Indian Tradition, Culture, and Heritage PDF

Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT WORLD PEACE UNIVERSITY | PUNE TECHN OLOGY, RESEARCH, SOCIAL INNOVATION & PARTNERSHIPS Four Decades of Educational Excellence FACULTY OF PEACE STUDIES Study Material WPC2004B Indian Tradition, C...

Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT WORLD PEACE UNIVERSITY | PUNE TECHN OLOGY, RESEARCH, SOCIAL INNOVATION & PARTNERSHIPS Four Decades of Educational Excellence FACULTY OF PEACE STUDIES Study Material WPC2004B Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage 1  From the founders... "I believe that peace would be established in the society through value based ‘UNIVERSAL EDUCATION SYSTEM’ which, inspires to give back to the society." "With the synergy of academia with technology, technology with research, research with industry, industry with economy, economy with social innovation and social innovation with Peace, we are committed to make MIT-WPU a world class space of intellectual excellence, where reason and rationality reigns, humanism rules, and learning becomes a great adventure. With this vision, the peace component in the curriculum and yoga practices have been quite thoughtfully added to the credit system."  INDEX 1 Introduction and Overview of Indian Culture and Heritage 2 Brief known Indian History since Vedic times till present age 3 Social System: Common Thread running between all elements in Society 4 Gurukul way of education and its outcome 5 Prosperity of ancient Indian Literature 6 Path to Self-realization 7 Unity in Diversity: Mutual respect, valuing differences 8 Overview of Nutrition and Diet 9 Ayurveda: The ancient way of living 10 Nutrition and food habits 11 Diet 12 Agricultural Methods: Processes beneficial to every component of nature 13 Economical System: Relationship between ethics & economy 14 Political System: Respect for eternal values in ancient dynasties 15 Festivals 16 Clothing 17 Languages and Literature 18 Art and music: Ancient India’s rich heritage and appreciation for Art and Music and its relation in today’s artistic/musical trends 19 Geographical Heritage: Mountains, rivers, sea, forests, and its co-relation with overall development of society 20 Visual Arts: Painting 21 Visual Arts: Sculpture and Architecture 22 Visual Arts: Sports and Martial Arts  Department of Peace Studies Unit 1: History of India Introduction: The history of India can be best described in the words of India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as "a bundle of contradictions held together by strong but invisible threads". Indian history dates back to almost 75000 years ago with the evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens. Indian history begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization as evident from the sites at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Lothal which were earlier a part of the Indian subcontinent. The inhabitants were known as Dravidians who later migrated to South India probably due to ecological changes. Amazingly, almost five thousand years ago, the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization had developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. The migration of the Aryan tribes from the North West Frontier into the sub- continent around second millennium BC gradually merged with the pre-existing cultures. Mark Twain, aptly defines India, the world's archaeological gem: "India is a cradle of human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend, and the great grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable and most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only". The Pre Historic Era: The Stone Age The Stone Age began 500,000 to 200,000 years ago and recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at C. 75000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba Volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically humans in the area. Archaeologists have discovered up to 1.5 million years old, stone-age tools, at this prehistoric site (Attirampakkam) near Chennai. These are more prominently found at Pallavaram in Tamil Nadu, Hunsgi in Karnataka, Kuliana in Orissa, Didwana in Rajasthan, and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. The Bronze Age The early Indus Valley Civilization brought the Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent which dates back to around 3300 BCE. It is one of the world's earliest, urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of this era developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin, evident from the seals and statues. Harrappa was a significant bronze-age community; statues of various deities have also been found. Early Historic Period: Vedic Period The Vedic Period dates back to the Aryans who were the first to invade the country. They came out of the North in about 1500 BC and brought with them strong cultural traditions. Their language of speech was Sanskrit, one of the most ancient languages which was used in the Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 4  Department of Peace Studies compilation of the sacred Vedic Sanskrit texts in India. Situated on the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Vedic Civilization formed the basis of Hinduism and the Indian culture. The Vedas, some of the oldest existing texts, next to those in Egypt and Mesopotamia date back to the 12th century BC and are believed to be oldest scriptures still in use. The Vedic era in the subcontinent lasted from about 1500-500 BCE, laying down the foundation of Hinduism and other cultural dimensions of early Indian society. The Vedic Period can be divided into the following two phases: Early Vedic/Rig Vedic Period (1700 BC to 1000 BC): Early Vedic Period represents the time period when the Rig Veda was compiled. The king was believed to be the protector of the people, who actively participated in the overall administration of the government. The caste system started becoming rigid and the families started becoming patriarchal. The major events of this time are: 1700 BC - Late Harappan and Early Vedic period coincide 1300 BC - The end of Cemetery culture 1000 BC - Iron Age of India Later Vedic Age (1000 BC to 500 BC): The emergence of the later Vedic period made agriculture a dominant economic activity and a decline in the significance of cattle rearing. The political organization changed completely, with the reduction in the involvement of people in the administration. The major events are: 600 BC - The formation of Sixteen Maha Janapadas (Great Kingdoms) 599 BC - The birth of Mahavira, founder of Jainism 563 BC - The birth of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), founder of Buddhism 538 BC - Cyrus the Great conquered parts of Pakistan 500 BC - Earliest written records in Brahmi 500 BC - Panini standardized grammar and morphology of Sanskrit, converting it into Classical Sanskrit. With this, the Vedic Civilization came to an end. Mahajanapadas The rise of the Mahajanapadas ("maha" means great and the word "janapada" means foothold of a tribe), saw the second major rise in urbanization in India after the Indus valley Civilization. By 500 BCE, sixteen territorial states, "monarchies and republics" or Mahajanapadas has had come to be established, namely; Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja. Persian and Greek Conquests Much of the Northwest subcontinent (currently Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in 520 BCE under the rule of Darius the Great and remained so for two centuries. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 5  Department of Peace Studies Empire. When he reached the Northwest frontier of the Indian subcontinent, he defeated King Porus and conquered most of Punjab. Maurya Empire The Maurya Empire, ruled by the Mauryan Dynasty from 322-185 BCE was a geographically extensive and mighty political and military empire in ancient India, established in the subcontinent by Chandragupta Maurya in Magadha (present-day Bihar) it further thrived under Ashoka the Great. At its pinnacle, the empire covered parts of modern day Iran and almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except the southern peninsular tip. Ancient India Timeline: Prehistoric Period: (400000 BC - 1000 BC): The period when man, basically a food gatherer, discovered fire and wheel. Indus Valley Civilization: (2500 BC - 1500 BC): The Indus Valley Civilization, derived its name from the river Indus. Thius civilization thrived on agriculture and worshipped natural forces. Epic Age: (1000 BC - 600 BC): The Epic age was significant as this age saw the compilation of the sacred Vedas. The existing society also saw the distinction of Varnas in terms of Aryans and Dasas (slaves). Hinduism and Transition: (600 BC - 322 BC): The rigid caste system, divided into the Varnas and the Shudras saw the advent of Mahavira and Buddha who rebelled against casteism. The Mauryan Age: (322 BC - 185 BC): This age was founded by the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya. The empire encompassed the entire North India and Bindusara further extended it. After fighting the Kalinga war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism. The Invasions: (185 BC - 320 AD): The period saw the conquests and attacks of the Bactrians, Parthians, Shakas & Kushans, opening of Central Asia for trade, issuance of GOLD coins and introduction of the Saka era. Deccan and South India: (65 BC - 250 AD): This period saw the arrival of Christianity to India. The southern part was ruled by Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. The Ajanta and Ellora cave temples were construsted in this period. The Gupta Dynasty: (320 AD - 520 AD): The Gupta dynasty founded by Chandragupta I, ushered in classical age in north India with Samudragupta extending his kingdom and Chandragupta II fighting against Shakas. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 6  Department of Peace Studies Age of Small Kingdoms: (500 AD - 606 AD): This period marked the migrations from Central Asia and Iran. There was rise of many small kingdoms as the North was divided into warring kingdoms. Harshavardhana: (606 AD - 647 AD): Ruling from 606 to 647 CE, Harshavardhana became the most successful emperor of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. The famous Chinese traveller Huan Tsang visited India during Emperor Harshawardhana's reign. But his kingdom disintegrated into small states It was a period when the Deccan and the south became powerful. The Southern Kingdoms: (500 AD - 750 AD): Empire of Chalukyas, Pallavas & Pandya flourished. Zoroastrians (Parsis) came to India. Chola Empire: (9th Cent. AD - 13th Cent. AD): Founded by Vijayalaya, the Chola empire adopted a maritime policy. Temples became cultural and social centres and Dravadian languages flourished. The Northern Kingdoms: (750 AD - 1206 AD): This period also saw emergence of Rajput clans. Temples at Khajuraho, Kanchipuram, Puri were built and miniature paintings were started. The period witnessed invasion from the Turks. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 7  Department of Peace Studies Indian History in a Nutshell: Medieval India (AD 700 – AD 1857) Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 8  Department of Peace Studies Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 9  Department of Peace Studies Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD – 1526 AD): The following dynasties flourished one after the other during the Delhi Sultanate period. 