Church History: Understanding Christian Practices and Beliefs PDF

&KXUFK+LVWRU\ No one just falls out of the sky; no church just starts from nothing. We all have a past; and understanding the past is crucial to our identity. So much of the practice is justified in the past. The basic approach of the tradition is grounded in the thought of certain key people who shaped the tradition. Services can just look strange unless one has a sense of a tradition; and the assumptions made by members are often grounded in the views of those who shaped the tradition. Church history is an important part of any training. In this short chapter, we shall look at the reasons for studying Christian history; the different approaches to that study; and a brief overview of the mainline denominational histories. :K\6WXG\&KULVWLDQ+LVWRU\" It was in Jesus Christ Superstar that Judas berated Jesus and asked a simple question: You'd have managed better if you'd had it planned. Why'd you choose such a backward time and such a strange land? If you'd come today you would have reached a whole nation. Israel in 4 BC had no mass communication.1 The question is a good one. Why did God choose the Jewish people? Why did God choose the first century? And, of course, the questions can be extended. Why did Christianity catch on in Europe? Why did Rome become so significant? Why did it grow from being a Jewish movement to the largest religion in the entire world? Many of these questions at a very practical level are answered by Church history. Church history is in a real sense the study of the movement of ideas and practices among humans. Every idea has to have a home. Why was it Isaac Newton who had the idea of gravity, thereby giving European culture a head start on the scientific revolution? Why was it the culture of India that probably birthed the oldest game in the world – chess? When you ask historical questions you are asking questions about how the past shapes the present to create new possibilities for the future. And when you are studying Church history, you are studying the providence of God – God's movement in human history. Andrew F. Walls makes the point well when he writes: A similar process of reflection on Christian history as a whole might consider how that history is one of successive linguistic and cultural translation. The Incarnation itself is a great act of translation, God translated into humanity, the whole meaning of God expressed in human categories. But the incarnate Christ is not humanity generalized, but God expressed in the culture-specific terms of first- century Jewish Palestine. The only humanity we know and recognize as human is culture-specific. So the process of Christian expansion is the story of various re-translations of the original into other cultural media as Christ is received among people of different languages and cultures.2 Walls is right – God did not take the form of a generalized humanity in Christ, but a particular form of humanity (male and Jewish). From that moment of translation, the Gospel has been translated countless times since. Church history is an attempt to understand that journey – a journey that has touched every part of the globe. There are two skills that one learns through Church history. The first is the significance of interpretation. When it comes to the past, we have to work hard to select the appropriate sources, give them appropriate weight (take into account any bias), and then offer a narrative that makes sense of what has happened. It is important to recognize that no-one comes to the study of the past without a lens. Justo L. González points out how often the lenses about the past have focused on the dominant cultures. Therefore he calls for a recognition of the “postmodern, polycentric map of Christianity [our emphasis].”3 For González, it is vitally important that significant numbers of women and persons of color join the ranks of professional Church historians. He gives four reasons: the first is that women and persons of color “have a closer acquaintance with poverty and powerlessness in our own communities.”4 This is important because there is a greater emphasis on the context of the past, especially those situations where a minority is coping with an oppressive majority. The second reason is that the emergence of women in the historical guild has forced “all historians to look again at the historical record to see what it said about women.”5 For a long time, a guild dominated by men only focused on men in the past: given women make up half of the human race, it is good to see this being corrected. The third reason is there is now a greater interest in the “daily life of Christians.”6 The past isn't just ideas; the past is lived lives, where people are sick, taking out the garbage, and coping with the rigors of daily living. The final reason is that there is a greater interest in “the practices of popular religion that a generation ago were easily dismissed as ‘syncretistic [our emphasis].’”7 Again this