Professional Education PDF

1 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Professional education is an approach to provide specialized training in a professional school. It aims to acquire content knowledge for all participants in learning and applying techniques in teaching. It also helps professionals to ga...

1 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Professional education is an approach to provide specialized training in a professional school. It aims to acquire content knowledge for all participants in learning and applying techniques in teaching. It also helps professionals to gain competencies necessary for proper practices and behavioral management. Professional Education deepens all professionals to incorporate their knowledge and values in professional discipline; understanding its core concept, principles, guidelines and techniques. It enables professional to attain a level of competence needed for responsible entry dedicated to professional practice; and the acceptance for the continued development of competence. It is designed to produce a very competitive and responsible professionals ensuring their continuing competence in the profession by helping them recognize and understand the significance of advancing professional knowledge and improving standards of practice. It involves the translation of learning to practice and is intended to prevent occupations and professionals from becoming obsolete. PHILOSOPHICAL PROPONENTS Wilhelm Wundt is the Father of Modern Psychology, was a German physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. Wundt, who noted psychology as a science apart from philosophy and biology, was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist. Sigmund Freud is the Father of Psychoanalysis and Psychosexual Theory. He was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi is the Father of Modern Education. He was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. Ivan Pavlov is the proponent of classical conditioning theory and he was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to as "the instinct for research". Inspired by the progressive ideas which D. I. Burrhus Frederic Skinner is the proponent for operant conditioning (Instrument), commonly known as B. F. Skinner, was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974. Edward Lee Thorndike is the proponent for the Laws of Learning (law of readiness, law of exercise & law of effect). He was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology. Albert Bandura is the proponent for social cognitive learning theory (Modelling), he was a Canadian- American psychologist who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. David Ausubel was an American psychologist. His most significant contribution to the fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education learning was on the development and research on advance organizers since 1960 and the proponent for his Meaningful Learning Theory. Jerome Bruner is responsible for human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. He was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Bruner was a senior research fellow at the New York University School of Law. Kurt Levin mastered Life Space Concept, known as one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and applied psychology in the United States. The approach, developed by Kurt Lewin, is a significant contribution to the fields of social science, psychology, social psychology, organizational development, process management, and change management. His theory was expanded by John R. P. French who related it to organizational and industrial settings. Wolfgang Kohler specialized in Insight Learning or Problem Solving by Insight, was a German psychologist and phenomenologist who, like Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka, contributed to the creation of Gestalt psychology. Insight learning is perhaps the greatest contribution Wolfgang Kohler made to psychology. Building off the influence of Gestalt psychology, Kohler discovered that learning can occur when we gain insight into an entire situation, as opposed to focusing only on an individual part. Urie Bronfenbrenner - Ecological Systems Theory. (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the: Microsystem. He was a Russian-born American developmental psychologist who most was known for his ecological systems theory of child development. His scientific work and his assistance to the United States government helped in the formation of the Head Start program in 1965. Sandra Bem - Gender Schema Theory. He was an American psychologist known for her works in androgyny and gender studies. Her pioneering work on gender roles, gender polarization and gender stereotypes led directly to more equal employment opportunities for women in the United States. Howard Gardner - Theory of Multiple Intelligence. He believed that the conventional concept of intelligence was too narrow and restrictive and that measures of IQ often miss out on other "intelligences" that an individual may possess. He was an American developmental psychologist and the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. Elliot Turiel – Domain Based Moral Education and was an American psychologist and Chancellor’s Professor at the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley. He teaches courses on human development and its relation to education. Robert J. Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. These three examples exemplify Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory on intelligence. The triarchic theory describes three distinct types of intelligence that a person can possess. Sternberg calls these three types practical intelligence, creative intelligence, and analytical intelligence. He was an American psychologist and psychometrician. He is Professor of Human Development at Cornell University. Prior to joining Cornell, Sternberg was president of the University of Wyoming. Lawrence Kohlberg - Moral Development Theory. The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean Piaget's theory of moral reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made us understand that morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors. He was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology 2 Department at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Development Theory. He was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Maria Montessori - Montessori Method, Transfer of Learning. She was an Italian physician and educator best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. Montessori is a method of education that is based on self-directed activity, hands-on learning and collaborative play. In Montessori classrooms children make creative choices in their learning, while the classroom and the teacher offer age-appropriate activities to guide the process. Edward Paul Torrance - Creativity Problem Solving and considered to be the Father of Creativity. He was an American psychologist from Milledgeville, Georgia. After completing his undergraduate degree at Mercer University, Torrance acquired a Master's degree at the University of Minnesota and then a doctorate from the University of Michigan. His teaching career spanned from 1957 to 1984. Avram Noam Chomsky - Linguistic (Language) Acquisition Device (LAD). He was an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, and social critic. Sometimes described as "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. Noam Chomsky is a contemporary psychologist, linguist, and political activist known both for his theory of innate grammar and for his political activism. Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development Theory. He was famous through a series of stages, Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period. He was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. John Watson - Behaviorism Theory. He was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism. Watson promoted a change in psychology through his address Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it, which was given at Columbia University in 1913. Through his behaviorist approach, Watson conducted research on animal behavior, child rearing, and advertising. In addition, he conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment and the Kerplunk experiment. Watson popularized the use of the scientific theory with behaviorism. Edward Chace Tolman - Purposive Behaviorism. He was an American psychologist. Through Tolman's theories and works, he founded what is now a branch of psychology known as purposive behaviorism. Tolman also promoted the concept known as latent learning first coined by Blodgett. Bernard Weiner - Attribution Theory on Achievement. He was an American social psychologist known for developing a form of attribution theory which explains the emotional and motivational entailments of academic success and failure. Bernard Weiner got interested in the field of attribution after the first studying achievement motivation. Daniel Goleman - Emotional Intelligence. He was an author and science journalist. For twelve years, he wrote for The New York Times, reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. Emotional Intelligence (Goleman) 3 years ago Motivation Theories Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is defined as the ability to identify, assess, and control one's own emotions, the emotions of others, and that of groups. Hermann Ebbinghaus - law of forgetting. The forgetting curve hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time. This curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it. A related concept is the strength of memory that refers to the durability that memory traces in the brain. He was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is 3 known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. He was the father of the eminent neo-Kantian philosopher Julius Ebbinghaus. John Locke - Theory of Association. According to other social contract theorists, when the government fails to secure their natural rights (Locke) or satisfy the best interests of society (called the "general will" in Rousseau), citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey, or change the leadership through elections or other means. He was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism". Edward Thorndike - Belongingness and Connectionism. In 1898, was famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior. He was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology. David McClelland - Needs Achievement Theory or Human Motivation Theory. Human Motivation Theory states that every person has one of three main driving motivators: the needs for achievement, affiliation, or power. These motivators are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and life experiences. He was an American psychologist, noted for his work on motivation Need Theory. He published a number of works during the 1950s and the 1990s and developed new scoring systems for the Thematic Apperception Test and its descendants. Henry Murray - Theory of Psychogenic Needs. He was an American psychologist at Harvard University. He was Director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic in the School of Arts and Sciences after 1930. Murray developed a theory of personality called personology, based on "need" and "press". Victor Harold Vroom - Expectancy Theory. Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual’s factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He was a business school professor at the Yale School of Management. He holds a PhD from University of Michigan and an MS and BS from McGill University. Lev Semyonovich Vysgotsky - Sociocultural Theory or "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). His worked was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962.... It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development. He was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of an unfinished Marxist theory of human cultural and bio-social development commonly referred to as cultural-historical psychology CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Childhood defines as the time for a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an adult. It is more circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty. The Convention of the Rights of the Child defines a child as “every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier”. Adolescence - According to Stuart Judge, a noted educator and psychologist, adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Although sometimes described as beginning in parallel with fertility or puberty and ending with maturity and independence, adolescence has a very variable and imprecise duration 4 The onset of adolescence cannot be pointed in physiological term, although it is influenced by the same sex hormones and refers to the same general period as physical sexual development. It represents a complex and sometimes disturbing psychological transition, accompanying the requirement for the accepted social behavior of the particular adult and culture. PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT  Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various tasks, a process better known as motor development. Initially, babies’ movements are simply the uncontrolled, reflexive movements they are born with, over time, they learn to move their body parts voluntarily to perform both gross (large) and fine (small) motor skills. In general, babies begin developing motor skills form head to tail (cephalocaudal), the center of the body outward (proximodistal). They learn to control their head and neck before they learn to maneuver their arms; they learn to maneuver their arms before they learn to manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso before the learn how to move their arms and legs.  The sucking reflex allows babies to drink milk and nourish themselves in the days of life.  Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is heard turning in the first days of life.  Another permanent life-supporting reflex is head turning. This reflex allows a baby to turn his head if something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is blocking his airflow.  Another reflex that also babies survive is the rooting reflex. When babies root, they may nuzzle their face and mouth into the caregiver’s chest or shoulder.  The rest of the flexes have less survival value but are still notable. For the first 3 to 4 months, babies have an amazing grasping ability and reflex. They will grasp anything place in their palm and hold it with amazing strength for their size. Some infants in the first weeks of life can support their entire body weight through that grasp.  While this reflex may not have any survival function in modern times, it does help babies bond with caregivers and family in the first weeks of life. Similarly, for the first two months, babies will ‘step” with their legs if they are held vertically with their feet touching a surface. Even though this reflex disappears months before babies begin walking purposely, experts believes stepping helps infants learn how their legs works can be used.  The Moro response is another reflex that is present during the first 6 months of life, but doesn’t seem to have a purpose in modern life. A baby with arch her back, flail out, and then curl up if she feels as although she is being dropped.  The final reflex is Tonic Neck. During the first 4 months, when babies lie awake on their backs with their heads facing to one side, they will extend the arm on the side of their body that they’re facing and reflex the other arm at an angle, in a position that resembles a fencing pose. This reflex may help prepare them for voluntary reaching later in their environment.  Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop “toddling”, or using the awkward, wide- legged robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they also develop the ability to run, and hop. Children of this age can participate in throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can also push themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.  Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adult place one foot on each step in sequence); However, young children may still need some “back up” assistant to prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also 5  be stumped when it’s time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. The 3 to 4 years old can jump and hop higher as higher as their leg muscles grow stronger and many can even hop on one foot for shorts period of time.  By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e. taking one step at a time); their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles), and can be drive them faster.  During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine easier skills. They’re running even faster and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In addition, they can step sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with bats, and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play organized sports as soccer, basketball, t-bale or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 years old often like to participate in physical extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. Children continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT  The human brain begins forming very early in prenatal life (just three weeks after conception), but in many ways, brain development is a lifelong project. That is because the same events that shape the brain during development are also responsible for storing information—new skills and memories—throughout life.  The rational part of a teen's brain isn't fully developed and won't be until age 25 or so. In fact, recent research has found that adult and teen brains work differently. Adults think with the prefrontal cortex, the brain's rational part.  