1. Slave Dynasty 2. Kilji Dynasty 3. Tuglaq Dynasty 4. Sayyid Dynasty 5. Lodi Dynasty Mughals (AD 1526 – AD 1857):  Great Mughals  Later Mughals Mughals from Babar (1526) to Aurangazeb (1707) were more powerful and hence known as Great Mughals. Mughals who ruled from 1707 to 1857 were known as Later Mughals.  Arrival of Europeans  Other Kingdoms of North India – Marathas, Sikhs Modern India (AD 1857 +):  First War of Indian Independence (1857)  Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)  Formation of Muslim League (1906)  Non-Co-operation Movement (1920)  Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)  Quit India Movement (1942)  Partition of India (1947)  Constitutional Development of India (1946 – 1950)  Economic Development of India  Wars – India-Pak – Formation of Bangladesh; India- China  New Economic Policy of 1991  Nuclear, Space and Defense Development History Schools  Orientalist School – West Patronizing the East Culture – Not active now  Cambridge School – Downplays ideology  Nationalist School – Importance to Congress and Gandhi; Hindu Nationalists for Hindutva version  Marxists School – Class conflict  Subaltern School – Caste conflict Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 10  Department of Peace Studies Social System: Structure of the Society The Indian rural society has undergone considerable change in the recent past, particularly since the Independence as a result of a series of the land reform legislations that have accelerated the pace of this change. India has a rich cultural heritage and is a land of diversities. The diversity in social life is reflected in multi-social, multi-lingual, multi- religious and multi-caste nature of the society. The important features of the Indian social structure are- predominant rural habitation in small villages; multi-religious and multi-caste social identities and important role of family in the social life. Varna system The concept of the Varna system dawns in the most ancient text of the world the Rigveda. It is mentioned in the verse of the tenth mandal of Rigveda. Purusha hymn 90 of book 10 of the Rigveda, dedicated to the Purusha, the Cosmic Being. This Cosmic being is defined in verses 1 to 5 of the Sukta. He is described as a being that pervades everything conscious and unconscious universally. The four components of the Varna system are the four basic pillars or the building blocks of each and every system that we deal with every day. Be it any kind of system in this universe. Be it a computer system or a defense system or any government or nongovernment organization or any other system. In Bhagavad Gita, verse 17.2 says about the three Guna (sattvic, rajasic and tamasic) as innate nature of an individual that determines Varna system. Hence, those three Gunas or elements are Saatvik (White, Neutral, Creator, Brahma), Rajas (Red, Positive, Preserver, Vishnu) and Tamas (Black, Negative, Restoration, Mahesh). These are the basic elements of any existing thing. Be it anything. An object, a mass, or any entity. These three basic elements of the entire universe could also be compared to Neutron with neutrality, Proton with positive charge and Electron with negative charge. Here, birth has no relation to Varna system. So, Hindus defend the Varna system by giving it a form of action based classification of humans. This claim of actions or karma of an individual being the real basis of Varna system could also be proved wrong. Consider a scientist who calls himself a Brahman on the basis of his karma. He is always engrossed in studying, researching and acquiring knowledge. And this surely makes him a Brahman as per his actions but only at that point of time. The next morning when he gets up from sleep, he is going to get himself cleaned by taking a bath. What role is being played by him at that point of time? According to his karmas, he is a Shudra since he is purifying himself at that moment. Later when he is gathering money for his research he does the karma of a Vaishya. When he is protecting his research by obtaining copyrights and patents, he is a Kshatriya by his karmas. This is how; the same scientist who is performing his research work plays the role of all four Varnas. So how can he be classified into any one Varna? The birth based Caste system and Karma based classification and discrimination system is an insult and misuse of the Varna system to meet the selfish wants of the upper classes. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 11  Department of Peace Studies Bhagavad Gita on varna The Bhagavad Gita also speaks of varna only in terms of one’s gunas (aptitude), karma (work) and the psychological disposition of the individual or his inherent quality born of nature. It is, thus, implied that in varna-dharma, guna and not birth is important. Varna system is, therefore, not hereditary. In it there is social mobility. Hence, varna classification stands for open classification of society. Thus, a Sudra’s son in whom the propensities of a Brahmin are found is a Brahmin and not a Sudra. A Brahmin’s son in whom the propensities of a Sudra are found is a Sudra and not a Brahmin. That is anyone can attain Brahminhood. Some examples are- Valmiki, Vyasa, Vasistha and Narada. All are children of Sudras. Similarly, Visvamitra though born as a prince, became a Brahmin rushi. Thus, it is found that no varna is superior or inferior as it depends on one’s qualities, not on birth. Since the earliest times an attempt has been made by the thinkers to work out an ideal scheme of the society and an ideal pattern of individual life to reach the ultimate goal. According to Vedamitra the social structure in ancient India was based on scientific principles. He observes it is a wise and statesman-like classification which procured a general distribution of 78 wealth, expelled misery and want from the land, promoted mental and moral progress ensured material efficiency and, above all, made tranquility compatible with advancement. This classification was called the Vama^ma According to the Yajurveda Samhita, we find the following four classes of people in Ancient India. 1. The Brahmanas - who devoted themselves to learning and acquiring wisdom and following the liberal arts and sciences. 2. The Kshatriyas - who devoted themselves to the theory and practice of the war and to whom the executive Government of the people was entrusted 3. The Vaisyas - who devoted themselves to trade and profession 4. The Shudras - (men of low capacities) who served and helped the other three classes. With the ideals in view the Hindu society was based on Asrama Dharma and It has its utility for a life of peace and happiness in this world and release from the trammels of birth and death hereafter. Some of the Upanishads advance sound reasoning as to why It was necessary at all to project these ideals before the society. The Upanisadic seers maintain that in order to attain the highest goal of life a well-planned scheme is essential which may be worthwhile to the younger generation and useful to the community. As a result, the institution of the Asramadharma or Caturasrama evolved in the society. Thus intending the advancement of the people of the community as a whole, the span of life is divided into sub-periods assigning to each period certain obligations for spiritual growth one after another. Here in this scheme, life begins in obedience and ends in freedom. It was assumed that men are not born equally there are always individual differences, which has been now proved psychologically. Personal capacities differ from individual to individual. If a man does work for which he was got in-born capacities he can do better as well as derive self-satisfaction. Therefore, it was decided that every man must be asked to do work, for which he has got equal Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 12  Department of Peace Studies capacities. Criticism against this theory also has been put forward by certain scholars. However, considering the context of ancient times it is better to assume thus. The society requires individuals, which put their best and contribute towards the advancement of the society as a whole. Therefore, society was divided into four Varnas that based on the sound principle of 'division of labour^ because, for all round development of the society, it required tlie following classes of people. 1. The class that gives the society its laws and rules of conducts. 2. The class that protects the society and the country at large from external and internal aggressions. 3. The class that produces food and make available other necessities of life and helps in the economy of the country. 4. The class that can perform menial jobs, which may not suit to the previous three classes. On the basis of the above classification the Varna system was evolved. Later on it was misunderstood and mistaken and rigidity crept into the system. The mistaken notion later on came to be known as 'caste', which was one of the factors responsible for degeneration and deterioration of the Indian Social Phenomena. Four Varnas went on multiplying into hundreds of castes. Consequently, the number of castes, as it stands today, has reached well over four thousand. The Varna srama was not the same as the caste system of the present day. No one was a Brahmana by blood or a Sudra by Birth, but everybody belonged to the order to which his merits suited him to be. The people were not irrevocably walled in by cartes, but they were free to rise to the highest social level or sink to the lowest position, according to the inherent qualities they might possess. Asharam system The literal meaning of word Ashrama is “a halting or resting place”. Hence, Ashrama signifies halt, a stoppage or we may say a stage of rest in the journey of life to prepare a man for further journey. The word Ashrama is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Srama’ which means to exert oneself. Hence, Ashrama stands to mean (i) the place where exertions are performed, (2) the action of performing such exertions is initiated. In the words of P.H. Pradhu, “The word, therefore, signifies a halt, a stoppage on a stage in the journey of life just for the sake of rest in a sense in order to prepare oneself for the further journey. He further says that “The Ashramas then are to be regarded as resting place during one’s journey on the way to final liberation which is the final aim of life. I is the system that links parts to show a logical plan and establishes an orderly and methodical way of assuming one or several of these life styles. Varna system preaches not the bifurcation of society but enables one to follow one’s designated role in society. The individual and the social sides of Karma are inseparably intertwined. The theory of Varna or Caste emphasizes the social aspect, while the stages of life, concerned with a person’s individual aspect. The four stages are: 1. Brahmacarya or the period of training 2. GrhasthaSrama or the period of work for the world as a house holder, Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 13  Department of Peace Studies 3. Vanaprastha or the period of retreat for the loosening of the social bonds, and 4. Sanyaasa or the period of renunciation and expectant awaiting of freedom. They indicate that life is a pilgrimage to the eternal life through different stages. The four asramas of life, as divided in society, were-the Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa. These were the means of all round training and development, through which a Hindu could fulfill the purpose of his life. The duty of a person during Brahmacharya is to acquire knowledge. In Garhasthya he is to get married and maintain his family. At this stage a person strives toward the