downwind movement of pollutants under the influence from a point source. of wind forces and atmospheric factors ➔ Commonly used for simple, short-term assessments ENERGY CONSERVATION Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Models Principle: Energy cannot be created or ➔ Track the movement of individual destroyed, only converted from one form to particles as they are transported by another. wind and dispersed by turbulence. ➔ More flexible and can handle Application: Models account for energy complex atmospheric conditions transfer processes, such as radiation exchange, and which heat can influence Eulerian Grid Models pollutant behavior. ➔ Divide the atmosphere into a grid of cells and solve equations for the GAS LAWS transport and diffusion of pollutants within each cell. Principle: Describe the behavior of gases under different conditions of pressure, temperature, and volume.  ➔ The fundamental principle is the Application: Models use gas laws to tracking of individual particles as calculate the concentration and volume of they are advected by the wind field pollutants and dispersed by turbulent diffusion CHEMICAL KINETICS KEY STEPS IN LAGRANGIAN MODELS Principle: Studies the rates of chemical Particle Release: Particles are released reactions from source locations, simulating the emission of pollutants Application: Models simulate the formation and decay of pollutants through Particle Advection: Particles are moved chemical reactions along trajectories determined by the wind field ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE Particle Dispersion: Particles are Principle: The irregular motion of the air dispersed randomly around their mean affects the dispersion of pollutants. trajectory to account for turbulent diffusion Application: Models incorporate Particle Removal: Particles can be turbulence parameters to simulate the removed from the simulation due to various mixing and spreading of pollutants processes. METEOROLOGY ADVANTAGES Principle: The study of the atmosphere, FLEXIBILITY: Can handle complex flow including wind patterns, temperature, fields and heterogeneous terrain. humidity, and pressure. ACCURACY: Can resolve small-scale Application: Models use meteorological features and accurately simulate turbulent data to simulate the transport and diffusion. dispersion of pollutants EFFICIENCY: Can be computationally LAGRANGIAN MODELS efficient, especially for large-scale simulations. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ➔ Based on the concept of tracking individual particles (representing pollutant masses) as they move EULARIAN MODELS through the atmosphere. ➔ This approach offers a more flexible FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES and accurate way to simulate ➔ Eulerian dispersion models divide complex atmospheric conditions the atmosphere into a grid of cells compared to Eulerian models. and solve equations for the transport  and diffusion of pollutants within Chemical Reactions each cell. ➔ Chemical reactions can be ➔ This approach provides a more incorporated into the model to macroscopic view of pollutant simulate the transformation of dispersion compared to Lagrangian pollutants models Boundary Conditions ➔ The fundamental principle ➔ Appropriate boundary conditions underlying is the conservation of must be specified to define the mass. This principle states that the inflow and outflow of pollutants at rate of change of mass within a the edges of the model domain control volume must equal the net mass flux into the volume. ADVANTAGES KEY EQUATIONS COMPREHENSIVE: Can simulate a wide range of atmospheric processes, including Advection-Diffusion Equation: complex chemical reactions. ➔ This equation describes the transport and diffusion of pollutants DETAILED: Can provide detailed spatial in the atmosphere. and temporal distributions of pollutant ➔ It is a partial differential equation that concentrations. governs the time evolution of pollutant concentrations. ESTABLISHED: Well-established and widely used in air quality modeling. KEY CONSIDERATIONS IN EULERIAN MODELS AIR MASS TRAJECTORY ➔ Analyze the path of an air mass, Grid Resolution potential sources of pollutants can ➔ The spatial resolution of the grid be identified, understand the affects the model's ability to capture transport and dispersion of features and small-scale accurately pollutants, and predict future air simulate pollutant dispersion. quality conditions. Numerical Methods AIR MASS TRAJECTORY APPLICATIONS ➔ Numerical techniques, such as finite difference or finite element a. SOURCE IDENTIFICATION methods, are used to solve the b. POLLUTION TRANSPORT advection diffusion equation. c. AIR QUALITY FORECASTING d. CLIMATE CHANGE STUDIES e. EMERGENCY RESPONSE Meteorological Input ➔ Accurate meteorological data, including wind fields, temperature, and humidity, are essential for driving the model LESSON 14: STRATOSPHERIC OZONE TEMPERATURE REGULATION The ozone CHEMISTRY AND THE OZONE HOLE layer helps regulate Earth's temperature by absorbing and re emitting heat THE OZONE LAYER ➔ The ozone layer is a region of THE OZONE HOLE Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) OZONE DEPLETION radiation. ➔ Ozone depletion is primarily caused ➔ It's located approximately 10 to 30 by the release of human-made kilometers (6 to 18 miles) above chemicals when released into the Earth's surface atmosphere, and rise to the stratosphere where they are broken COMPOSITION down by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. ➔ Ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. OZONE DEPLETION CHEMICAL ➔ It forms naturally in the stratosphere REACTIONS through a complex series of a. CFCs and ODSs reach the chemical reactions involving stratosphere. sunlight and oxygen molecules. b. UV radiation breaks down CFCs & ODSs releasing chlorine and IMPORTANCE bromine atoms. c. Chlorine and bromine atoms act as SKIN CANCER: UV-B radiation is a major catalysts that destroy ozone cause of skin cancer, including melanoma, molecules. which can be deadly d. These destroy thousands of ozone molecules before being removed CATARACTS: Excessive exposure to UV-B from the stratosphere. radiation can lead to cataracts, a clouding of the eye lens that can impair vision OZONE DEPLETION IMPACTS a. Increased UV Radiation WEAKENED IMMUNE SYSTEM: UV-B b. Increased health risks radiation can suppress the immune system, c. Environmental Damage making individuals more susceptible to d. Climate Change infections TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTS FOR DAMAGE TO MARINE ECOSYSTEM: MEASURING OZONE CONCENTRATIONS UV-B radiation can harm marine organisms, such as phytoplankton, which form the base GROUND-BASED MEASUREMENTS of the marine food chain. DOBSON SPECTROPHOTOMETER PLANT DAMAGE: UV-B radiation can ➔ Measures the total amount of ozone damage plant DNA, leading to reduced in a vertical column of the growth and productivity atmosphere by analyzing the  intensity of sunlight at specific POLICY MEASURES ultraviolet wavelengths. THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL BREWER SPECTROPHOTOMETER ➔ This international agreement has led ➔ Similar to the Dobson to a significant reduction in the spectrophotometer but offers greater production and consumption of accuracy versatility ozone depleting substances (ODSs) OZONE SENSOR FACTORS ➔ Measure ozone concentrations at a. Scientific Consensus specific altitudes. They use various b. International Cooperation techniques, such as c. Flexible and Adaptive chemiluminescence or UV Framework absorption d. Technological Innovation SATELLITE-BASED MEASUREMENTS LESSON 15:GREENHOUSE GASES AND CLIMATE CHANGE TOTAL OZONE MAPPING SPECTROMETER GREENHOUSE GASES & THE ➔ Measures the total amount of ozone GREENHOUSE EFFECT in atmosphere by observing the Earth's backscattered ultraviolet GREENHOUSE GAS radiation ➔ Greenhouse gases are gases in Earth’s atmosphere that trap heat. OZONE MONITORING INSTRUMENT ➔ They let sunlight pass through the ➔ Provides detailed maps of ozone atmosphere, but prevent the heat distribution and trends, including that sunlight brings from leaving the information on ozone profiles and atmosphere vertical distribution. PRIMARY GREENHOUSE GAS MICROWAVE LIMB SOUNDER ➔ Measures ozone profiles in the WATER VAPOR stratosphere using microwave ➔ Most abundant greenhouse gas in radiation the atmosphere ➔ Concentration isn't directly BALLOON-BORNE MEASUREMENTS influenced by human activities. ➔ SOURCES: Evaporation, OZONE SONDES Transpiration, Human Activities ➔ These instruments are carried aloft by weather balloons to measure POSITIVE IMPACT: Crucial for the Earth's ozone concentrations at different water cycle, climate regulation, and cloud altitudes. They use electrochemical formation which are essential for all life on or chemiluminescent techniques to Earth. measure ozone. NEGATIVE IMPACT: Amplifies the ➔ SOURCES:Agriculture activities, greenhouse effect and can also intensify industrial processes, burning fossil extreme weather events if concentrations fuels increase. POSITIVE IMPACT: Used in various industrial processes and as an anesthetic CARBON DIOXIDE ➔ Carbon dioxide molecules make up NEGATIVE IMPACT: Powerful greenhouse a small fraction of the atmosphere gas, contributing to ozone layer depletion but have a large effect on climate. warming. ➔ SOURCES: Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, industrial processes FLUORINATED GASES ➔ Human-made gases used in various August 2024: 419.92 ppm industries, including refrigeration and August 2023: 416.72 ppm air conditioning ➔ SOURCES:Industrial processes, POSITIVE IMPACT: Essential for plant refrigeration, air conditioning photosynthesis, contributing to plant growth and food production. POSITIVE IMPACT: Used in various industrial