The brain continues to grow for a few years after a person is born and by the age of2 years old, the brain is about 80% of the adult size. You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has most of the neurons it will get when you are born? The answer is in glial cells.  The bran’s ability to change from experience is known as Plasticity. The human brain is especially plastic early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of the equation is so important  Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic-this is the mechanism of learning-but plasticity declines in adulthood.  As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several ’critical periods, a developmental phase in which the brain requires certain environmental input and it will not develop normally.  The Frontal Lobe is the most recently-evolved part of the brain and the last to develop in young adulthood. Its dorso-lateral prefrontal circuit is the brain's top executive. Early Milestones in Brain Growth  4 months: the infant’s brain responds to every sound produced in all the languages of the world.  8 to 9 months: Babies can form specific memories from their experiences, such as how to push a ball to make it roll.  10 months: Babies can now distinguish and even produce the sounds of their own language (such as “da-da”) no longer pay attention to the sounds of language that are foreign. 6   12 months: Babies whose parents say, for example” Lookee at the doggie” will go to the appropriate picture of a dog in a picture book more often than those babies who are talked to normal, flatter voices.  12 to 18 months: Babies can keep in memory something that has been hidden and find it again, even if it has completely covered up. They can also hold memory sequences of simple activities, such as winding up a jack-in-the-box until the figure pops up.  24 months: Preschool children now clear picture in mind of people who are dear to them, and the get upset when separated from these people (even their peers)  30 months: Preschool children can hold in mind a whole sequence of spatial maps and know where things are in their environment.  36 months: A preschool child can now two different emotions in his mind at the same time, such as being sad that he spilled ice cream on his cloths but glad that he’s at birthday party. FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT 1. Maternal Nutrition- the nutritional status of the women during adolescent pregnancy and lactation has a direct impact on the child’s health and development. 2. Child Nutrition- the Child’s state of nutritional balance is crucial in his early developmental age. 3. Early Sensory Stimulation- Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial stimulation contribute to the child’s development. 4. Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of physical and social characteristics from parents to off-springs. Exceptional Development 1. Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities may experience functional, visual, orthopedic, motor, or hearing impairments, which may impact upon their ability to walk, play and learn. Physical disabilities are also often defined and categorized by some degree of limitation in the use of upper or lower extremities and maintaining posture and positioning. 2. Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)- Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Hyperkinetic Disorder (as officially known in U.K., through ADHD is more commonly used) is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the world’s population. The disorder typically presents itself during childhood, and is characterized by a present pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness, poor impulse control or impulsivity and distractibility, ADHD is currently considered to be a persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past decade. Linguistic and Literary Development A. Natural History and Language Development - Language development is a process that starts early in human life, when a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. Children’s language development moves from simplicity to complexity. Infants start without language. Yet by four months of age, babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.  Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without associated meaning, but as children age, words acquire meaning, and connections between words are formed, in 7  time, sentences start to form as words are joined together to create logical meaning. As a person gets older, new meaning and new associations are created and vocabulary increases as more words are learned.  Infant use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal vocalizations to communicate their wants, needs and dispositions. Even though most children begin to vocalize and eventually verbalize at various ages and at different rates, they learn their first language without conscious instruction from parents or caretakers. It is seemingly effortless task that grows increasingly difficult with age. Of course, before any learning can begin, the child must be biologically and socially mature enough. B. Biological Preconditions - Linguist do not all agree on what biological factors contribute to language development, however most do agree that our ability to acquire such a complicated system is specific to the human species, Furthermore, our ability to learn language may have been developed through the evolutionary process and that the foundation for language may be passed down genetically. C. Second Preconditions - it is crucial that children are allowed to socially interact with other people who can vocalize and respond to questions. For language acquisition to develop successfully, children must be in an environment that allows them to communicate socially in that language. There are a few different theories as to why and how children develop language. The most popular explanation is that language is acquired through imitation. However, this proves to be more of a folk tale than anything. Two most accepted theories in language development are psychological and functional. Psychological explanations focus on the mental processes involved in childhood language learning. Functional explanations look at the social process involved in learning the first language. Bilingual Language Development  There are two major patters in bilingual language acquisition; simultaneous Bilingualism and Sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distinction between the two languages takes place, and the child uses each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3 years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and experience of first language while acquiring the second language.  Detecting delays in the speech and language of multilingual children presents a challenge. The authors state that “the key is to obtain information about the child’s entire language system, not just the primary or secondary language”.  The following “red flags” may indicates that the child who is simultaneously acquiring two languages id experiencing problems with language development.  No sounds by 2-6 months  Less than one new words per week for 6-15 month-old children.  Less than 20 words (in the two languages combined by 20 months: and  No use of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by age 2-3 years  Red flags for abnormal language development in the sequential acquisition of two language include.  Lack of normal milestones in the first language 8   Prolonged phase of not talking  Difficulty of retrieving words FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child) Delayed general development (global developmental delay), physical development motor skills), cognitive development etc. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in language, prefers other modalities e.g. physical activities Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles; lips, tongue etc. Medical problems Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks” communication intent” Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc. Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving Exposure to too many languages for the child Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child everyone talks for, the “babied” child has a more dominant sibling etc. Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to perform etc. Short attention span. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties Exceptional Development Aphasia- Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language due to injury to brain areas specialized for these functions. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellect, or psychiatric functioning. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of wide variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not to speak. Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written language, particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the result of a neurological differences but is not intellectual disability. Most people with dyslexia have average or above average intelligence. Evidence suggests that dyslexia results for differences in how the brain processes written and/or verbal language. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as deficiencies in intelligence, a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Theories of Cognitive Development. Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). His theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of the intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of the concepts grounded in the world. The theory concerns the emergence and acquisitions of the schemata-schemes, of one perceives the world in the “developmental stages”, time when children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing- information. 9 Sensorimotor period (years 0 - 2 ) Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to explore their world. Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the congenital reflexes:  The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs form birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the developmental reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over this first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.  The second sub-stage, primary circular reaction phase, occurs form six weeks to four months and is associates primarily with the development of habits. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action involving only one’s body begins. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an infant repeating the motion of passing their hands before their face. The schema developed during this stage inform the infant about the relationships among his body parts (e.g. in passing the hand in form of his eyes he develop a motor schema for moving his arm so that the hand becomes visible.  The third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions phase, occurs from four to nine months and is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and apprehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends, family, younger and older siblings, grandparents, etc. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means also occurs. This is perhaps of one of the most important stages of a child’s growth as it signifies the drawn for logic. However, babies still only have a very early rudimentary grasp of this and most of their discoveries have an “accidental” quality to them in that the initial performance of what will soon become a secondary circular reactions occurs by chance; but the operant conditioning causes the initial “accidental” behavior (which was followed by an “interesting pattern of stimulation) to be repeated. And the ability to repeat the act is the result of primary circular reactions established in the previous stage. For example, when the infant’s hand accidentally makes contact with an object in hid field of vision is based on the primary circular reaction bringing his hand into his field of vision. Thus, the child learns (at the level of schemata) that “if he can see it then he can also touch it” and this results in a schemata which is the knowledge that is external environment is populated with solid objects.  The fourth sub-stage, called the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, which occurs from nine to twelve months, is when Piaget thought that object permanence developed. In addition, the stage is called the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, and is primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends, this is extremely important marks the beginning of goal orientation or intentionally, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.  The fifth sub-stage, tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the “young scientist”, conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges.  The six sub-stage, considered “beginning of symbolic representation”, is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. In this stag the trial- and error application of 10  schemata, which was observable during the previous stage, occurs internally (at the level of schemata rather than of motor responses), resulting in the sudden appearance of new effective behaviors (without any observable trial-and-error). This is also the time when symbols (words and images) begin to stand for other objects. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage. Preoperational period (years 2 – 7) The Preoperational stage is the second of four stage of cognitive development. By observing sequence of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs (Pre) Operatory Thought in Piagetian theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is spare and logically inadequate mental operations. According to Piaget, the Pre Operational stage of development follows the sensorimotor stage and occur between 2-7 years of age. It includes the following processes.  Symbolic functioning- characterized by the use of mental symbols, words, or pictures, which the child uses to represent something which is not physically present  Centration-characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one aspect of a stimulus or situation. For example, in pouring a quantity of liquid from a narrow beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child might judge the quantity of liquid to have decreased, because it is “lower”- that is, the child attends to the height of the water, but not the compensating increase in the diameter of the container.  Intuitive thought- occurs when the child is able to believe in something without knowing why she or he believes it.  Egocentrism- a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only think for her or his own point of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point of view of others. Example, if a child is in trouble, he or she might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my mom cannot either.  Inability to conserve-though Piaget’s conservation experiments (conservation of mass, volume and number after the original form has been changed. For example, a child in this phase will believe that a string which has up in ”o-o-o-o” pattern will have a larger number of beads than a string which has a oooo: pattern, because the latter pattern has less space between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has more liquid in it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup.  Animism- The child believes that inanimate objects have: lifelike” qualities and are capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it likes a real person. In a way this like using their imagination. Concrete operational period (years 7 – 11) The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important process during this stage are:  Seriation - the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.  Classification - the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another, a child 11  is no longer subject to the illogical limitations of animism ( the belief that all objects are alive and therefore have feelings)  Decentering - where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.  Reversibility - where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4 +4 equals 8, 8/4 will equal 4, the original quantity  Conservation - understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cup they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled up.  Elimination of Egocentrism - the ability to view things from another’s perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in whom Jane puts a doll under the box leaves the room, and then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operation stage will stay that Jane will still think it’s under the box even through the child knows it is in the drawer Formal operation period (years 11 adulthood) The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in the Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age (puberty) and continuous into adulthood. It is characterized by acquisition of the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available. During this stage the young adult is able to understand such things as love “shades of gray”, logical proofs, and values, Lev Vygotsky-Psychologist, was born in 1896 in Orsha, Belarys (then a part of the Russian Empire). Vygotsky was tutored privately by Solomon Asphiz and graduated from Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (1924-34), where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking. His writings emphasized the roles of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society. Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky’s book “Thinking and Speaking”, establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different than normal (external) speech, For Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning, i.e. children learn adults and other children. INFORMATION AND PROCESSING THEORY There are three primary stages in the Information and Processing Theory:  Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attended.  Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time depending upon the processes following encoding  Retrieval- The information is found at the appropriate time, and reactivated for use on a current task, the true test of effective memory. 12 The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a path along which information is taken into the memory system, and reactivated when necessary. Most theories of information processing center around three main stages in the memory process. Sensory Register The first step in the IP model hold ALL sensory information for a VERY BRIEF time period.  Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more that we can ever perceive.  Duration: Extremely brief- in order of 1 to 3 seconds The Role of Attention  To move information into consciousness, we need to attend to it. That is, we only have the ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through the attention gate. Short Term Memory (working Memory)  Capacity: What you can say about in 2 seconds. Often said to be 7+/_2 items.  Duration: Around 18 seconds or less  To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to rehearse  There are two types of rehearsal- Maintenance and Elaborative Long Term Memory - the final storing house of memorial information, the long term memory store holds information until needed again.  Capacity: unlimited?  Duration: indefinite? Executive Control Processes  Also known as executive processor, or Metacognitive skills  Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make informed  Example processes-attention, rehearsals, organization  Sometimes call METACOGNITVE SKILLS The ability to access information when needed  There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:  Decay-Information is not attended to, and eventually fades away.  Very prevalent in working memory.  Inference-New or old information blocks’ access to the information in question. Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering  Organization- info that is organized efficiently should be recalled  Deep processing- This is focusing upon meaning.  Elaboration- Connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.  Generation- Things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.  Context-Remembering the situation helps recover information  Personalization- making the information relevant to the individual 13   Memory Methods  Memorization (note the same as learning)  Serial Position Effect (regency and primacy) you will remember the beginning and end of list most readily  Part Learning - Break up the list to increase memorization  Distributed Practice- Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice)  Mnemonics Aids  Loci Method - Familiar place, associate list with items in place (i.e. living room)  Peg-type - Standard list is a cue to the target list.  Acronym – SCUBA  Chain Mnemonics – EGBDF  Key word Method - Association of new word/ concept with well know word/concept that sounds similar. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE 1. Psychometric Theories have sought to understand the structure of intelligence; the form, it categories, and its composition. Underlying psychometric intelligence theory is a psychological model according to which intelligence is a combination of abilities that can be measured by mental testing. These tests often include analogies, classification / identification, and series completion. Each test score is equally weighted according to the evidence of underlying ability in each category British psychologist Charles E. Spearman published the first psychometric theory 1904. His theory noted that people who excelled on one mental ability test often did well on the others, and people who did poorly on one of them tended to do poorly with others. Using this concept, Spearman devised a technique of statistical analyzing that examined patterns of individual scores. This analysis helped him discover what he believed to be the two sources if these individual differences: the “general factor” which is our general intellectual ability, and a test-specific factor. American psychologist L.L. Thurstone disregarded with Spearman’s theory and his isolation of the “general factor” of intelligence. Thurstone believed that the “general factor “resulted from Spearman’s method of analysis, and that if analysis were more thorough, seven factors would emerge. These seven factors were collectively called the “primary mental abilities” and included verbal comprehension, verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numbers, spatial visualization, inductive reasoning, memory, memory and perceptual speed. Most psychologists agree that a broader subdivision of abilities than Spearman’s classification is necessary, but only some agree with hierarchal subdivision. It quickly became apparent to many psychologists that were problems that could not be addressed by psychometric theories. The number of abilities could not be positively identified, and the differences between them could not be clearly defined due to the limitations of testing and analysis. However, the most significant problem extended beyond the number of abilities: what happens in someone’s mind when they are using the ability in question? Psychometric theories had no means of addressing this issue, and cognitive theories began to fill this gap. 14 2. Cognitive Theories. During the era of psychometric theories, people’s test scores dominated the study of intelligence. In 1957, American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized how some psychologists study individual differences and other study commonalities in human behavior, but the two methods never meet. Cronbach voiced the need for two methods to be united, which led to the development of cognitive theories of intelligence. Without understanding the processes underlying intelligence, we cannot come to accurate conclusions when analyzing test scores or assessing someone’s performance. Cognitive analysis helps the interpretation of the test scores by determining to what degree the score reflects reasoning ability and the degree to which it is a result of not understanding the questions or vocabulary. Psychometric theories did not differentiate between these two factors, which have a significant effect on the determination of intelligence. Many people are excellent reasoners but have modest vocabularies, and vice versa. Underlying the cognitive approach to intelligence is the assumption that intelligence is comprised of a set of mental representations of information, and a set of processes that operate the mental representations. It is assumed that a more intelligent person represents information better, and operates more quickly on these representations than does a less intelligent person. Several different cognitive theories of intelligence have emerged over the years. One was introduced by Earl Hunt, Nancy Frost, and Clifford Lunneborg, who in 1973 showed one way on which psychometric and cognitive modeling could be combined. Instead of using conventional psychometric tests, they used tasks that allowed them to study the basis of cognition-perception, learning and memory. Individual differences in the tasks became apparent, which they related to differing patterns of performing and operating manual representations. Several years later, Robert Stemberg suggested an alternative approach to studying cognitive process. He argued, based on evidence he had gathered, that there weak only a weak relationship between basic cognitive tasks and psychometric test scores because the tasks being used were too simple. Although simple task involve cognitive processes, they are peripheral rather than central. Although opposing cognitive theories exist, they are all based on the serial processing of information, which means that cognitive processes are executed one after another in a series. The assumption is that we process chunks of information one at a time, trying to combine the processes into an overall problem-solving strategy. Other psychologists have challenged this idea, arguing that cognitive processing is parallel, meaning that we process large amounts of information simultaneously. However, it has proved difficult to distinguish between serial and parallel models of information processing. Despite evidence and support of cognitive intelligence theories, a major problem remains regarding the nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do not take into account that the description of intelligence may differ from one cultural group to another. Even within mainstream cultures, it will know that conventional tests do not reliably predict performance. Therefore in addition to cognition, the context in which the cognition operates also needs to be accounted for. 15 EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT – A COGNITIVE APPROACH