Agricultural Geography PDF

AGRICULTURAL GEOGRAPHY ◦ Prior to the advent of agriculture, individuals procured sustenance through the practices of hunting indigenous fauna, engaging in pisciculture, and gathering a variety of fruits, nuts, and subterranean plant structures. In order to secure sustenance, individuals were...

AGRICULTURAL GEOGRAPHY ◦ Prior to the advent of agriculture, individuals procured sustenance through the practices of hunting indigenous fauna, engaging in pisciculture, and gathering a variety of fruits, nuts, and subterranean plant structures. In order to secure sustenance, individuals were compelled to engage in a nomadic lifestyle, traveling in tiny collectives. This particular method of sustenance persisted as the sole means of survival until the conclusion of the Mesolithic era, approximately 12,000 to 10,000 years in the past. The Neolithic revolution was characterized by the progressive replacement of the hunting and gathering system with agriculture. In contemporary times, certain remote communities persist in a manner reminiscent of pre-agricultural societies. ◦ The term "agriculture" encompasses the practice of cultivating crops and rearing livestock with the dual purpose of providing subsistence and generating economic benefits. The origins of agriculture can be traced back to prehistoric periods, marked by the domestication of plants and animals by early human civilizations. The domestication of plants and animals, a pivotal event in human history, is widely recognized as a momentous and revolutionary process that led to the creation of agriculture. Significantly, this metamorphosis occurred on several instances, autonomously from each other. The emergence and diffusion of agriculture occurred in many geographic locations, commonly known as hearths, across the globe. The transition to a sedentary lifestyle led individuals to establish permanent settlements, sometimes referred to as villages. This shift in living arrangements facilitated the emergence of novel forms of social, cultural, political, and economic interactions. The era characterized by significant advancements is commonly referred to as the First Agricultural Revolution. Origins of Agriculture ◦ The intentional fostering of advantageous plant and animal species within artificially created environments. The concept of agriculture has often been constrained in its breadth, with a tendency to concentrate on specific activities and creatures, such as the cultivation of wet-rice in Asia and cow ranching in the Americas. Nevertheless, a more expansive perspective posits that people might be seen as environmental engineers that purposefully alter terrestrial environments in discernible ways. Human- induced disturbances, such as intentional plant clearance or soil tilling, result in various localized changes. These modifications often involve an increase in the amount of light that penetrates the lower levels and a reduction in competition among organisms. As a result, a specific geographical area possesses the capacity to support a higher number of plant and animal species that are valued for their use in sustaining human life, driving technological progress, serving therapeutic needs, and fulfilling various other practical functions. ◦ Over the course of time, certain plant and animal species have undergone domestication, rendering them reliant on human interventions and other factors for their sustained proliferation and survival. Domestication can be described as a biological phenomenon wherein organisms undergo a process of selection by humans, resulting in the development of traits that enhance their usefulness. This phenomenon is seen in plant species that display enlarged seeds, fruits, or tubers in comparison to their wild progenitors. Termed as cultigens, domesticated plants have their origins in several botanical families, which are classified as clusters of closely related species that possess a shared ancestral lineage. ◦ Domesticated animals have typically originated from socially inclined species in their natural habitats, which, akin to plants, could be selectively bred to enhance qualities that are beneficial to humans. The majority of domesticated animals exhibit a greater degree of docility in comparison to their wild counterparts, and frequently demonstrate enhanced productivity in terms of meat, wool, or milk yield. Throughout history, animals have been utilized for many purposes such as providing traction, facilitating transportation, controlling pests, offering aid, serving as friends, and even serving as a means of accumulating riches. ◦ The practice of agriculture has exhibited significant diversity over different historical periods and geographical locations due to its status as a cultural phenomenon. The practice of rearing domesticated plants and animals has been observed over a wide range of scales, encompassing both individual households and large-scale commercial enterprises. Agriculture in Less Developed Countries ◦ The primary sector of the economy is predominantly occupied by a significant proportion of residents residing in Less Developed Countries. In several nations, a significant portion of the population engages in agricultural activities primarily to meet the subsistence needs of their households rather than engaging in commercial trade. The agricultural methodology in question is occasionally denoted as subsistence agriculture. Each of the four basic methods of subsistence farming demonstrates a strong compatibility with the particular physical and climatic circumstances within which it is practiced. There exist four identifiable techniques, which can be enumerated as follows: ◦ Shifting cultivation, also referred to as slash-and-burn agriculture, is a customary agricultural technique