first three purusarthas – dharma, artha and kama. This stage also supports the other three asramas. During vanaprastha one is to go away from home and live in jungle thinking about God. It is supposed that the human lives for 100 years which is divided into four equal periods of 25 years of duration each. These stages are given as follows: Brahamcharya Ashram (0-25 years of age) Grihastha Ashram (26-50 years of age) Vanprastha Ashram (51-75 years of age) Sanyas Ashram (76-100 years of age). Brahmacharya Ashram: This period is meant for growth and education s since the person at this stage is to remain celibate, he is called a Brahmachari-one who lives or practice self-control in all matters, of foods, sex etc. during this period one is attempt to his physical and mental development. So, he can prepare himself for a good and happy life. In ancient India, education was imparted in Gurukuls which were located n the jungles away from the hum-dum of life. Each such school was headed by a Guru and students his family a child of about 6-8 years was admitted into it. At the time of admission, the following ceremonies were performed. Grihastha Ashram: When a person completes his education during his Brahamcharya Ashram he enters into Grihastha Ashram after the age of 25 years. The Grihastha Ashram depends on two conditions: Career and Marriage. Marriage connects two people and tow families. So, the institution of marriage is important for not only for the family but for the society as a whole. Indian culture gives full importance to the institution of marriage and recognizes various types of marriages. There ar3 some purpose of marriage: Individual purpose, Social purpose, Situation of marriage. Vanprastha Ashram: Indian culture divided the four ashrams in two groups. The fists two constitute the life of indulgence (pravarti marga). And the second two prepare renunciation (nirvarti marga). The former aims at happiness and satisfaction of despite while the later at giving us of all desires. According to Indian culture nirvarti should come after pravarti, tendency to renounce things should come at a time when a person is fed up with a life of satisfaction. So that renunciation should grow out of indulgence. We consider that a person after his retirement from service or business becomes useless but Indian culture considers him useful. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 14  Department of Peace Studies Sanyas Ashram: This is the fourth and the last ashram of human life. The ultimate aim of human life according to Indian culture is to have a vision of God or attainment of Moksha. Therefore, the whole life is a long process to realize this goal. Ashram scheme takes a person gradually to his final goal of life, the spiritual union of all ashrams contribute to human development and he comes to realization of god and attainment of moksha. Therefore, ashram scheme is an ideal intelligent loaning of human life. This is the final phase of human life during which a person should devote his life and activities in the pursuit of moksha (the fourth purushartha) or final liberation. Regarding the ascetic life, the following verses are quoted from the Vashista Sutras.  Let him wear a single garment, or cover his body with a skin or with grass.  Let him sleep on the bare ground.  Let him frequently change his residence,  (Dwelling) at the extremity of the village, in a temple, or in an empty house, or at the root of a tree.  Let him (constantly) seek in his heart the knowledge (of the universal soul).  (An ascetic) who lives constantly in the forest,  Shall not wander about within sight of the village-cattle.  'Freedom from future births is certain for him who constantly dwells in the forest, who has subdued his organs of sensation and action, who has renounced all sensual gratification, whose mind is fixed in meditation on the Supreme Spirit, and who is (wholly) indifferent (to pleasure and pain).'  (Let him) not (wear) any visible mark (of his order), nor (follow) any visible rule of conduct.  Let him, though not mad, appear like one out of his mind. It may, however, be noted that these stages of life are meant for aver-age persons. These are not necessary for a genius or for an extraordinarily gifted person. Persons like Tagore, (and Charles Dickens) never went to school. Persons like Shelley and Wordsworth did not have much college education and yet they were master poets. A genius can by-pass any stage(s) and reach the highest stage. To sum up, the dominant ideal of the Indian social tradition has been conceptualized as Dharma with Moksha as the final aim which essentially the direction is sought to be imposed upon the lower by the higher self of man. The spiritually genuine and active person increasingly discovers Dharma within his own heart and is free to follow it. The average individual and all individuals to the extent they have not been spiritually transfigured can do no better than follow disinterestedly the rule of duty indicated to them by the actual group to which they belong. The group, on the other hand, is free to follow any tradition of cultural values without seeking to interfere with other groups though extending material co-operation to them. If these principles Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 15  Department of Peace Studies are logically followed, we should have a universal society which would be stable and harmonious without being static and uniform. Education - Gurukul way of education and its outcome: In this living world, Human is such an individual who is dependent on others, from his birth till his last breath, to acquire knowledge and guidance. We can interpret from this that humans attain good characters from time to time by various techniques and behaviors. In ancient India, the Vedas, the Upanishads, the epics manifested and upheld the values of Indian society. Imparting value education was the main aim of the teachers of the ancient age (Pathania, 2011). From the time beyond our imagination, through the origin of Vedas, and till this very moment, the surroundings, society and teaching have affected the development of humans a lot because these are the only sources by which a child grows, develops, achieves, accomplishes and at last reaches great heights as a result of passionate thinking and study on the basis of his knowledge and will. Rabindra Nath Tagore, Maharishi Arvind, Mahatma Gandhi and such noble personalities have defined education as the finder of liberty, the one who has strengthened us mentally and emotionally, the one who has made us great philosophers and the one who makes us capable to find ways to success. In these past years of independence, India has memorably developed in the field of technology, economy, social structure, democracy etc. but our education system has not reached the desired heights where it should have been and as a result there is mass dissatisfaction among the society as a whole. The present aim of education is to fulfill the need of a better structure and revitalization of benchmarks. As a result, most of today’s philosophers, socialists, educationalists and researchers are found judging the present education system against the ancient one, commonly known as the ‘Gurukul’ system. Education Today—A Crisis in National Character! (I will not let exams ruin my life video) The National scene today on the Educational front presents a bewildering picture. The situation prevailing in the Educational Institutions and the Universities is alarming. The quality of the teachers and the students has taken a nosedive, in the recent years. The production of text books, the planning of their content, the methods of instruction as well as the goals to be kept in view for making our Education serve the National goal as well as the individual aims – all these are in a sorry mess today! Today, the main concern in the modern India is that the quality of human material is rapidly declining in many fields. The goal of the education should be to supply a constant stream of men of character, to man the different walks in life-business, politics, Education, science and social work, is the National Aim of education. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 16  Department of Peace Studies Education is the only means of civilizing ourselves, or training ourselves to maintain high qualities of Integrity, devotion, sincerity and an ethical and moral purpose in our national life, and correct the poisonous trends of rank opportunism and political corruption which are destroying our national character. Our only means of educating the future political leaders is while they are still as students! Education, must define its goal. The goal is individual’s character-building. The aim our National Education should be to provide humans of character and patriotism, who are the basic material, for building up the Nation. A fearless open minded and truthful personality as the foundation to character-building –is the first purpose of “National Education”, an honest, self- confident nature is the greatest security, against corruption, moral bankruptcy and fear complex, which we find in every walk of life to-day. There has been a tremendous improvement in quality of life with the advances in technology. The young generation must realize how to use this technology for spreading knowledge and culture. The education should be imparted in peaceful, clean and natural environment far away from towns and villages. The Indian constitution has recently adopted the principle of equality in the field of education. The present education prepares the students for their future career as it used to be in ancient times. The vocational subjects have to be included in curriculum but much is needed to be done to achieve the desired aim. Rabindranath Tagore had assessed it long back that the Indian education system needs to change. We live in a society where child spends his parent’s earnings and still not getting the standard education and struggling to get the desired employment. The increased competition in education sector sometimes crushes the creativity of millions of students and drives them to commit suicide. Education is treated as a means of achieving wealth. Aim of Education In ancient India Intellectual culture was not regarded as the highest ideal, but spiritual realization of the relation that exists between the individual soul and the universal spirit was the principal aim of education. Education", as Herbert Spencer has said, “the training of completeness of life." Education is to bring out the perfection of the man, which is already latent in his soul. Education does not mean that a lot of ideas or information will be poured into the brain of the individual, and they will run riot. But it means the gradual growth and development of the soul from its infancy to maturity. Education should be based upon the spiritual ideal that each individual soul is potentially divine, that it possesses infinite potentiality and infinite possibility, and that knowledge cannot come from outside into inside, but that all knowledge evolves from inside. No one can teach you, but you teach yourself and the teachers only give suggestions. This should be the principle of education. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 17  Department of Peace Studies Reference to Lord McCauley Macaulay served as the Secretary at War between 1839 and 1841, and as the Paymaster-General between 1846 and 1848. He played a major role in the introduction of English and western concepts to education in India, and published his argument on the subject in the "Macaulay Minute" in 1835. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools, and the training of English- speaking Indians as teachers. He directs in his minutes “In one point I fully agree with the gentlemen to whose general views I am opposed. I feel with them, that it is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population.” “We have to educate a people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother- tongue. We must teach them some foreign language. The claims of our own language it is hardly necessary to recapitulate. It stands pre-eminent even among the languages of the West. It abounds with works of imagination not inferior to the noblest which Greece has bequeathed to us, --with models of every species of eloquence, --with historical composition, which, considered merely as narratives, have seldom been surpassed, and which, considered as vehicles of ethical and political instruction, have never been equaled-- with just and lively representations of human life and human nature, --with the most profound speculations on metaphysics, morals, government, jurisprudence, trade, --with full and correct information respecting every experimental science which tends to preserve the health, to increase the comfort, or to expand the intellect of man.” Role of parents in Education The other important aspect in Education is the Parent is the natural teacher by default. The Child learns from the parent all that is formative in its character. The reason is obvious. The cause is the natural tendency of the child to copy, to imitate and emulate what it sees in others, the elders-doing. Because this is the natural way of learning! Learning from what you see. A careful observation of nature shows that the cat teaches the kitten how to be a cat and the Child learns from the environment what it sees in others do, or hears and it is impelled to follow suit- from what its fellows do! This is Nature’s way of educating a creature born into this world. What is Gurukul The Gurukul is the house of the Guru where a student is taught everything working, playing and living. Ancient scripts recommend that the student should begin to live under the supervision of his teacher (in Gurukul) after his Upanayana. The Gurukul system which necessitated the stay of student away from his home at the house of a teacher or in a boarding-house of established Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 18  Department of Peace Studies reputation, was one of the most Important features of ancient Indian education. Inquisitiveness was considered to be a must for good studentship. The entire gamut of relations between the teacher and taught was governed and guided by the common belief that Guru is indispensable and nobody can learn the desired Lore {Vidyas) fruitfully without approaching and satisfying Guru. The aim of our traditional Gurukul technique was to develop the latent yogic powers of the child and build him up to into a Moral & Spiritual stalwart and not just a walking computer. In Gurukul, Guru develops his students into a real Purusha. A Purusha means a real hero, who is not afraid of everything, he is not afraid of life, disease. He also teaches how to analyze the fear and try to surpass it. The youngsters are trained in exercises and in Yogic Asanas and Mental Training in high concentration through Meditation for Awakening of Higher centers of understanding. Gurukul system devotes special attention to character building. The Education of Rishies, is ‘Education from Within’ The basic idea underlying this concept, is that Man has in himself, the Source of true knowledge. The techniques adopted by religious mystics or Saints and Rishies, involves this idea of ‘illumination from Inside’. The Gurukula concept of Education as practiced by Ancient Vedic Rishis involves the idea of knowledge received from within—as a kind of inner light. ‘Tapas’ of penance involves purification of the body and the mind and sublimation of the desires and the lower cravings, and is followed by meditation/concentration by yoga. Tapas or penance in Yoga involves the purification of the mind. This mind is purified from all kinds of egoistic selfish and passionate impulses, by a regulated living of the disciple, or Bramhachari under the direct supervision of the Guru. This involves living with the Guru or personal initiation or Upadesha and training in practice. Expected outcome of Gurukul The objectives of this form of education were: 1. Diplomacy and maturity 2. Improvement of character 3. Learning friendliness or social mindfulness 4. Personality development 5. Proliferation of virtue 6. Preservation of learning and culture 7. To develop spiritual attitude. 8. To be a better civilian The Upanishadic teachers laid great emphasis on intellect and character of the disciple, which should reinforce each other. They considered both these aspects to be equally important in preparing good man and the useful man of the society. The objective of the system was not Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 19  Department of Peace Studies knowledge of values but commitment to them, and mention may be made of the following, which were chosen as guidelines in day-to-day conduct. {Taitiriya Upanisad- 1-11-2) 1. Adherence to truthfulness 2. Dutifulness 3. Love of scholarship 4. Service to the teacher 5. Reverence to mother father and teacher 6. Honesty, courtesy, self-discipline and self-sacrifice Merits of Gurukul System 1. The Gurus had huge information and knew how to instruct the most troublesome things. 2. This Parampara used to take as much time as needed and shishiya have more time to learn and become meticulous. 3. This system helps to acquire high level of efficiency. 4. The shishiya have high regards for Guru. 5. The teaching was more of practical and shishya enjoying learning. 6. Environment in Gurukul teaching ensured that shishiya should accomplish in his field of interest Practices at Gurukul The classes were held in the shade of trees, and under some shelter during monsoon to ensure that the students are in touch with nature which benefitted their physical and mental development. The Gurukuls were situated at beautiful natural places which were near some rural or urban areas to fulfill the daily necessity requirement of the students and to have the facility of imploring. The age to begin Vedic education was usually eight to twelve years and for those parents who did not send their children to the Gurukul; a specific punishment was decided and implemented. The education was totally influenced by thoughts, ideas and morality. There was the provision of free education but after the completion of education, money, land, animals, grain, etc. was given Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 20  Department of Peace Studies as reward. Due to the lack of printed books, the lessons were delivered orally. There were certain rules for the students to adhere regarding their daily lives such as to lead a simple life, wake up early before the day breaks, get freshened up and take a bath early, and then worship the God and perform havan, etc. They could eat food twice a day. The students were asked to follow the rules of self control and discipline. For them, real merger of the Small ‘I’ or the individual self, into the larger self or the Universal Self is possible only through truly selfless action! The students had great respect for their teachers and treated them as their parents and king. The relation between the teacher and the students was of care, respect, trust and duty. Punishment was given but was not harsh. At that time, the state or the king did not interfered with the Gurukul. Systems of study Knowledge was passed on orally from one generation to another in ancient India. Education involved three basic processes, one, which included ‘sravana’(stage of acquiring knowledge of ‘shrutis’ by listening). Two, ‘manana’(meaning pupils to think, analyze themselves about what they heard, assimilate the lessons taught by their teacher and make their own inferences,) and three ‘nidhyasana (meaning comprehension of truth and apply\ use it into real life). In ancient India woman were given equal right to education and teaching. Many scholars came from out of India for education but no any Indian scholars went outside from India for acquire their knowledge. It is said that Memorisation, recitation, recapitulation were the normal methods of education. Hieuan-Tsang mentioned the extraordinary memory of the Vedic Scholars in Nalanda University. Lectures, discussions, debates, seminars, group discussions etc.... were some of the methods of study in our ancient educational system. Doubt clarifications were considered to be the important aspect of our system. Spirituality- A Path to Self-realization: Spiritual approach to regulate the society is not something new or astonishing. Many societies have tried to regulate their social order putting spirituality as their central value. In India there has been a spiritual ethos since ancient times and even in modern times people have deep faith in spirituality. Therefore, in India there should be a greater likelihood of the spiritual approach succeeding. It is a guide to human action which leads to liberation of the individual as well as the society. It believes in Sanatana Dharma and can also be called religion of mankind. Its basic philosophy is to live and let live. It is highly tolerant and accommodative. According to Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), a great spiritual leader, thinker and reformer of India, spirituality is the very backbone of India. He observes that every nation has a particular ideal running through its whole existence, forming its very background. With some it is politics, while with others it is social culture, intellectual culture, and so on. Vivekananda says, our motherland has religion and religion alone for its backbone, for the bedrock upon which the whole building of its life has been based.’ Since spirituality is the essence of religion, we should mark that Vivekananda has used the term religion in the same sense as spirituality Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 21  Department of Peace Studies Why spiritual path? The literal meaning of the world ‘philosophy’ is ‘love of wisdom,’ which has been split into ‘philo’ and ‘sophia.’ Since the term ‘philosophy’ is fascinating, but elusive, there are several definitions for this term. All the definitions centre on the intellectual exercise concerned with the nature of reality from human perspective. Mainly philosophy deals with the perennial problems of life. As life is a complex and complicated phenomenon, the role of philosophy is immense in making an enquiry into the issues emerging in human life. Issues concerning with social, political, moral, religious, racial, cultural, linguistic and economic spheres, confront human beings; the impact of philosophical investigation gains significance in explicating the real meaning or goal of life. Through this unit students would understand the nature of philosophy in relation to its different branches and the characteristic features of Indian philosophical systems It is spiritual approach that goes deepest in finding out the basic causes of human suffering and shows the way out, howsoever difficult it may be. Reasons for failure can basically be found in human nature, which has always vacillated between higher aspirations and lower nature of man. The lower nature pulls a man down to a behavior based on passion, greed, violence, narrow interests and such tendencies. But higher nature and aspirations in a man’s in his elevated moments inspire him to values of ethics and spirituality. It is not easy, rather very difficult, to rise above such natural man and his limitations and negativities, which are so attractive for common men and their congregation. Important questions to oneself Life is generally and characteristically defined as the span of existence from cradle to grave. A child is born, grows, marries, brings forth offspring and dies. The doubt remains as to what happens to the soul after death, how does a soul enter into the body before birth? Why are we born? Why should we live? Why are there so many hurdles in life? How are we to overcome sufferings? What is the importance of material life? Is spiritual life superior to material life? What are permanence and change? Why are they caused? What is the problem of one and many? How was the world created? What is the stuff out of which it has been created? Will the universe exist forever? Is there any super power called God? How is God related to the soul and the world? Is the soul one or many? What are appearance and reality? Vitality of Spirituality Since the times of, ancient thinking, the dual nature and plurality of thought are found evident. Indian thinking does not deny the duality found in nature. They are opposite in nature as masculine and feminine, positive and negative, ascent and descent. These oppositions are very routes through which reality is finding its passage. So although reality is one, it does not negate dualism and pluralism. There is an ample place for difference of why we find Upanisadic thinking being contemplate the end of the Vedic period. There are twelve main opinions in Indian thought. That’s why we find Upanisadic thinking being contemplate the end of the Vedic Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 22  Department of Peace Studies period. There are twelve main Upanishads and the main principles such as that of Brahman, Atman, the status of the world, the principle of causation like Satkaryavad, the principle of Karma and rebirth - all these are found elaborated in the Upanishads through stories, analogies and parables. It is true that Upanisadic idea; is not very clear. This is because it is expressed through stories. But its essence is quite evident. Ancient philosophical and religious traditions Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious traditions of the land. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence. Indian sages called Rishis or ‘seers’, developed special techniques of transcending the sense and the ordinary mind, collectively called yoga. With the help of these techniques, they delved deep into the depths of consciousness and discovered important truths about the true nature of human being and the universe. The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind, which are ever changing and perishable but the spirit which is unchanging, immortal and pure consciousness. They called it the Atman. Ancient path of Spiritual scripts Ancient Indian thought: The Vedas are the earliest documents of the human mind that we possess. Since the time of Rg. Veda, the metaphysical bent of mind was continuing throughout the cultural and philosophical thinking in India. It is significant to note that although polytheism was found apparent in worship, prayer and later rituals, original thinking found in Rg. Veda is essentially metaphysical. The Vedic and Upanisadic thinkers were not against scientific and analytic thinking, but they were more interested in spiritual reality rather than in physical existence. This can be found in Rg. Veda Samhitas which consists of ten Mandalas and one thousand and seventeen Suktas. The important principles found in earlier suktas "is that of the creation of the world. Although, the earlier saints and Sages believed in God, He was not a particular person according to them. God was a vast universe and He manifests in the whole world as solar light, air, fire, water, earth and other material phenomena. Indian religion, though having its foundation in supernatural revelation, gives a legitimate place to logic and reason and it has never been an obstacle to the growth of philosophic thinking. Philosophical Suktas in Rg Veda are those of Purusa Sukta and Nasadta Sukta and it is in Purusa Sukta that ultimate reality is held to be both transcendent and immanent. It is said in the Purusa Sukta that having manifested into the phenomena of world, “I am still ten fingers above the earth, 'Atythishthat Dashangulam. Types of path We know that there are three main paths - knowledge, action and devotion which leading to the recognition of reality. Ancient thinkers have thought upon the dominance of either knowledge or action or devotion. This emphasis has resulted into the later Kevaladvaita Vedanta, Visist-advaita Vedanta, Sudhoadvaita Vedanta and other forms of Vedanta. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 23  Department of Peace Studies After Upanisads, we have the age of ‘darsanas’ in which there are independent arguments for the existence of God, existence of self, pramanas and logic of thoughtful enquiries. The Sankhya is a philosophy of dualistic realism, attributed to the sage Kapila. It admits two ultimate realities namely purusa and prakrti. The evolution of the world has its starting point in the association (samyoga) of the purusa with prakriti. According to this system the existence of God cannot be proved in any way. The Yoga system is closely allied to the Sankhya and the sage Patanjali is the founder of this philosophy. It mostly accepts the epistemology and the metaphysics of the Sankhya but admits also the existence of God. The Nyaya system is the work of the great sage Gautam and it is a realistic philosophy based mainly on logical grounds. The existence of God is proved by the Naiyayikas by several arguments. The Vaisesika system was founded by the sage Kanida. With regard to God and Liberation of the individual soul, the Vaisesika theory is substantially the same as that of the Nyaya. Buddhism arose as a protest against the priestly class and elaborate rituals of worship. Buddha concentrated his teaching on the moral discipline and did not enter into metaphysical discussions. Jainism is also atheism as it rejects the existence of God. It is a kind of realism because it asserts the reality of the external world, and it is pluralism, because it believes in many ultimate realities. The charvaka philosophy holds that we should try to get the best out of this life by enjoying it as best as we can and avoiding as far as possible the chances of pain and that is why it means materialist. Further development into Bhagvadgeeta and scripts Alongside of the Vedas, there gradually came into being a large body of writings. Of these, there are two principal works, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. They are all known in India as history. The Bhisma-Parva of Mahabharata contains Bhagvadgeeta, the philosophical discourse of Lord Krishna. But it stands apart and is completing itself. Bhagvadgeeta is regarded as the most sacred book of Hindus. It possesses equal authority with the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutra and the three together are called 'prasthana-traya’. The Gita deals essentially with the spiritual background of human existence and it is in this context that the practical problem of everyday life appear. Innumerable commentaries on the Gita have appeared in the past and they continue to come with, in the present day. Tilak, Aurobindo Ghose, Gandhiji have written on it, each giving his own interpretation, Bhagvadgeeta gives not only metaphysics (Brahmavidya) but a discipline (Yoga-Shstra) also. Jnyan Yoga: The word Jnana means knowledge insight or wisdom. Jnyan Yoga is the most important, being the very essence of Reality. Karmayoga and Bhaktiyoga, understood in their proper senses are the manifestations of Jnyanyoga. Without Jnyan or knowledge or wisdom, liberation is not possible and so is detachment and renunciation in actions and so disinterested devotion. God has to give knowledge to his devotees so they may reach to Him. We must control our senses, Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 24  Department of Peace Studies possess the faith that no n intellectual doubts disturb and train the understanding (buddhi). Jnyan and Ajnyan, knowledge and ignorance are opposed to each other as light and darkness. When wisdom downs, ignorance dies and the evil is cut at the root. The liberated soul overcomes the world. Action no more binds. When we grow into wisdom, we live in the Supreme Karma yoga: Karma begins (Karma yoga) by the renunciation of all egoistic aim for our works and through renunciation mind is purified and the will becomes conscious easily to get the universal Energy. A true doer can make it possible through Tapasya of Karmayoga. The term 'Karma' stands for a particular kind of action which specifically denotes an attitude towards action. The Bhagavad Gita is the earliest scripture to teach Karmayoga in which Lord Sri Krsna has explained it to Arjuna It tries to build up a philosophy of karma based on Jnyana and supported by Bhakti in a beautiful manner. Bhagvadgeeta tells that Karma yoga is an alternative method of attaining goal of perfection and wisdom. It is known to all that to exist is to act. Even an inanimate object such as a rock has movement. The universe is a vast vibratory expanse and for existence Karma yoga is inevitable. Bhakti Yoga: Bhakti in Bhagvadgeeta is an utter self-giving to the Transcendent. It is to believe in God, to love Him, to be devoted to Him, to enter into Him. It is its own reward. Such a devotee has in him the contents of the higher knowledge as well as the energy of the perfect man. Bhakti means service of God. So it is also a form of karma. Bhakti leads to Jnan or knowledge. Bhakti is A sustained by knowledge but is not knowledge. Bhakti is a loving attachment to God. The devotee feels himself united intimately with the Supreme person. He sees God in himself and himself in God. In Bhaktiyoga, the emotional force of the human being is purified and channeled towards the Divine. In this discipline the bhaktiyogins or bhaktas tend to be more openly expressive of the typical raja yogin. Vivekananda and his thoughts on Religion/Spirtuality “Every system of philosophy in India is a quest for Truth, which is one and the same, always and everywhere. The modes of approach differ, logic varies, but the purpose remains the same – trying to reach that Truth. “I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world tolerance and universal acceptance... We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions as true.” – Swami Vivekananda at Parliament of world Religions in Chicago 1893 Swami Vivekananda has given the descriptions of religion. He said "Be good and do good; that is all of religion". Here he was speaking of ethical religion where one can see the influence of the Buddha. Secondly he said "Be good and do good; that is all of religion". Here he was speaking of ethical religion where one can see the influence of the Buddha. Secondly he said: Each soul is Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 25  Department of Peace Studies potentially divine. The goal is to manifest, divinity in man and that can be achieved by controlling nature, external and internal. Do this either by work or worship or psychic control, or philosophy, by one or more or all of these and be free. This is the whole of religion. Doctrines or dogmas or rituals or books or temples or forms are but secondary detail. Prosperity of Ancient Indian Literature Rigveda, the earliest known works of Indian literature is a collection of 1028 hymns written in Vedic Sanskrit. Indian literature includes everything that can be included under ‘literature’ broadly- religious and mundane, epic and lyrics, dramatic and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific prose along with oral poetry and song. The Rig Veda was followed by Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. There are other works after Vedas known as Brahmanas and Aryankas followed by philosophical doctrines of Upanishads.  