Giftedness - For many years, psychometricians and psychologists, following the footsteps of Lewis Terman in 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This “legacy” survives to the present day, in that giftedness and high IQ continue to be equated in some conceptions of giftedness. Since that early time, however, other researchers (e.g., Cattell, Guilford, and Thurnstone) have argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the 1980s has provided data which support notions of multiple components to intelligence. This is particularly evident in the examination of “giftedness” by Stenberge and Davidson in their edited Conceptions of Giftedness. The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities, not all of which are intellectual, IQ scores are often viewed as in adequate measures of giftedness. Motivation, high self-concept, and creativity are they key qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness. Mental Retardation is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language skills (“milestones”) during child hood, and a significantly below-normal global intellectual capacity as an adult. One common criterion for diagnosis of mental retardation is tested intelligence quotient (IQ) of 70 or below and deficits in adaptive functioning. Autism is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before the child is three years old. These characteristics distinguish autism form milder spectrum disorder (ASD). Autism affects many parts of the brain, how this occurs is poorly understood. Parents usually notice signs in the first year or two of their child’s life, Early intervention may help children gain self-care and social skills, although few of these interventions are supported by scientific studies. There is no cure, with severe autism, independent living is unlikely; with milder autism, there are some success stories for adults, and an autistic culture has developed, with some seeking a cure and others believing that autism is a condition rather than a disorder. Asperger’s Syndrome - (also Asperger’s Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder, Asperger’s AS, or AD) is one of several autism spectrum disorders (ASD) characterized by difficulties in social interaction and by restricted and stereotyped interests and activities. AS is distinguished for other ASDs in having no general delay in language or cognitive development, There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The mainstay of treatment is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and clumsiness. Most individuals with AS can learn to cope with their differences, but may continue to need moral support encouragement to maintain an independent life. Adults with AS have reached the highest levels of achievement in fields such as mathematics, physics and computer science, Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion that AS is a difference rather than a disability. Down syndrome or Trisomy 21 (usually Down’s syndrome in British English) is a specific disorder caused by the presence of all or part if an extra 21 st chromosome. It is named after John Longdon Down, the British doctor who described it in 1866. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome can be 16 identifies during pregnancy or at birth. Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate learning disabilities. Developmental disabilities often manifests as tendency toward concrete thinking or naiveté. A small number have severe to profound mental disability. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1, 00 births. THEORIES OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT | ERIKSON STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coping the phrase identity crisis.  Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome, for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an important event that is conflict resolves itself around, for example, meaning of one’s life.  Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as “virtues”, a term used, in the context of Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning” potencies “For example, the virtue that would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly counter- intrusively, Erikson’s research reveals with breath-taking clarity how each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another not rejecting one end of the tension or the other.  Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, “trust” and “mistrust” must both the understood and accepted, in order for realistic “hope” to emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly, “integrity” and “despair” must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable wisdom to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage. The Erikson life stage virtues in order of the stages in which they may be acquired are: 1. Trust vs. mistrust. Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen? Erikson’s first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or so of life (like Freud’s oral stage of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust. During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them. 17 Consistent with Erikson’s views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure. For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided. A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self- esteem” (Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992) it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive”. During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative. The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much. It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”. 18 Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary, otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience. A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose. 4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority. Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills. It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential. If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion. The fifth stage is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs and goals. The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson p. 245) During adolescence the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in. This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational. According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes. Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society. 19 In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation. Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member. Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation. During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care. 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair. As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Social Cognitive Theory - Utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. An important point in the social cognitive theory is that the learner’s behavior is guided by cognitive processes rather than formed or shaped by reinforced practice. Four component parts are responsible for the learning and performance acquisition. These are: Attentional processes Observer characteristics are perceptual or cognitive capacities, arousal level and past performance. Event characteristics are relevance, affective valence, complexity, functional value, model’s characteristics and Intrinsic rewards. 20 Retention processes Observer characteristics are cognitive skills Event characteristics are cognitive organization and rehearsal Motor reproduction process Observer characteristics are physical capabilities and sub skill mastery Event characteristics are selection and organization of responses with feedback Motivational processes Observer characteristics are incentive preference, social bias and internal standards Event characteristics are external, self and vivacious reinforcement Albert Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory)  Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a triangular diagram illustrating the interactive effect of various factors. These three factors are behavior (B), the environment (E), and the internal events that influence perceptions and actions. (P). the relationship between these three factors is known as reciprocal determinism.  Bandura identified three types of reinforces of behavior. These were direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement. Direct reinforcement would be directly experienced by the learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed to be consequences of the behavior of the model. Self-reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal performance standards.  Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are live models, symbolic models, and verbal descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in American society, the greatest range of exposure is in the form of symbolic models through mass media.  