characterized by the clearance of land through the cutting down of vegetation followed by its subsequent burning. ◦ The first agricultural system under consideration is pastoral nomadism, which involves a mobile lifestyle centered around the herding of livestock. This system relies on the movement of herds to find suitable grazing areas and is commonly practiced in arid or semi-arid regions. The second agricultural system is characterized by intense subsistence with wet rice as the primary crop. This system involves the cultivation of rice in flooded fields, which requires significant labor and careful management of water ◦ Intensive subsistence agriculture with wet rice cultivation does not have a prominent position. ◦ The concept of plantation is commonly recognized as the fifth agricultural method employed in less developed countries (LDCs). However, Rubenstein's analysis of agriculture in more developed countries (MDCs) includes a discussion on plantation in the corresponding section. The rationale behind this approach is that plantation farming does not fall under the category of subsistence agriculture. Plantations, predominantly situated in less developed countries (LDCs), often cultivate crops intended for export to more developed countries (MCDs). Frequently, the aforementioned crops encompass luxury commodities such as coffee, tea, rubber, or sugarcane, as opposed to being essential staples for sustenance. It is not possible to sustain oneself exclusively on coffee consumption, despite the fact that many individuals may have attempted to do so at periods of intense academic demands, such as finals week. Plantations frequently occupy prime agricultural land in order to cultivate crops for external entities, hence exacerbating challenges faced by regions grappling with food insecurity. ◦ Shifting cultivation is a prevalent agricultural method observed in regions characterized by low latitudes, and it exhibits substantial distinctions as compared to agricultural strategies commonly employed in more developed countries (MDCs). The farmers engage in the practice of removing all plants and waste from the area, afterwards disposing of it through the process of burning. Hence, the agricultural technique popularly known as shifting cultivation is also acknowledged as slash-and-burn agriculture. This practice has the dual effect of enhancing soil fertility by introducing nutrients and aiding in the process of land removal. The farmers employ the land for a duration of several years, until the depletion of all vital nutrients is fully realized. Subsequently, they proceed to a different geographical region and replicate the aforementioned procedure. Ultimately, individuals will revisit the territory from which they initially departed and engage in a recurring pattern. Regrettably, as a consequence of population pressures and the escalating need for food production, the frequency of return journeys is transpiring at an accelerated pace, so impeding the land's capacity to restore its nutritional levels. Consequently, the land's productivity has significantly declined, necessitating the abandonment of these regions. ◦ The principal agricultural products derived by changing farming practices include maize and cassava. A significant risk associated with this approach is the widespread deforestation observed in numerous forested areas, where trees are being cleared to facilitate the establishment of agricultural land. ◦ Despite the fact that the timber obtained from this particular procedure is commercially viable and generates income for landowners, it has resulted in a significant annual reduction of tropical rainforests by around 10 to 20 million hectares. ◦ Government authorities and environmentalists find themselves in a complex predicament. On the one hand, the utilization of the slash-and-burn technique may be regarded as a potentially profitable strategy for fostering economic growth, particularly in the short-term. However, it is important to note that tropical rainforests play a significant role in the production of a substantial portion of the Earth's oxygen. The detrimental impact caused by their loss extends beyond mere ecological concerns and has far-reaching consequences on various climate systems, hence posing significant threats to our global ecosystem. In the textbook, Rubenstein provides an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages associated with shifting cultivation, as well as its broader implications on a global scale. ◦ Pastoral nomadism represents a prevalent farming practice. While bearing resemblance to the practices of hunters and gatherers, this phenomenon exhibits a higher degree of intricacy. ◦ Hunting and gathering communities are defined by a nomadic lifestyle, which involves the habit of following herds. The animals that form the herds are classified as non-domesticated, suggesting their inherent wild characteristics. Hunting and gathering communities are characterized by the absence of a distinct set of animals that they systematically follow and depend upon. They simply adhere to any group they can identify with. Pastoral nomadism involves the domestication of animals, with sheep being the most commonly utilized species. In areas where there is a scarcity of sheep, alternative domesticated animals are employed. Hunters and gatherers place significant emphasis on gathering as a means to supplement their consumption of meat, whereas pastoral nomads generally rely on animals and their by- products as their primary source of sustenance, participating in modest gathering practices. ◦ Two further prevalent forms of agriculture, commonly observed in less developed countries (LDCs), include intensive subsistence farming with a focus on wet rice cultivation, and intensive