is linked with the lived religion rather than the theoretical religion. As we revisit the past, we discover, for example, that many Japanese Christians absorbed aspects of Shintoism or Confucianism. For González, this is a much-needed shift for interpretation. We have shifted from a male, theoretical, intellectual reading of the past to a much greater sensitivity to the communities of women and those groups outside the elites. For this shift to occur, it has been necessary for people to join the academy and read the past with a different set of lenses. The second skill is the appreciation of the sheer variety of practice and belief embedded in the past. Church history is the best cure for the sin of assuming that all Christians are alike. Different Christians have formed different communities with very contrasting understandings and views. Coptic Christians are different from Baptists from Alabama; the Church of Pentecost in Ghana (the largest Christian Church) is different from the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (Jews who believe in Yeshua). And even Roman Catholics of today are quite different from the nineteenth-century Roman Catholics (before Vatican II). As one moves into the world of Church history, one becomes aware of just how varied Christianity is. It becomes a challenge to make sense of this variety. 'LIIHUHQW$SSURDFKHVWR6WXG\ Dyron B. Daughrity identifies five contrasting approaches to Church history. The first is the chronological approach. This is where one tells the story of Christianity from its origins to the present day. Starting with the apostolic age, Daughrity moves through “post-apostolic, illegal age,” “Constantine and Byzantine age,” “pivotal age,” “fractured age,” “global expansion age,” and “recession and indigenization age.”8 This is a way of dividing and organizing the past – others would do it in a different way. The point is that it is taking the past and breaking it into segments. The second is the denominational approach. This will be the focus of the approach taken later in this chapter. The idea here is to tell the story of the past through a particular trajectory. One difficulty with this approach is fairness. Ideally one needs to be a member of the denomination because that ensures that one has an insider's knowledge of the tradition; however, one drawback of being an insider is the challenge of being fair. The third is the sociological approach. Daughrity explains, “Sociology is a massive field of inquiry. At its most fundamental level, it is the study of society. There are numerous methodologies that are properly considered sociological. Common to all of them, however, is the attempt to count, measure, and interpret.”9 For Daughrity, the best sociological history is the work of Rodney Stark. Stark's work is fascinating. He shows how a small number of Christians in 40 CE (probably not much more than 1000 in total), grew steadily to almost 32 million in 350 CE.10 And the sociological factors working in favor of the growth of Christianity included attracting Jews from the diaspora, women, and slaves. The fourth approach is the geographical approach. This is another way of telling the story of Christianity. The story is different in different places. The Middle East (where Christianity started and now is a small group) is quite different from South America (where Christianity is the largest group). The immediate challenges in each area are different. When it comes to the strength of Christianity, Islam is a major issue in the Middle East, while European colonization is central to South America. The fifth approach is the biographical approach. The first four approaches focus on corporate narratives (narratives of groups), but individuals have a dramatic impact as well. So, to take Daughrity's example, the story of St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE), who was a Manichee who converted to Christianity and became, perhaps, the most influential bishop of the early Church, is the story of a life that had a dramatic impact on the Church. The biographical approach to Church history concentrates on these individuals and their biographies and the impact they had on the development of the Church. $XJXVWLQHRI+LSSR An incredibly influential “patristic” father of the Christian faith and Christian theology, Augustine was a bishop in the Church's early Northern African strand. Augustine developed theological insight and, thus, doctrine, relating to baptism and initiation, piety, ethics, original sin and the Fall, and theology related to the sacraments. He is the benchmark to which Christian theologians in the west must measure. In all these cases, the careful reading of texts is central to the enterprise. The past comes to us through texts (primarily, it is only recently that you get pictures and images), so the understanding of the text is central. In Jean Comby's useful introduction to the study of Church history, she explains that there are eight elements to the careful reading of a text. 