In Bandura’s later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning Theory. These are his work on the self-regulatory system and self-efficacy. In the area of self-regulatory system/ self-evaluative behaviors he said that this system us based upon cognitive sub processes that: PERCEIVE, EVALUATE and REGULATE BEHAVIOR EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotional Intelligence (Goleman) - (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ), describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of one’s self, of others, and of groups. As relatively new area of psychological research, the definition of EI is constantly changing. The El model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses in EL as wide array of competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured by multi-rater assessment and self-assessment (Bradberry and Greaves, 2005). In working with Emotional Intelligence (1998) Goleman explored the function of EI on the job, and claimed EI to be the largest single predictor of success in the workplace, with more recent confirmation of these findings on a worldwide sample seen in Bradberry and Greaves, “The Emotional Intelligence Quick Book” (200%) Goleman’s model outlines four main EI constructs: 21   Self-awareness - the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions.  Self - management - involves controlling one’s emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances.  Social awareness - the ability to sense, understand, and react to other’s emotions while comprehending social networks.  Relationships management - the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict. Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman believes that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies. MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are places of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work if Jean Piaget and a fascination with children’s reactions to moral dilemmas. He wrote his doctoral dissertation at the university in 1958, outlining what are now known as his stages of moral development. Levels and Stages of Moral Development: Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality – The first level of morality, pre-conventional morality, can be further divided into two stages: obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange. Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail. Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer. Level 2: Conventional Morality - The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral development. Conventional morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action. Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice. Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order. 22 Level 3: Post-conventional Morality The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with the universal principles that relation to the action done. Stage 5 : Social Contract Orientation In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action. Stage 6 : Universal Ethical Principles Orientation The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles of justice. Carol Gilligan - her fame rests primarily on in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (1982) in which she criticized Kohlberg’s research on the moral development of used children. Which at the time showed that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development than boys did. Giligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were largely male, and that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to a favor a principled way of reasoning that was more common to boys, over a moral argumentation concentrating on relations, which would be more amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw reason to revise his scoring method as a result of Gilligan’s critique, after which boys and girls scored evenly. Her work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics that contrasts ethics of care to so-called ethics of justice. The following are some major factors affecting the social and emotional development of children and adolescents:  Media - the main means of mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the Internet), regarded collectively.  Parenting - is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child aside from the biological relationship  Role Models - is a person whose behavior, example, or success is or can be emulated by others, especially by younger people.  Peer groups - is a social group that consists of individuals of the same social status who share similar interests and are close in age. EXCEPTIONAL AREA DEVELOPMENT IN THE AREA OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Leadership - the ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members. Juvenile Delinquency- Juvenile delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed by persons who are (usually) under the age of eighteen and are still considered to be a minor. There is much debate about whether or not such a child should be held criminally responsible for his or her own actions. There are many different inside influences that are believed to affect the way a child acts both negatively and positively, some of which are as follows:  Abandonment - is a subjective emotional state in which people feel undesired, left behind, insecure, or discarded. People experiencing emotional abandonment may feel at loss, cut off 23  from a crucial source of sustenance that has been withdrawn, either suddenly, or through a process of erosion.  Social institutions - consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose. These institutions are a part of the social order of society and they govern behavior and expectations of individuals.  Peer pressure is the direct influence on people by peers, or the effect on an individual who gets encouraged to follow their peers by changing their attitudes, values or behaviors to conform to those of the influencing group or individual Affective and Mode Disorders - The mood or affective disorders are mental disorders that primarily affect mood and interfere with the activities of daily living. Usually it includes major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (also called Manic Depressive Psychosis. They are set of psychiatric disorders, also called mood disorders. The main types of affective disorders are depression, bipolar disorder, and anxiety disorder. Symptoms vary by individual and can range from mild to severe. What is an affective personality disorder? Affective disorders may include manic (elevated, expansive, or irritable mood with hyperactivity, pressured speech, and inflated self-esteem) or depressive (dejected mood with disinterest in life, sleep disturbance, agitation, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt) episodes, and often combinations of the two. What are some examples of mood disorders? Some examples of mood disorders include: Major depressive disorder — prolonged and persistent periods of extreme sadness. Bipolar disorder — also called manic depression or bipolar affective disorder, depression that includes alternating times of depression and mania. What are the different types of mood disorders?  Major depression. Having less interest in usual activities, feeling sad or hopeless, and other symptoms for at least 2 weeks may indicate depression.  Dysthymia  Bipolar disorder  Mood disorder related to another health condition  Substance-induced mood disorder. What medications treat mood disorders? Antipsychotic medications used for bipolar disorder include:  Olanzapine (Zyprexa)  Quetiapine (Seroquel)  Risperidone (Risperdal)  Ariprazole (Abilify)  Ziprasidone (Geodon)  Clozapine (Clozaril) What is meant by social institutions? Each piece serves a different purpose to the overall operation of the bike. In sociology, social institutions, such as economy and government, are the 'bike parts' and the overall society is the 'bicycle.' Social institutions are established sets of norms and subsystems that support each society's survival. 24 What are the five major social institutions? Five major institutions in rural sociology are political, educational, economic, family and religion. Political: Government as political institution, administers the regulatory functions of Law and order, and maintains security in society. What is the function of social institutions? Social institutions are a system of behavioral and relationship patterns that are densely interwoven and enduring, and function across an entire society. They order and structure the behavior of individuals by means of their normative character. Which one is the most important social institution? Family is very important in Germany both from social and legal viewpoints. A family creates a stable and often unbreakable relationship. For me family is the most important social institution in my life. FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING Definition of learning - is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values and wisdom. It is the goal of education, and the product of experience. It is therefore a relatively permanent change in behavior. Other Definitions: 1. A process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that result through practice of interaction with and adaptation to the environment (Goodwin and Klausmeier) 2. The development of new associations as a result of experience (Good and Grophy). 