subsistence farming without a primary emphasis on wet rice production. The majority of regions in which intensive subsistence agriculture is practiced have high population density. ◦ The cultivation of a specific plot of land is conducted with greater intensity due to the smaller size of the pieces, necessitating their optimal utilization. ◦ As a result of the limitations imposed by land availability, animals are typically not employed in intense subsistence agriculture. The completion of all necessary tasks necessitates human involvement. Agriculture in More Developed Countries ◦ In more developed countries (MDCs), agricultural practices exhibit a higher degree of technological advancement, resulting in increased productivity and better crop yields. The primary sector of the economy experiences a decline in participation due to the rising utilization of technology. In many developed nations, there is a prevalent adoption of commercial agriculture, a system in which a relatively small fraction of the population is responsible for generating an ample food supply to meet the needs of the whole populace. Commercial agriculture has several distinct characteristics: A minority of individuals engaged in agricultural activities within the labor force. Widespread utilization of mechanization in farming practices. Considerable scale of agricultural operations. Sale of produced goods to processing entities. Collaboration and interconnection with other commercial enterprises. The Green Revolution ◦ Norman Borlaug, an American scientist with a keen interest in agriculture, is frequently credited as a pivotal figure in the initiation of the Green Revolution. During the 1940s, the individual initiated a research endeavor in Mexico, which led to the development of novel wheat varieties characterized by enhanced disease resistance and increased production potential. Through the integration of Borlaug's wheat cultivars with emerging mechanized agricultural methodologies, Mexico achieved a surplus in wheat production that exceeded domestic demand, consequently transitioning into a wheat-exporting nation by the 1960s. Before the utilization of these different types of wheat, the nation relied on importing about fifty percent of its wheat inventory. ◦ The technologies of the Green Revolution in Mexico gained global dissemination during the 1950s and 1960s, owing to its notable achievements. In the 1940s, the United States relied on imports for approximately 50% of its wheat supply. However, with the implementation of Green Revolution technology, the nation achieved self-sufficiency in the 1950s and transitioned into a net exporter by the 1960s. ◦ To sustain the utilization of Green Revolution technology for augmenting food production to meet the demands of a burgeoning global population, amplified research endeavors were financially supported by prominent institutions such as the Rockefeller Foundation, the Ford Foundation, and several governmental organizations across various nations. In 1963, Mexico established an international research institute known as The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, with financial assistance. ◦ Numerous countries globally have derived significant advantages from the Green Revolution initiatives spearheaded by Borlaug and the associated research institute. India, as an illustrative example, faced the imminent threat of widespread famine during the early 1960s due to its fast expanding population. Subsequently, Borlaug and the Ford Foundation initiated research efforts in the aforementioned region, leading to the development of a novel strain of rice, known as IR8. This particular cultivar exhibited enhanced productivity in terms of grain yield per individual plant, particularly when cultivated under conditions involving irrigation and the use of fertilizers. Presently, India holds a prominent position as a global rice producer, with its production volume ranking among the highest worldwide. The adoption of IR8 rice, which originated in India, subsequently proliferated across various Asian regions during the decades that ensued its initial development. The miracle rice which saved millions of lives. ◦ The crops that emerged as a result of the Green Revolution were characterized by their high-yielding traits, indicating their deliberate domestication and breeding to exhibit enhanced responsiveness to fertilizers and a greater capacity to generate a higher grain yield per unit of land area cultivated. ◦ The plants commonly associated with these attributes that contribute to their success include harvest index, photosynthate allocation, and insensitivity to day duration. The term "harvest index" pertains to the weight of the plant's above-ground biomass. During the Green Revolution, the process of artificial selection involved the deliberate choice of plants with the largest seeds in order to maximize agricultural productivity. Through the process of selective breeding, these plants underwent evolutionary changes resulting in the acquisition of a shared trait, namely bigger seeds. Subsequently, the larger seeds resulted in increased grain output and a greater above-ground biomass. ◦ The greater weight above earth afterwards resulted in an augmented allocation of photosynthates. The plant's photosynthetic efficiency was enhanced by optimizing the allocation of resources towards seed or food production. This allocation strategy facilitated a more direct channeling of the energy generated through photosynthesis towards the plant's food part. ◦ Ultimately, through the process of targeted plant breeding, scientists such as Borlaug achieved a twofold increase in agricultural yield by cultivating plants that exhibited insensitivity to variations in day length. This breakthrough allowed these plants