'HQRPLQDWLRQDO7UHH Figure 7.1 A simplified tree of Christianity. These are: “a part of the whole” – so locating the text in the wider corpus; “understanding” – working hard to understand what is written (and with some texts from the past this can be very difficult); “translation” – recognizing that a translator has already made some decisions about meaning; “literary genre” – treat poetry like poetry and so on; “incidental information” – notice the incidental detail that can tell us more about the time than the direct message of the text; “where does the truth lie?” – ask about accuracy; “confronting the evidence” – make an effort to look at how different historians are reading a text; and “letting our surroundings be changed” – allow yourself to be transported back to the past and do not judge the past by the standards of the present.11 The great joy of all this hard work is that slowly one has a sense of the Christian tradition. Countless men and women in the past make up the Christian story. It eliminates any sense of being alone; one is part of a vast and rich tapestry of human life. 'HQRPLQDWLRQDO+LVWRU\$Q2YHUYLHZ Using the second of Daughrity's approaches, let us now look briefly at the history of the mainline that exists in the United States. All five of the traditions that we are considering under the heading “mainline” are products of the Reformation. In one sense they are all traditions that broke away from the one unified European Church. It is worth noting that we should not identify the unified European Church with the Roman Catholic Church. The modern Roman Catholic Church is as much a result of the Reformation as the Protestant denominations. Although there appears to be continuity because the authority of the Bishop of Rome is affirmed by the Roman Catholic Church, there are many other elements (not least the attitude to political power) that the modern Roman Church shares with the other movements emerging from the Reformation. Naturally, even the unified European Church is itself a result of division because there was an earlier split from the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The Reformation takes different forms in different places. Perhaps the best known Reformer is Martin Luther. Martin Luther was an Augustinian monk in Saxony, Germany. It was when he discovered that the Pope was authorizing the sale of indulgences to cover the cost of funding St. Peter's in Rome that he erupted. He took action, nailed 95 theses on his door, and was finally excommunicated by the Pope. This is the moment when the Lutheran tradition was born. Certain themes emerged in Luther's writing. He stressed the centrality of the grace in the work of salvation; our charity and payments for indulgences (i.e. works) were not the way. Instead it was the simple response to the work of God in Christ. “Justification by faith” was a key slogan. He translated the Bible into the vernacular. And as the printing presses were invented, a Bible translated into the German language suddenly had a major readership. A different way of being a European Christian had arrived. In 1638, Lutherans from Sweden were looking for a place to practice their religious tradition and made their way to Wilmington, Delaware (it was then known as Fort Christina). These settlements attracted Finnish and German Lutherans, although the congregations formed were under the jurisdiction of the Church of Sweden. Austrian Lutherans made their way to Georgia in the early 1700s. The Salzburger Lutherans founded a community called Ebenezer, which by 1741 had 1200 people. It is interesting that just across the English Channel from Europe was the English Tudor Crown. To start with, King Henry VIII was an opponent of Lutheran theology. He wrote a treatise defending seven sacraments against the views of Martin Luther. However, relations with the Pope changed as the issue of producing a male heir became apparent. Henry needed his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled. Rome refused to accede to the request. The result was the break with Rome and the English monarch becoming the Supreme Governor of the Church of England under the Act of Supremacy of 1534. From this political start, a distinctive Anglican ethos started to emerge. Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) was a key person liturgically and wrote the Book of Common Prayer. The compromises that shaped the Elizabethan Religious Settlement created the sense of Anglicanism as the tradition located in-between Rome and Geneva. As the English settled in the United States, so the Anglican tradition came with them. The first permanent colony in North America was Jamestown in 1607. Naturally, a tradition grounded in the English Church had problems after the Revolutionary War. It was in 1789, the American Prayer Book explains, “when in the course of Divine Providence, these American States became independent with respect to civil government, their ecclesiastical independence was necessarily included.”12 So the Protestant Episcopal Church was born. It had links with the Church of England, but there were significant differences. Decision-making resided with the General Convention, instead of a king or parliament. The first General Convention was held at Christ Church, Philadelphia, on September 27, 1785. So an Anglican Church developed in the United States, independent and yet linked through the ties of history and liturgy; this was the Episcopal Church. It was not just the Roman Catholics who were unhappy with the emergence of distinctive Anglican tradition in England at the Reformation. At the other end of the spectrum were the Puritans; their goal was to “purify” the Church of Catholicism. They were influenced by John Calvin of Geneva. The Puritans triggered their own English civil war. They executed King Charles in 1649 and Oliver Cromwell governed as Lord Protector. Hope for a Puritan England died with the restoration of the monarchy in 1658. Due to earlier persecution of Puritans, many made their way to America. It was in Plymouth, Massachusetts (1620) that the first Puritan colony was formed. Between 1630 and 1640, some 20 000 English Puritans settled in New England. This is the genesis of the Congregational Church, which later merged with other denominations (namely, the Reformed Church, the Christian Churches, and the Evangelical Synod) to form the United Church of Christ (UCC). Back on the continent of Europe, John Calvin had been following the emergence of a Protestant theology very closely. He broke with the Roman Catholic Church in 1533. After a short period of imprisonment, he fled to Basel and started writing his famous Institutes of the Christian Religion; the first edition was published in 1536, which was the same time he moved to Geneva. It was John Knox (1514–1572) who took Calvin's ideas to Scotland; and it is from Scotland and Ireland that Presbyterians made their way to the United States. The first Presbytery was founded in Philadelphia in 1706; 83 years later, Philadelphia hosted the first General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (PCUSA). The “First Great Awakening” of George Whitfield (1714–1770) had a positive impact on the Presbyterian Church of America, especially for those groups settled in the north. Slowly, the distinctive emphasis on governance and recognition of the centrality of developing a biblical theology turned the Presbyterian Church into a significant part of the mainline. Finally, John Wesley, a brilliant preacher, founded a movement in Oxford that slowly swept America. Wesley was an Anglican who was interested in encouraging renewal within the Church of England. Along with his brother Charles (an extraordinary and gifted poet and hymn writer), the Holy Club emerged in Oxford, which sought to deepen the prayer lives of those who belonged to and initially sought reform within the Church of England. John Wesley became a popular preacher reaching groups that were often neglected, for example tin miners in Cornwall. John Wesley made a trip to Georgia in 1735, which introduced him to the piety of the Moravians. Methodist congregations started developing in the 1760s. American Methodists left the Church of England, formally, in 1784 at the so-called Christmas Conference, which was held in Baltimore. This was partly a response to the position of the Church of England over the Revolutionary War, but it was also because, unlike the Anglicans, Methodists wanted traveling preachers, or circuit riders, who could reach out to the frontiers of America. A key person in American Methodism was Francis Asbury (1745– 1816). He was the first Methodist bishop who advocated for itinerate preachers who ideally were young and single. He did not want clergy who settled down, but clergy who were willing to travel. By the 1850s, the Methodist movement was the largest Protestant group in the United States; it founded many schools and universities. And it became the largest of the groups within the mainline. This brief history of our five denominations that make up the subject of this book illustrates the different historical trajectories. Although the roots are all European, they took different strands of the European Reformation and created a distinctive set of traditions in the United States. One issue they all had to reckon with was slavery, which was a crucial part of the distinctive ethos of these traditions in the United States. America needed cheap labor. Starting in 1619, significant numbers of Africans and Creoles (those of mixed descent) were captured and brought to the United States. It was a cruel and wicked trade. It was based on race; it made men and women legal chattel until they died; their children were bound to the white master for their lives; and brutal force could be used to maintain order. All of the mainline denominations were, at best, complicit in, at worse, supportive of the institution of slavery. And even after slavery was made illegal, legal segregation continued to shape