Yajur Veda – deals with directions for performance of the Yajnas.  Sama Veda- deals with prescribed tunes for recitation of the hymns.  Atharva Veda- deals with prescribing rites and rituals.  Brahmanas- contains detailed explanation about Vedic literature and instructions.  Aryankas- are a treatise of forest which explain the the rituals while dwelling into the philosophical discussions of the Brahmanas. They record the transitions between ritualistic symbolism of Brahmanas and philosophical aspects of Upanishads.  Upanishads- deals with concepts about origin of universe, death and birth, material and spiritual world, which are written in poetry and prose, as expressions of philosophical concepts. Earliest Upanishads are Brihad-Aryanaka and Chanddogya. They explain the highest thoughts described that can be realised by a man, according to ancient sages, in simple and beautiful imagery. Another type of work that emerged in early period was Vedangas, which included astronomy, grammar, and phonetics. For example, Ashtadhyayi written by Panini is work on Sanskrit grammar. Great Epics The two inspirational epics from Ancient Indian Literature, Ramayana and Mahabharata have been developed to their present form over centuries, hence, they represent the ethnic memory of the Indian people. They were transmitted orally over the time by singers and story-tellers and were probably put to their written from around 2nd century BC. Ramayana is composed of 24000 verses which are spread across seven books referred to as Khandas. It is written in form of poetry which entertains while it instructs. It is the story of Rama, and tells how to achieve the fourfold objectives of human life (Purushartha), namely, Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha. 1. Dharma- righteous behavior or religion 2. Artha- achievement of worldly wealth and prosperity 3. Kama- fulfillment of desires 4. Moksha- ultimate liberation Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 26  Department of Peace Studies The Mahabharata is considered to be Ithihasa Purana, meaning Mythical history (because this history is not merely the depiction of events that happened, but these are the vents that will always happen and repeat). It consists of one lakh verses which are spread across ten books, hence, it the longest poem in the world. It is written by Vyasa, about the story of war of succession to that throne between Pandavas and Kauravs with multiple stories interwoven together to form an epic. Along with the main story of war, a later addition of Bhagvad Gita enshrines an integrated view of Dharma (performance of righteous duty in selfless way of Nishkama Karma). Puranas They helped in development of early Vedic religion towards Hinduism. The literal meaning of the word “Purana” means” to renew the old”. They were written to illustrate the truth of Vedas to the people. Puranas explain the philosophical and religious truths through popular legends and mythological stories. Combined with the Ithihas (Ramayana and Mahabharata), Puranas consist of many stories and anecdotes of religious, social and cultural history of India. Shastras and Smriti literature Shastras contain work of philosophy and science. They cover areas like art, mathematics and other sciences. Arthashastra is a work on science of governance. Smritis deal with the performance of duties, customs and laws that are prescribed in accordance with Dharma. Manusmriti is the most important example, known as laws of Manu. Early Buddhist Literature The earliest Buddhist literature is written in Pali language. The Sutta Pitaka consists of dialogues between the Buddha and his followers. The Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules of organisation of the monastries. Milindapanho is a work of dialogues between buddhist Nagasena and Indo-greek king Menandar. The Jatakas are another important contribution to the early Buddhist literature consisting stories that have also been incorporated in a number of sculptures. Ancient Sanskrit literature A number of literary works have been written just prior to the beginning of Gupta age which had secular character. This period saw development of poetry and drama. The subject of these works were majorly political events, allegories, comedies, romances, and philosophical questions.  The works of Kalidasa include the Kumarsambhava, the Raghuvamsha, the Meghaduta, the Abhijnanshakuntalam which are considered classics in field of poetry and style.  Bana wrote Harshacharita which is a biography of King Harsha and Kadambari.  Bhavabhuti wrote Uttar-Ramayana.  Bharavi wrote Kirtarjuniya.  Vishakadutta wrote Mudra Rakshasa.  Shudraka wrote Mricchakatika which covers social drama. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 27  Department of Peace Studies  Dandin wrote Daskumarcharita (the tale of 10 prince). There were also a large number of philosophical literature. Most important ones are those of Sankaracharya. There are collections of stories in Panchatantra and Kathasarit-sagar. South-Indian Literature In Southern India, the ancient Indian writings were written in four Dravidian languages which developed their own script and literature, these are, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam. Among these, Tamil is the oldest with literature dating back to early centuries of Christian era. This developed during the three Sangams (assemblies of poets and writers) held during different times. The Sangam literature covers themes of war, love and politics to a great extent. Thus we get to know that when one surveys the history of the evolution of the Indian literarue works; we realize that Indians have mastered most of the languages and the alien language, English with perfection too. At the same time, we find a variety of themes prevalent both in the pre and past independence period. There has been much experimentation in the past and they are ongoing still. Many writers have bejeweled the Indian English Literature with prestigious awards like Booker Prize. Indian English Literature is widely acclaimed and popular with the readers all over the world. The age in which they are written are invariably reflected with undoubted deliberations on the various aspects of India. Unity in Diversity: Respecting Mutual Differences India is a land of unity in diversity and so is Indian life and culture. The race inhabiting in this country, speaking different dialects and following distinctive ways of life, customs etc. within their different natural environments, contribute to the many-sided and multi-faceted splendour of the Nation, which is unique in the world. The Whole concept of “Unity in Diversity” is directed towards the assimilation of different cultures, traditions, customs, communities etc. There is nothing called superior or inferior culture, in this process. Indian culture keeps evolving with time. This is something unique about it. Indians are known as well as associated to its culture. We think it makes our lives, more meaningful and colorful. The approach is “we all are one”. The social customs and traditions which the Indians observe irrespective of caste, race and creed in all parts of the country contains within them a sense of Unity. It has kept alive a message of Unity in Diversity in India. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 28  Department of Peace Studies The different traditions and shades of culture which diverse societies in India have developed have a sense of unity which keeps the people of India bonded together. This fundamental unity can be observed among all the Indian tribes and races. In India, every citizen enjoys freedom to choose and follow any religion, culture, tradition, custom etc. The open-minded approach helps to respect cultural norms and values. Unity in diversity is a lesson that everyone should learn from their earliest years because it helps us to live together in a kinder and more loving way. This simple saying teaches us not to divide ourselves against each other into different camps, because this is where real conflicts can begin. Rather, the principle of unity in diversity teaches us that, fundamentally, we are all equal to each other and we all have equal rights. Unity in diversity concept in India gives everyone a strong message that nothing is without unity. Living together with love and harmony provides the real essence of life. Unity in diversity in India shows us that we all are born, cared and nourished by one Supreme God. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 29  Department of Peace Studies References: 1. Sri Aurobindo's writings A System of National Education. 2. My Idea of Education by Swami Vivekananda 3. Hints on National Education in India by Sister Nivedita 4. Lord MaCauley's Address to British Parliament in 1835 5. Altekar. A. S., 1948. Education in ancient India. Banaras: Nanda Kishore & Bros 6. Bokil, V. P., 1925. A History of Education in Ancient India. Vol. I, Bombay 7. https://www.culturalindia.net 8. https://www.mapsofindia.com/history 9. Varna System: The Forgotten Meaning, Mechanical Department, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India 10. Kedarnath Tiwari, Classical Indian Ethical Thoughts. 11. S.N. Gupta, Ethics Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 30  Department of Peace Studies Unit 2: Nutrition & Diet Introduction: In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. The word diet often implies the use of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons (with the two often being related). Although humans are omnivores, each culture and each person holds some food preferences or some food taboos. This may be due to personal tastes or ethical reasons. Individual dietary choices may be more or less healthy. Complete nutrition requires ingestion and absorption of vitamins, minerals, essential amino acids from protein and essential fatty acids from fat-containing food, also food energy in the form of carbohydrate, protein, and fat. Dietary habits and choices play a significant role in the quality of life, health and longevity. Religious and cultural dietary choices: Some cultures and religions have restrictions concerning what foods are acceptable in their diet. For example, only kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, and Halal foods by Islam. Although Buddhists are generally vegetarians, the practice varies and meat-eating may be permitted depending on the sects. In Hinduism, vegetarianism is the ideal. Jains are strictly vegetarian and consumption of roots is not permitted. Dietary choices: Many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees (e.g. flexitarianism, vegetarianism, veganism, fruitarianism) for health reasons, issues surrounding morality, or to reduce their personal impact on the environment, although some of the public assumptions about which diets have lower impacts are known to be incorrect. Raw foodism is another contemporary trend. These diets may require tuning or supplementation such as vitamins to meet ordinary nutritional needs. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 31  Department of Peace Studies Dieting is defined as the practice of eating food in a regulated and supervised fashion to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight. Dieting is often used in combination with physical exercise to lose weight, commonly in those who are overweight or obese. Some people, however, follow a diet to gain weight (usually in the form of muscle). Diets can also be used to maintain a stable body weight. Obesity and being overweight is a problem all over the world and especially so in the United States with over 200 million Americans being classified as overweight, and child obesity statistics on the rise. Overweight people have a very serious risk for developing major chronic diseases, early disability, and even death as a result of being overweight. Being overweight also harms a person's sense of well being. They may have lowered self- esteem, depression and eating disorders. In today's social environment, the ideal physical form is slim and sexy. Failure to match this form can destroy a person's self image. The keys to dieting and losing weight fast in a healthy way are discipline and the will to achieve the desired body weight. This natural process involves moderate diet of healthy foods and enough exercise to burn approximately 150 calories a day, every day. It is a good idea to check with your family physician before you begin any type of diet or exercise regimen. Dieting Tips- Eat Moderately and Frequently About This Image: A white bowl full of healthy fresh salad ingredients on a checkered table cloth. It is smarter to eat smaller meals every 3-4 hours instead of three large ones daily. This burns off more calories and you tend to not get hungry before your next meal. Carry healthy snacks like cut up veggies and stay away from junk food. Exercise Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 32  Department of Peace Studies Put together a good exercise routine that will firm up your muscles. It can be just 15-30 minutes, but make sure it is a workout that truly makes you sweat and breathe harder. Every extra bit of exercise you can do will help you reach your goal. It all adds up. Some experts recommend wearing a pedometer and aiming for walking 10,000 steps a day. Drink Water Make sure to drink plenty of water. Water suppresses appetite. The recommended water intake per day is 8 to 12 glasses per day. If you feel thirsty you are already dehydrated. If you do not like to drink water, there are alternatives such as green tea, sugar-free lemon-aid and no calorie drink mixes. Fiber Fiber is important in your diet because it helps control blood sugar level, lower blood cholesterol and manage weight. Most people today do not eat near enough fiber in their diet. Some great healthy sources of fiber are broccoli, potatoes, apples, beans, brown rice, whole grains, and strawberries. Carbohydrates The key is eating mostly complex carbohydrates (moderate amount) and eating them with protein. Complex carbs are broken down to sugar at a much slower rate during the digestive process than simple carbohydrates; they therefore do not raise the blood sugar levels as fast or as much as simple carbs. Examples of complex carbs are whole grains, broccoli, squash and berries. Simple carbohydrates are sugar, alcohol, full calorie sodas, refined white flour, potatoes and most desserts. Protein Protein is a vital part of your diet. Every time you eat, be sure to include some protein, it will aid you to feel full faster, prevents sugar cravings and maintains muscle mass, which is a very vital part in burning fat. Good sources of protein are: fish, poultry, beef, pork, soy (tofu). Trim off visible fat. Beware of high fat and high calorie sauces and gravies as they make weight loss difficult. Non-caloric Sweetener Sugar can be a huge downfall for someone wanting to lose weight. Today, a person can still enjoy sweets due to the availability of good calorie-free sweeteners. Xylitol looks and tastes like sugar. It is natural and is widely distributed throughout nature in small amounts. It has only 40% of the calories of sugar and has little to no glycemic effect (it does not cause elevated blood sugar levels). It also is effective in both hot and cold foods and is very beneficial in reducing tooth decay. Stevia, is natural and tastes sweeter than sugar and works well for both cold and hot foods. Our bodies do not metabolize or break down the stevia complex so it does not affect blood sugar levels at all. Dieting Facts-  Diuretics induce weight loss through the excretion of water.  The glycemic index (GI) factor is a ranking of foods based on their overall effect on blood sugar levels. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 33  Department of Peace Studies  Diets to promote weight loss are generally divided into four categories: low-fat, low- carbohydrate, low-calorie, and very low calorie.  Very low calorie diets provide 200-800 calories per day, maintaining protein intake but limiting calories from both fat and carbohydrates.  Low-calorie diets usually produce an energy deficit of 500 to 1,000 calories per day, which can result in a 0.5 kilogram (1.1 lb) to 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) weight loss per week.  The most recent prescription weight loss medication released is Acomplia (generic name Rimonabant), manufactured by Sanofi Aventis.  Low carbohydrate diets such as Atkins and Protein Power are relatively high in protein and fats.  Low-fat diets involve the reduction of the percentage of fat in one's diet.  Lengthy fasting can be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition and should be carried out under medical supervision. Weight management: A particular diet may be chosen to seek weight loss or weight gain. Changing a subject's dietary intake, or "going on a diet", can change the energy balance and increase or decrease the amount of fat stored by the body. Some foods are specifically recommended, or even altered, for conformity to the requirements of a particular diet. These diets are often recommended in conjunction with exercise. Specific weight loss programs can be harmful to health, while others may be beneficial and can thus be coined as healthy diets. The terms "healthy diet" and "diet for weight management" are often related, as the two promote healthy weight management. Having a healthy diet is a way to prevent health problems, and will provide the body with the right balance of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. Vegetarian Diet- A vegetarian diet is one which excludes meat. Vegetarians also avoid food containing by- products of animal slaughter, such as animal-derived rennet and gelatin.  Fruitarian diet: A diet which predominantly consists of raw fruit.  Lacto vegetarianism: A vegetarian diet that includes certain types of dairy, but excludes eggs and foods which contain animal rennet. A common diet among followers of several religions, including Hinduism, Sikhism and Jainism, based on the principle of Ahimsa (non- harming).  Ovo vegetarianism: A vegetarian diet that includes eggs, but excludes dairy. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 34  Department of Peace Studies  Ovo-lacto vegetarianism: A vegetarian diet that includes eggs and dairy.  Vegan diet: In addition to the abstentions of a vegetarian diet, vegans do not use any product produced by animals, such as eggs, dairy products, or honey. The vegan philosophy and lifestyle is broader than just the diet and also includes abstaining from using any products tested on animals and often campaigning for animal rights. Semi-vegetarian diets-  Semi-vegetarianism: A predominantly vegetarian diet, in which meat is occasionally consumed.  Kangatarian: A diet originating from Australia. In addition to foods permissible in a vegetarian diet, kangaroo meat is also consumed.  Pescetarian diet: A diet which includes fish but not other meats.  Plant-based diet: A broad term to describe diets in which animal products do not form a large proportion of the diet. Under some definitions a plant-based diet is fully vegetarian; under others it is possible to follow a plant-based diet whilst occasionally consuming meat.  Pollotarian: Someone who eats chicken or other poultry, but not meat from mammals, often for environmental, health or food justice reasons.  Pollo-pescetarian: Someone who eats both poultry and fish/seafood, though no meat from mammals. Weight Control Diets- A desire to lose weight is a common motivation to change dietary habits, as is a desire to maintain an existing weight. Many weight loss diets are considered by some to entail varying degrees of health risk, and some are not widely considered to be effective. This is especially true of "crash" or "fad" diets. Many of the diets listed below could fall into more than one subcategory. Where this is the case, it is noted in that diet's entry. Low-calorie diets-  5:2 diet: an intermittent fasting diet popularized by Michael Mosley in 2012.  Intermittent fasting: Cycling between non-fasting and fasting as a method of calorie restriction.  Body for Life: A calorie-control diet, promoted as part of the 12-week Body for Life program.  Cookie diet: A calorie control diet in which low-fat cookies are eaten to quell hunger, often in place of a meal.  The Hacker's Diet: A calorie-control diet from The Hacker's Diet by John Walker. The book suggests that the key to reaching and maintaining the desired weight is understanding and carefully monitoring calories consumed and used. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 35  Department of Peace Studies  Nutrisystem diet: The dietary element of the weight-loss plan from Nutrisystem, Inc. Nutrisystem distributes low-calorie meals, with specific ratios of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.  Weight Watchers diet: Foods are assigned point values; dieters can eat any food with a point value provided they stay within their daily point limit. Very low calorie diets-  A very low calorie diet is consuming fewer than 800 calories per day. Such diets are normally followed under the supervision of a doctor. Zero-calorie diets are also included.  Inedia (breatharian diet): A diet in which no food is consumed, based on the belief that food is not necessary for human subsistence.  KE diet: A diet in which an individual feeds through a feeding tube and does not eat anything. Low-carbohydrate diets-  Atkins diet: A low-carbohydrate diet, popularized by nutritionist Robert Atkins in the late- 20th and early-21st centuries. Proponents argue that this approach is a more successful way of losing weight than low-calorie diets; critics argue that a low-carb approach poses increased health risks. The Atkins diet consists of four phases (Induction, Balancing, Fine- Tuning and Maintenance) with a gradual increase in consumption of carbohydrates as the person goes through the phases.  Dukan Diet: A multi-step diet based on high protein and limited carbohydrate consumption. It starts with two steps intended to facilitate short term weight loss, followed by two steps intended to consolidate these losses and return to a more balanced long-term diet.  Ideal Protein diet: A four-phase carbohydrate-restricted weight-loss plan composed of pre- made meals, protein, vegetables, and water, with the fourth phase introducing carbohydrates balanced with protein and fats.  Kimkins: A heavily promoted diet for weight loss, found to be fraudulent.  South Beach Diet: Diet developed by the Miami-based cardiologist Arthur Agatston, M.D., who says that the key to losing weight quickly and getting healthy isn’t cutting all carbohydrates and fats from your diet, but choosing the right carbs and the right fats.  