to thrive in diverse geographical regions, irrespective of the quantity of sunlight they received. ◦ The Green Revolution has had significant impacts on various aspects of society and the environment. The Green Revolution owes much of its success to the utilization of fertilizers, which have had a lasting impact on agricultural practices. This is due to the fact that the high yield varieties cultivated during this period are reliant on the application of fertilizers for their effective growth. ◦ The utilization of irrigation systems significantly contributed to the Green Revolution, resulting in a permanent alteration of the geographical regions suitable for cultivating different crops. Prior to the advent of the Green Revolution, agricultural activities were predominantly confined to regions characterized by substantial precipitation. However, the use of irrigation techniques enabled the storage and transfer of water to arid areas, thereby expanding the agricultural footprint and consequently augmenting crop yields on a national scale. ◦ Furthermore, the advent of high-yield cultivars resulted in a reduction of crop diversity, leading to a limited range of rice species being cultivated. In the context of India, it is noteworthy that before to the advent of the Green Revolution, the country had an estimated count of over 30,000 distinct rice varieties. However, in the present day, this number has significantly diminished to approximately ten, encompassing solely the most high-yielding cultivars. The enhanced agricultural homogeneity resulted in heightened vulnerability to diseases and pests due to insufficient genetic diversity to combat them effectively. Consequently, the utilization of pesticides also increased in order to safeguard these few kinds. ◦ Ultimately, the implementation of Green Revolution technologies resulted in a significant and rapid escalation in global food production. Countries such as India and China, who were previously plagued by the threat of starvation, have successfully mitigated this issue through the adoption of IR8 rice and other diverse food kinds. ◦ The Green Revolution has been subject to criticism from several perspectives. In addition to the advantages derived from the Green Revolution, a number of critiques have been raised. One key factor is the correlation between the rise in food production and the subsequent global overpopulation phenomenon. ◦ One such critique pertains to the limited impact of the Green Revolution on regions such as Africa. The utilization of these technologies is hindered by several significant challenges, namely inadequate infrastructure, governmental corruption, and instability within states. ◦ Notwithstanding these concerns, it is undeniable that the Green Revolution has had a profound and enduring impact on global agricultural practices, hence providing substantial benefits to numerous nations grappling with the imperative of augmenting food supply. Summary ◦ The advent of agriculture had a pivotal role in the emergence of settled human societies, since it involved the cultivation and domestication of various plant and animal species. This practice led to the production of excess food, which in turn facilitated the growth and advancement of civilizations. The phenomenon of its inception occurred autonomously in many regions around the world, encompassing both the Old and New World. Throughout the course of history, agriculture has played a significant and ever-evolving role in the expansion of food supplies, the generation of employment opportunities, and the establishment of a quickly increasing market for industrial products. While subsistence agriculture, which refers to self- sufficiency in agricultural production, has significantly declined in Europe and North America, it remains prevalent in many rural areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Although traditional kinds of agricultural techniques still persist, they have been eclipsed by the rapid worldwide industrialization of agriculture, a phenomenon that has gained momentum in recent decades. ◦ However, there are notable distinctions between commercial agriculture and subsistence agriculture, primarily stemming from the divergent goals pursued in each. Commercial agriculture is primarily driven by the desire of maximizing profits, whereas subsistence agriculture focuses on meeting the basic needs of the farmer and their immediate community. ◦ Farmers residing in both the central and peripheral regions have encountered the necessity to adapt to several alterations that have transpired across various scales, ranging from the local to the worldwide. While states have assumed a crucial role in regulating and providing assistance to the agricultural sector, it is worth noting that the World Trade Organization (WTO) holds considerable influence over global agricultural affairs. ◦ The global food chain is significantly impacted by the social responses elicited by genetically altered crops. Presently, there is a particular emphasis on the possibility that a well-rounded, secure, and enduring method may serve as a resolution not only for attaining sustainable enhancement of crop yield but also for safeguarding the environment. Hence, the field of agriculture has evolved into an intricately interconnected system on a worldwide scale, and the endeavor to transition towards sustainable agricultural practices is a significant obstacle. ◦ References: Bjelland, M.D. et al. (2020). Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities (13th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ◦ Dorrell, D. et al (2019). Introduction to Human Geography (2nd Edition). Geological Sciences and Geography. Open Textbooks. 2. ◦ Mercier, M. & Norton, W. (2016). Human Geography (10th ed.). Oxford