America right up until the civil rights era of Martin Luther King Jr. As with the emancipation of slaves, the churches' role in civil rights was very mixed – some were supporters of civil rights, others hostile. Listening to the past is important. Sometimes the present emerges out of the past: the genesis of a tradition can help us to understand the distinctive DNA of that tradition. The stress in the UCC on the autonomy of the local congregation, and the simplicity of the worship is grounded in its distinctive founding. The interest of the Anglican Communion (the worldwide membership of Anglicans who recognize the importance of the Archbishop of Canterbury) in the election of bishops in New Hampshire (where Bishop Gene Robinson – the first openly gay bishop in the Communion) is intelligible when you understand the history. The story of the past helps us to understand the present. Sometimes the present is a reaction to the past. A good illustration of this is the affirmation across much of the mainline in support of gay and lesbian rights. The first decade of the twenty-first century in the United States has been a season where lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) rights have been at the forefront of the culture wars. At the start of the twenty-first century, polls showed the majority of Americans did not feel that marriage could be extended to persons with a same-sex orientation. The evangelicals and the Roman Catholics were especially opposed. Although many in the mainline were conservative, among religious groups the mainline took the lead. One reason for this was that the mainline had been haunted by the way it came slowly to support the rights of African Americans. So in response the UCC, the Episcopal Church, the Lutherans, and the PCUSA have sought to be at the vanguard of gay and lesbian rights. The United Methodist Church has been slower, partly because of its strength in more conservative parts of the country, and the General Conferences of the United Methodist Church include international delegations from outside the United States, which tend to oppose the ordination of gay and lesbian clergy. 'LIIHUHQW1DUUDWLYHV$ERXWWKH3DVW Telling the story of the past has power. One important advantage that the secularist has is that our language of the past tends to denigrate the Christian tradition. So, for example, the term Enlightenment is used to describe the rise of science and affirmation of reason that emerged in the seventeenth century in Europe. So the “light is being turned on,” it comes just after the Renaissance (a rebirth of ancient Greek architecture, practices, and literature – in the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries), which comes just after the Middle Ages or even the Dark Ages. This is the language that favors modernity. A light is turned on as Europe escapes the clutches of the medieval Church. The secular bias in terms of reading the past is embedded in our language and widely used by all historians. A self-congratulatory narrative of modernity triumphs in our labels for the different periods. When feminists suggest that the term “history” should be replaced by “herstory,” they are making an important point. Our language makes certain assumptions, which includes a certain vantage point. Challenging this is important. $SSO\LQJ+LVWRU\WRWKH&RQJUHJDWLRQ History helps to illuminate the present in vitally important ways. The focus of this chapter has been on the macro-story of the Church. A congregational leader needs to know the story of Jesus, the emergence of the Jesus movement in the Church, the development of the Creeds, the conversion of Constantine, and the slow spread of Christianity around the globe. In addition, congregational leaders need to know the story of their own particular traditions. This will help illuminate the reasons why things are done in a particular way. However, the need for a historical sensitivity is also a local need. A good congregational leader needs to learn the story of the particular congregation. It is amazing how congregations repeat certain patterns. So a congregation that has had clergy leadership that is abusive often ends up repeating the same mistake with a subsequent call. The identity of a congregation is embedded in the story that is told. Learning that story is an imperative. Once one has the story of the past, one is able to start shaping that story. A good congregational leader needs to combine the macro- stories of Christianity and the denomination with the micro-story of the congregation. Leadership involves telling the strongest possible narrative of a congregation so that the identity of the congregation is clear. A congregation with a clear identity is more likely to endure and succeed. So, for example, a UCC congregation that has a strong history of inclusion, perhaps located in an urban setting, can combine the following: first, the stories of a Christ who ate with everyone; and second, the persecution of the initial settlers. The result is a congregation that is willing to be friendly to everyone. This grounds the congregation's own context and story in the context and story of Christian history, thereby making the identity of the congregation stronger. Every opportunity should be taken to link these themes together. 