3. The modification of an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and environmental experience. THEORIES OF LEARNING A. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism | Associationism Theory: Human activity is based on association between stimulus and response. a. Law of effect - The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’. b. Law of exercise - The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or 25  a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times. c. Law of readiness - First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner. B. Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): It is based on ADHESIVE principle which means that a response is attached to a stimulus through the stimulus occurring just prior to the response so that the recurrence of the stimulus will evoke or cause the response. (Ex. Dog’s salivation experiment) C. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner): Organism has to do something in order to get reward that is, it must operate on its environment.  Reinforcement: is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It increases the likelihood of the recurrent of a particular type of response.  Types of reinforcement: - Positive Reinforcement: These reinforces increase frequency. - Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by their removal. - Primary Reinforcement: food, water, sleep - Secondary Reinforcement: money, grades, starts, tokens etc. D. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) – plus emphasis on OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING. E. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory - Gaining insight is a gradual processes of exploring analyzing and restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived at. F. Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm Wertheimer and Koffka) - The primary focus of this theory is on PERCEPTION and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli, “The whole is more than the sum of all its parts” G. Kurt Lewin’s Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory) - the behavior of an individual at a given moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. (Internal and External forces). H. Jerome Bruner’s Theory - Also known as Instrumental Conceptualism. Learning involves 3 simultaneously processes: acquisition transformation and evaluation. I. Information processing Theory - The theory describes the psychological events in terms of transformations of information form input to output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and memory in the learning process. Types of Learning: a. Cognitive Learning - is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts. This explains why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body as we learn things. 26  b. Affective Learning - Involves assimilation of values, emotional reactions and acquisition of attitudes. These domains are cognitive (thinking), affective (emotion/feeling), and psychomotor (physical/kinesthetic). Each domain on this page has a taxonomy associated with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a classification. All of the taxonomies below are arranged so that they proceed from the simplest to more complex levels. c. Psychomotor Learning - understanding the external world through the senses and muscles. The psychomotor domain deals with manual or physical skills. It is the "doing" domain. Analogical Process and Transfer of Learning - the Theory of Transfer of Learning was introduced by Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics. Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on the learning task and the transfer task being identical, also known as “identical elements. There is a close relationships between transfer of learning and problem solving a problem in a new situation. Type Characteristics Near Overlap between situations, original and transfer contexts as similar Far Little overlap between situations, original and transfer settings are dissimilar Positive What is learned in one context enhances learning in different setting Negative Knowledge if a previous topic essential to acquire new knowledge Vertical Knowledge of previous topic is not essential to acquire new knowledge Horizontal Knowledge of a previous topic is not essential but helpful to learn a new topic Literal Intact knowledge transfers to new task Figural Use some aspect of general knowledge to think or learn about a problem Low Road Transfer of well-established skills in almost automatic fashion High Road Transfer involves abstraction so conscious formulations of connections between contexts High Road/Forward Abstracting situations from learning context to a Reaching Potential transfer context High Road/Backward Abstracting in the transfer context features of a Reaching Previous situation where new skills and knowledge were learned Metacognition - refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association, etc.) itself or to think/reason about one’s own thinking. It refers to “thinking about thinking” and was introduced as a concept in by John Flavell, who is typically seen as a founding scholar of the field. Flavell said that metacognition is the knowledge you have of your own cognitive processes (your thinking).Flavell (1979). It is your ability to control your thinking processes through various strategies, such as organizing, monitoring, and adapting. Additionally, it is your ability to reflect upon the tasks or processes you undertake and to select and utilize the appropriate strategies necessary in your intercultural interactions.  Metacognition involves two types of knowledge: 1) explicit | conscious | factual knowledge 2) implicit | unconsciousness knowledge. 27   The efforts of metacognition are aimed at developing learner autonomy, independence and self-regulated learners. Motivational Factors in Learning Reward and Reinforcement - a reward is that which follows an occurrence of a specific behavior with the intention of acknowledging the behavior in a positive way. A reward often has the intent of encouraging the behavior to happen again. There are two kinds of rewards, extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are external to, or outside of, the individual; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to or within, the individual; for example, satisfaction or accomplishment. Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: on based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation bases on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For, instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun. A reinforce is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment. Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious external incentive present. A hobby is a typical example. Intrinsic motivation has been intensely studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by the students. There is currently no “grand unified theory” to explain the origin or elements of intrinsic motivation. Most explanations combine elements of Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self- efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal orientation. Thus it is thought that students are more like to experience intrinsic motivation if they:  Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in, not fixed ability).  Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (e.g. the results are not determined by dumb luck).  Are motivated towards deep mastery of a topic, instead of just rote-learning performance to get good grades. In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or giving back”. This model if intrinsic motivation has emerged from three decades of research by hundreds of educationalists and still evolving. In work environments, money is typically viewed as an important goal (having food, clothes etc.) may well be more powerful than the direct motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace. Learning styles vs. learning strategies. Issues regarding learning style are somewhat related, i.e. students that willing and able to think in more abstract terms and/or to critically examine what they do may show better performance. 28 A learning style refers to the relationship between individuals and their ways of learning whereas learning strategies refer to attitudes and behavior that is oriented towards goals. As an example, one could compare/oppose. Learning style Learning strategy Self-assessment Self-assessment Field-dependent