applications, including NEGATIVE IMPACT: Primary driver of refrigeration and air conditioning. global warming, leading to climate change, NEGATIVE IMPACT: Extremely rising sea levels, and extreme weather greenhouse potent gases, contributing events. significantly to global warming METHANE GREENHOUSE EFFECT ➔ A powerful greenhouse gas, able to absorb far more heat than carbon ➔ The greenhouse effect is a natural dioxide process that warms the Earth's ➔ SOURCES:Agriculture, Fossil fuel surface and is essential for life on production, waste decomposition in Earth. landfills HOW DOES IT WORK? POSITIVE IMPACT: Can be used as a fuel ➔ Solar energy absorbed at Earth’s source, providing energy surface is radiated back into the atmosphere as heat. NEGATIVE IMPACT: Potent greenhouse ➔ As the heat makes its way through gas, contributing significantly to global the atmosphere and back out to warming. space, greenhouse gases absorb much of it. NITROUS OXIDE WHY DO GREENHOUSE GASES ➔ Released from agricultural activities ABSORB HEAT? and industrial processes. ➔ Greenhouse gases are more complex than other gas molecules in  the atmosphere, with a structure that MECHANISMS INFLUENCING CLIMATE can absorb heat. DISRUPTION OF ENERGY BALANCE ➔ They radiate the heat back to the ➔ The Earth's energy balance is a Earth's surface, to another delicate equilibrium between greenhouse gas molecule, or out to incoming solar radiation and space outgoing infrared radiation. ➔ Major greenhouse gases are made ➔ Greenhouse gases disrupt this of three or more atoms. balance by trapping more heat, ➔ The atoms are held together loosely leading to a net energy imbalance enough that they vibrate when they and warming of the planet absorb heat. ➔ The vibrating molecules release the MECHANISMS INFLUENCING CLIMATE radiation, which will likely be CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS absorbed by another greenhouse ➔ Rising global temperatures gas molecule. ➔ Melting glaciers and ice caps ➔ Sea-level rise ROLE IN CLIMATE ➔ Changes in precipitation patterns ➔ More frequent and intense extreme a. Solar Radiation weather events b. Earth's Absorption ➔ Ocean acidification c. Infrared Radiation ➔ Disruption of ecosystems d. Greenhouse gas Absorption e. Heat retention and re-emission CLIMATE CHANGE ➔ Climate change refers to long-term MECHANISMS INFLUENCING CLIMATE shifts in temperature and weather ABSORPTION OF INFRARED RADIATION patterns. ➔ Greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation emitted from the Earth's EXTERNAL CAUSES surface. ➔ Changes in incoming solar radiation ➔ This energy is then re-emitted in all ➔ Changes in composition of directions, including back towards atmosphere the Earth's surface. ➔ Changes in earth's surface ➔ This process traps heat in the atmosphere, leading to a warming WATER-VAPOR GREENHOUSE effect FEEDBACK MECHANISMS INFLUENCING CLIMATE ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT ➔ Human activities have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. ➔ This increased concentration amplifies the greenhouse effect, leading to a more significant warming of the planet CARBON CAPTURE STORAGE (CCS EFFECTIVENESS OF CCS ➔ A collection of technologies that can combat climate change by reducing FACTORS carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. ➔ Capture the CO2 generated by CAPTURE EFFICIENCY:Able to capture a burning fossil fuels before releasing high percentage of CO2 emissions from the it to the atmosphere. source. TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE HOW DOES CCS WORK? The captured CO2 must be transported efficiently safely and to a suitable storage site. COST EFFECTIVENESS: The high costs associated with capturing, transporting, and storing CO2 can significantly increase the overall cost of energy production. CAPTURING CO2 FROM THE AIR PUBLIC PERCEPTION & REGULATORY FRAMEWORK : Public acceptance and BIOENERGY supportive government policies are ➔ Biomass removes CO2 from the air essential for the widespread deployment of through photosynthesis. CCS. ➔ The biomass is then harvested and burned in a power plant to produce BENEFITS energy, with the CO2 being captured ➔ Significant Reduction in CO2 and stored. Emissions ➔ This creates what is called “negative ➔ Bridge to a Low Carbon Future emissions” because it takes CO2 ➔ Negative Emissions from the atmosphere and stores it. LIMITATIONS DIRECT AIR CAPTURE ➔ High Energy Consumption ➔ Another negative emission option ➔ Long-Term Storage ➔ CO2 is removed from the air using a ➔ High Costs chemical process ➔ Concentration of CO2 in the air is LESSON 16: AIR POLLUTION about 300 times less than in the REGULATION smokestacks of power plants or industrial plants, making it much less THE CLEAN AIR ACT efficient to capture ➔ The Clean Air Act is the law that ➔ DAC is quite expensive today defines EPA's responsibilities for protecting and