'LIIHULQJ9LHZVRI&KXUFK+LVWRU\ Church history is the record of God's gracious, wonderful and mighty deeds, showing how by his Spirit and Word he rules his Church and conquers the world. Nils Forsander, Life Pictures from Swedish Church History13 Violent, irrational, intolerant, allied to racism and tribalism and bigotry, invested in ignorance and hostile to free inquiry, contemptuous of women and coercive toward children: organized religion ought to have a great deal on its conscience. Christopher Hitchens, God is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything14 Forsander and Hitchens provide two different views of Church history. Who do you think is closer to the truth? &RQFOXVLRQ History is not optional. An understanding of the past is essential. A good training will not simply include content (the dates when this or that happened), but also the capacity to read and interpret history with some sensitivity. It is important to be self-aware in the analysis and telling of the past. One needs to be sensitive to one's assumptions of what is normal. It is so tempting to judge the past by the standards of the present. But we need to be as kind to the past as we trust the future will be to us. So, for example, perhaps we are blind to animal rights; and perhaps the future will judge harshly those of us who are not committed vegetarians; but we hope this will not be the only criterion used to judge our lives. So we should be equally respectful to the past. Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274), the great Dominican Friar of the thirteenth century, made wicked assumptions about women and Islam, but he also formulated a remarkable, generous, and innovative theology for his time. It should not stop us recognizing his cultural blindness, but, at the same time, we must allow the past to be understood on its own terms. History is fun. Over and over again, the past surprises us. There is no linear line from confused to enlightened. Innovation, brilliance, and quirky insights are all found in different places and at different times. Finally, we conclude this chapter where we started. Studying history is a theological task. One is detecting the work of God in history. The story of our collective human past is the remarkable story of God's relationship to us all. This is the most exciting part of being a historian. 1RWHV 1. Andrew Lloyd Webber, ‘Superstar,’ taken from Jesus Christ Superstar. 2. Andrew F. Walls, “Eusebius tries again”, in Wilbert R. Shenk, ed., Enlarging the Story: Perspectives on Writing World Christian History (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002), 19. 3. Justo L. González, The Changing Shape of Church History (St. Louis, MO: The Chalice Press, 2002), 19. 4. Ibid., 23. 5. Ibid., 24. 6. Ibid., 25. 7. Ibid., 26 8. Dyron B. Daughrity, Church History: Five Approaches to a Global Discipline (New York: Peter Lang, 2012), 5. 9. Ibid., 84. 10. Rodney Stark, The Triumph of Christianity (New York: HarperCollins, 2011), 156–157. 11. Jean Comby, How to Read Church History (London: SCM Press, 1985), 7. 12. Book of Common Prayer, 1662, 7. 13. Nils Forsander, Life Pictures from Swedish Church History (Rock Island, IL: Augustana Book Concern, 1913). 14. Christopher Hitchens, God is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything (New York: Twelve, Hatchett Book Group, 2009). $QQRWDWHG%LEOLRJUDSK\ Cameron, Euan, Interpreting Christian History: The Challenge of the Churches' Past (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005). Cameron makes the important point that “the knowledge of Christian history is essential to anyone who wishes to understand the present-day Christian Churches, or to assume any position of leadership within them.” He stresses the importance of interpretation and vantage points. Coakley, John W. and Sterk, Andrea, eds, Readings in World Christian History (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004). This is the best collection of primary sources – a very helpful resource. Comby, Jean, How to Read Church History (London: SCM Press, Ltd, 1985). A helpful introduction to some of the central challenges in studying Church history. Daughrity, Dyron B., Church History: Five Approaches to a Global Discipline (New York: Peter Lang, 2012). An excellent survey of five major approaches to the study of Church history. Daughrity illustrates how the same subject matter can be looked at in completely contrasting ways. Gonzalez, Justo L., Church History: An Essential Guide (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1996). This shorter introduction gives overviews of major periods of Church history with suggested reading for each. Gonzalez, Justo L., The Changing Shape of Church History (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2002). One of the most prolific writers; in this book Gonzalez makes the case that the new voices (women and scholars of color) are so important for a proper understanding of our past. Gunneman, Louis H., The Shaping of the United Church of Christ (Cleveland, OH: United Church Press, 1999). A solid survey of the history of the UCC. Herring, George, An Introduction to the History of Christianity (New York: Continuum, 2006). An interesting journey through the various periods of Christian history. Littell, Franklin H., Illustrated History of Christianity (New York: Continuum, 2001). Rightly acclaimed as both helpful and interesting. A good text to begin with. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, Christian History: An Introduction to the Western Tradition (Werrington, Epworth Press, 1987). Probably one of the greatest historians of our time. He writes in a clear and compelling way. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, Groundwork of Christian History (London: Epworth Press, 1987). Almost anything written by MacCulloch is worth reading. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, A History of Christianity (London: Allen Lane, 2009). Probably the best one-volume history. Marty, Martin E, Lutheran Questions, Lutheran Answers (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Books, 2007). A popular and gentle survey of the history of the Lutheran tradition. Mullins, Robert Bruce, A Short World History of Christianity (Louisville, KY: WJK Press, 2008). Makes the case that a story approach is better than an encyclopedic approach. Prichard, Robert, A History of the Episcopal Church, third revised edition (New York: Morehouse Publishing, 2014). Locates the emergence of the Episcopal Church in the wider trends of the United States. Shenk, Wilbert R., ed., Enlarging the Story: Perspectives on Writing World Christian History (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002). A good discussion of the changing nature of the Christian story. 3UHDFKLQJWKH:RUG And Jesus said to them, “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to the whole creation.” Mark 16:15 Revised Standard Version 7KH3XUSRVH From the very beginning, the proclamation of the Word has been a fundamental task of the Church and central to the life of the Christian community. Karl Barth famously reminds us that in proclaiming the Word of God, we are proclaiming Jesus Christ, the Word Made Flesh; we are proclaiming the Bible, the written words of Scripture; and we are proclaiming the preached word, giving words to the Word. It is the preached word and the sacraments that constitute the Church's proclamation.1 It is through this proclamation that the fundamentals of the Christian faith are taught and that the truth of Scripture is held up to contemporary interpretation, experience, and understanding. The goal and purpose of this proclamation is reconciliation, healing the breach that exists between God and us and healing the breach that exists among God's people. It is in the proclaimed Word that our narratives are intertwined with the biblical narrative and thus our story becomes grounded in God's story. The Churches of the mainline hold that it is through both the Word and sacrament that God is present in the midst of the gathered community. The mainline also holds that the proclaimed Word exists not only for the gathered community but for the sake of the whole world; thus the task of preaching remains of vital importance. 7KH3UREOHP It was Lutheran Walter Burghhart who once said, “It is indeed true that, as in the story of Balaam (in Numbers 22), the Lord can speak through the mouth of an ass, through the dullest and most plodding of preachers. But this is not an ideal, just a fact.”2 Robert Farrar Capon, perhaps rather more charitably, makes the same point when he writes: Great sermons will always be in short supply. Even in the case of the first-rate preachers, the church occasionally has to settle for third-rate performances. And in the case of second-rate preachers … well, let's just say that there are more of them than any kind. That's not a criticism. It's one of the facts of church life. I'd only make matters worse if I tried to change the situation by making preachers feel guilty about it. It's that way in every occupation. The world's supply of top-notch saxophonists is miniscule compared with the armies of honkers who live down the street from you – and the same thing goes for you … as a preacher.3 Every generation in the Church has produced exemplary preachers and yet there has never been a golden age of preaching. On the contrary, every generation seems to bemoan the demise of preaching. Our current age is no exception. Most modern critics point to two main areas of concern. The first is an eroding sense of theological sophistication and the second is the overwhelming (and detrimental) influence of larger cultural movements. In terms of the decline of theological