Stillman diet: A carbohydrate-restricted diet that predates the Atkins diet, allowing consumption of specific food ingredients. Low-fat diets- McDougall's starch diet is a high calorie, high fiber, low fat diet that is based on starches such as potatoes, rice, and beans which excludes all animal foods and added vegetable oils. John A. McDougall draws on historical observation of how many civilizations around the world throughout time have thrived on starch foods. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 36  Department of Peace Studies Crash Diet- Crash diet and fad diet are general terms. They describe diet plans which involve making extreme, rapid changes to food consumption, but are also used as disparaging terms for common eating habits which are considered unhealthy. Both types of diet are often considered to pose health risks. Many of the diets listed here are weight-loss diets which would also fit into other sections of this list. Where this is the case, it will be noted in that diet's entry.  Beverly Hills Diet: An extreme diet which has only fruits in the first days, gradually increasing the selection of foods up to the sixth week.  Cabbage soup diet: A low-calorie diet based on heavy consumption of cabbage soup. Considered a fad diet.  Grapefruit diet: A fad diet, intended to facilitate weight loss, in which grapefruit is consumed in large quantities at meal times.  Monotrophic diet: A diet that involves eating only one food item, or one type of food, for a period of time to achieve a desired weight reduction.  Subway diet: A crash diet in which a person consumes Subway sandwiches in place of higher calorie fast foods. Made famous by former obese student Jared Fogle, who lost 245 pounds after replacing his meals with Subway sandwiches as part of an effort to lose weight.  Western dietary pattern: A diet consisting of food which is most commonly consumed in developed countries. Examples include meat, white bread, milk and puddings. The name is a reference to the Western world. Detox Diets-  Detox diets involve either not consuming or attempting to flush out substances that are considered unhelpful or harmful. Examples include restricting food consumption to foods without colorings or preservatives, taking supplements, or drinking large amounts of water. The latter practice in particular has drawn criticism, as drinking significantly more water than recommended levels can cause hyponatremia.  Juice fasting: A form of detox diet, in which nutrition is obtained solely from fruit and vegetable juices. The health implications of such diets are disputed.  Master Cleanse: A form of juice fasting. Belief-based diets-  Some people's dietary choices are influenced by their religious, spiritual or philosophical beliefs.  Buddhist diet: While Buddhism does not have specific dietary rules, some buddhists practice vegetarianism based on a strict interpretation of the first of the Five Precepts.  Hindu and Jain diets: Followers of Hinduism and Jainism may follow lacto vegetarian diets (though most do not, as some Hindu festivals require meat to be eaten), based on the principle of ahimsa (non-harming). Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 37  Department of Peace Studies  Islamic dietary laws: Muslims follow a diet consisting solely of food that is halal – permissible in Islam. The opposite of halal is haraam, food that is Islamically Impermissible. Haraam substances include alcohol, pork, and any meat from an animal which was not killed through the Islamic method of ritual slaughter (Dhabiha).  I-tal: A set of principles which influences the diet of many members of the Rastafari movement. One principle is that natural foods should be consumed. Some Rastafarians interpret I-tal to advocate vegetarianism or veganism.  Kosher diet: Food permissible under Kashrut, the set of Jewish dietary laws, is said to be Kosher. Some foods and food combinations are non-Kosher, and failure to prepare food in accordance with Kashrut can make otherwise permissible foods non-Kosher.  Seventh-day Adventist: Seventh-day Adventists combine the Kosher rules of Judaism with prohibitions against alcohol and caffeinated beverages and an emphasis on whole foods. About half of Adventists are lacto-ovo-vegetarians.  Word of Wisdom: The name of a section of the Doctrine and Covenants, a book of scripture accepted by members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Dietary advice includes (1) wholesome plants "in the season thereof", (2) eating meat sparingly and only "in times of winter, or of cold, or famine", and (3) grain as the "staff of life". Diets followed for medical reasons -  People's dietary choices are sometimes affected by intolerance or allergy to certain types of food. There are also dietary patterns that might be recommended, prescribed or administered by medical professionals for people with specific medical needs.  Diabetic diet: An umbrella term for diets recommended to people with diabetes. There is considerable disagreement in the scientific community as to what sort of diet is best for people with diabetes.  DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension): A recommendation that those with high blood pressure consume large quantities of fruits, vegetables, whole-grains and low fat dairy foods as part of their diet, and avoid sugar sweetened foods, red meat and fats. Promoted by the US Department of Health and Human Services, a United States government organisation.  Elemental diet: A medical, liquid-only diet, in which liquid nutrients are consumed for ease of ingestion.  Elimination diet: A method of identifying foods which cause a person adverse effects, by process of elimination.  Gluten-free diet: A diet which avoids the protein gluten, which is found in barley, rye and wheat. It is a medical treatment for gluten-related disorders, which include coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, dermatitis herpetiformis and wheat allergy.  Gluten-free, casein-free diet: A gluten-free diet which also avoids casein, a protein commonly found in milk and cheese. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 38  Department of Peace Studies  Healthy kidney diet: This diet is for those impacted with chronic kidney disease, those with only one kidney who have a kidney infection and those who may be suffering from some other kidney failure. This diet is not the dialysis diet, which is something completely different. The healthy kidney diet restricts large amounts of protein which are hard for the kidney to break down but especially limits: potassium and phosphorus-rich foods and beverages. Liquids are often restricted as well—not forbidden, just less of.  Ketogenic diet: A high-fat, low-carb diet, in which dietary and body fat is converted into energy. It is used as a medical treatment for refractory epilepsy.  Liquid diet: A diet in which only liquids are consumed. May be administered by clinicians for medical reasons, such as after a gastric bypass or to prevent death through starvation from a hunger strike.  Low-FODMAP diet: A diet that consists in the global restriction of all fermentable carbohydrates.  Specific carbohydrate diet: A diet that aims to restrict the intake of complex carbohydrates such as found in grains and complex sugars. It is promoted as a way of reducing the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, coeliac disease, and autism. Other Diets-  Alkaline diet: The avoidance of relatively acidic foods – foods with low pH levels – such as grains, dairy, meat, sugar, alcohol, caffeine and fungi. Proponents believe such a diet may have health benefits; critics consider the arguments to have no scientific basis.  Blood type diet: A diet based on a belief that people's diets should reflect their blood types.  Clean eating  Eat-clean diet: Focusses on eating foods without preservatives, and on mixing lean proteins with complex carbohydrates.  Fit for Life diet: Recommendations include not combining protein and carbohydrates, not drinking water at meal time, and avoiding dairy foods.  Food combining diet: A nutritional approach where certain food types are deliberately consumed together or separately. For instance, some weight control diets suggest that proteins and carbohydrates should not be consumed in the same meal.  Gerson therapy: A form of alternative medicine, the diet is low salt, low fat and vegetarian, and also involves taking specific supplements. It was developed by Max Gerson, who claimed the therapy could cure cancer and chronic, degenerative diseases. These claims have not been scientifically proven, and the American Cancer Society claims that elements of the therapy have caused serious illness and death.  The Graham Diet: A vegetarian diet which promotes whole-wheat flour and discourages the consumption of stimulants such as alcohol and caffeine. Developed by Sylvester Graham in the 19th century. Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 39  Department of Peace Studies  Hay diet: A food-combining diet developed by William Howard Hay in the 1920s. Divides foods into separate groups, and suggests that proteins and carbohydrates should not be consumed in the same meal.  High-protein diet: A diet in which high quantities of protein are consumed with the intention of building muscle. Not to be confused with low-carb diets, where the intention is to lose weight by restricting carbohydrates.  High residue diet: A diet in which high quantities of dietary fiber are consumed. High-fiber foods include certain fruits, vegetables, nuts and grains.  Macrobiotic diet: A diet in which processed food is avoided. Common components include grains, beans and vegetables.  Mediterranean diet: A diet based on habits of some southern European countries. One of the more distinct features is that olive oil is used as the primary source of fat.  MIND diet: combines the portions of the DASH diet and the Mediterranean diet. The diet is intended to reduce neurological deterioration such as Alzheimer's disease.  Montignac diet: A weight-loss diet characterised by consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index.  Negative calorie diet: A claim by many weight-loss diets that some foods take more calories to digest than they provide, such as celery. The basis for this claim is disputed.  Okinawa diet: A low-calorie diet based on the traditional eating habits of people from the Ryukyu Islands.  Omnivore: An omnivore consumes both plant and animal-based food.  Organic food diet: A diet consisting only of food which is organic – it has not been produced with modern inputs such as synthetic fertilizers, genetic modification, irradiation, or synthetic food additives.  Paleolithic diet: Can refer either to the eating habits of humans during the Paleolithic era, or of modern dietary plans purporting to be based on these habits.  Prison loaf: A meal replacement served in some United States prisons to inmates who are not trusted to use cutlery. Its composition varies between institutions and states, but as a replacement for standard food, it is intended to provide inmates with all their dietary needs.  Pritikin Program for Diet and Exercise: A diet which focusses on the consumption of unprocessed food.  Raw foodism: A diet which centres on the consumption of uncooked and unprocessed food. Often associated with a vegetarian diet, although some raw food dieters do consume raw meat.  Scarsdale Medical Diet  Shangri-La Diet  Slimming World diet  Slow-carb diet  Smart For Life  Sonoma diet: A diet based on portion control and centered around consuming “power foods” Indian Tradition, Culture and Heritage: WPC2004B Page 40  Department of Peace Studies  SparkPeople diet  Sugar Busters!: Focuses on restr