improving the nation's air quality and the stratospheric ozone layer. KEY PROVISIONS THE PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT ➔ The Philippine Clean Air Act of NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY 1999 (Republic Act No. 8749) is a STANDARDS (NAAQS) comprehensive law designed to ➔ Sets limits on the concentration of protect and improve air quality in the six criteria pollutants in ambient air: Philippines. ◆ Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) KEY PROVISIONS ◆ Ozone ◆ Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ◆ Sulfur dioxide (SO2) ➔ The Act establishes an air quality ◆ Carbon monoxide (CO) management system that includes ◆ Lead (Pb) monitoring, assessment, and control of air pollution STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS (SIPS) EMISSION STANDARD ➔ Requires states to develop and ➔ It sets emission standards for implement plans to achieve and various sources of air pollution, maintain the NAAQS including motor vehicles, industrial facilities, and power plants. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE FUEL QUALITY STANDARDS STANDARDS (NSPS) ➔ The Act mandates the use of ➔ Sets emission standards for new cleaner fuels to reduce air pollution sources of air pollution VEHICLE EMISSION STANDARDS ➔ It sets emission standards for new MOBILE SOURCE AIR POLLUTION and used motor vehicles. CONTROL PROGRAM ENFORCEMENT ➔ Regulates emissions from motor ➔ The Act provides for penalties for vehicles and other mobile sources violations of its provisions. CONTROL MEASURES NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR ➔ The Act requires the implementation HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS of various control measures, such as (NESHAP) pollution control technologies and ➔ Regulates emissions of hazardous emission reduction strategies air pollutants, such as benzene, PUBLIC PARTICIPATION mercury, and formaldehyde ➔ The Act encourages public participation in air quality ACID RAIN PROGRAM management and decision-making ➔ Reduces acid rain by limiting sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from power plants STRUCTURE AND PURPOSE OF AIR and implementing policies to reduce POLLUTION REGULATION air pollution ◆ Setting Standards and STRUCTURES Regulations ◆ Monitoring Air Quality LOCAL Enforcing ➔ Local regulations are designed to ◆ Regulations Public address specific air quality issues ◆ Awareness and Education within a particular region or city. ➔ They often complement national and NON-GOVERNMENT international regulations by setting ➔ NGOs play a vital role in advocating stricter standards or implementing for clean air, monitoring air quality, unique control measures. and educating the public. NATIONAL ◆ Advocacy and Lobbying ➔ National regulations provide a ◆ Public Awareness and framework for air pollution control Education across a country. ◆ Community Organizing ➔ They often establish national ◆ Monitoring Air Quality ambient air quality standards, ◆ Research and Development emission standards, and regulatory ◆ International Cooperation programs to address air pollution issues. PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS INTERNATIONAL REGULATED UNDER EXISTING AIR ➔ International regulations aim to QUALITY STANDARDS address transboundary air pollution and coordinate global efforts to PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) improve air quality. ➔ PM10 and PM2.5 which are ➔ They often focus on reducing inhalable particles emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants that contribute to Sources: climate change and other Combustion processes environmental problems Industrial activities ➔ UNFCCC, KYOTO PROTOCOL, construction PARIS AGREEMENT Vehicle emissions ROLE OF ORGANIZATIONS IN AIR OZONE (O3) QUALITY REGULATION AND ➔ Gas formed by chemical reactions MONITORING involving nitrogen oxides and VOCs in the presence of sunlight. GOVERNMENT ➔ Governmental organizations are Sources: primarily responsible for setting and Vehicle emissions enforcing air quality standards, Industrial process conducting monitoring programs, Chemical solvents NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX) ➔ A group of gases, including nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO), formed during combustion processes. Sources: Vehicle emissions Power Plants Industrial processes SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO2) ➔ A colorless gas with a pungent odor, primarily from burning fossil fuels containing sulfur Sources: Vehicle emissions Power Plants Industrial processes CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) ➔ A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. Sources: Vehicle emissions Residential Heating Industrial processes LEAD (PB) ➔ A heavy metal that can accumulate in the body and cause serious health problems. Sources: Primary from leaded gasoline