understanding, it is no longer assumed that members of mainline congregations know the traditions of their respective denominations. Nor is it assumed that members possess an even rudimentary understanding of the fundamentals of the Christian faith.4 The blame for this is often leveled directly at preachers. Additionally, in this fast paced, multi-media, information age, the cultural ground is shifting beneath our feet. Consumerism (the notion of church shopping), radical individualism (viewing belief as an entirely personal matter), the move toward simplicity in all things (easy solutions, easy answers, the simpler the faith the better), the tendency to be suspicious of concepts and abstractions (the increasing inability to create an image in one's mind), and the death of tradition (the triumph of the new over the old), all contribute to the challenge of preaching in the current age. Add to this the radical secularization of culture (the absence of transcendence), the emergence of a new spirituality (a revolt against secularism yet often thin on theological substance), and the idea of postmodernism (a new age response that challenges the modern concepts of reason and science as overarching narratives) and the task is even more difficult still.5 The result of these forces, along with the competing pressures for preachers to manage, pastor, fund, and grow congregations, is preaching that can be more geared toward shortened attention spans and with less theological depth. The heart of the problem, as defined by Michael Pasquarello is that the study of preaching has become the study of the mastery of skills and techniques for effective communication rather than the practice of being “mastered” by the Word of God.6 This chapter seeks to take seriously the current realities that define and shape the Church and challenge the mainline preacher of today. What follows starts by touching on the history of the craft, which is located in the fundamental connection between sound and word. We then move to the preaching event, before examining a fundamental divide in preaching between those who see it as a task from above and those who see it coming from below. The rest of the chapter deals with practicalities: length, narrative, humor, and preaching to children. The purpose of this broad overview of the preaching task is to link Scripture with the challenge of reinterpretation and communication in the modern generation. The goal is not to create virtuoso performances but to promote the faithful, week-to-week, Sunday-to- Sunday, proclamation of the Word that will feed, nourish, and strengthen the people of God. 5HXQLWLQJWKH:RUGDQG6RXQG7KH+LVWRU\RI D&UDIW The Gospels emerged in an oral culture. In the midst of the assembly, God's Word was spoken and God's voice was heard speaking in the present. Stories of Jesus were told, and the telling of these stories and sayings constitute preaching. Yet almost from the start there began the shift away from sound to the page. Collections of the sayings and stories of Jesus were gathered into a new literary genre, the Gospel. The apostle Paul wrote sermons in the form of letters, or epistles, which are radically different from the Gospels of the Jerusalem Church in that they are not narratives of Jesus but rather centered on conceptual arguments (influenced by classical rhetoric). If Paul knew the stories of the life and ministry of Jesus, with the exception of the crucifixion and resurrection, he did not incorporate them into his proclamation. In the succeeding generations, the shift from oral proclamation to the written word continued. With the invention of the printing press, the sound all but died away.7 In the ancient world, reading and sound went together. Augustine was said to have been astounded and utterly disappointed when he first visited Ambrose (ca. 337–397 CE) in his study. Augustine expected to overhear the great scholar reading from a sacred text. What he found was Ambrose reading, but doing so without making a sound. For ancient people a word was not a marking on a page, but a sound uttered (literally outtered).8 This has relevance to our discussion as a reminder that the ancient Scriptures existed primarily as sound. One of the tasks of the preacher is to rediscover the connection between word and sound, to differentiate between the spoken word and the written word, and to remember that the sermon is prepared for the ear and not for the eye. Thomas Long writes that “a ‘written sermon’ is a contradiction in terms,” a sermon occurs not in the writing but in the preaching.9 The work of the preacher is to lift the words off the page, to give oral testimony to an ongoing and lively conversation happening between the preacher, the Scripture and tradition of the Church, and the gathered community. Episcopalian Robert Farrar Capon suggests that in preparing a sermon the preacher must learn to trust his or her talking mind and listening ear. His advice is to learn the sound of one's ordinary talking voice and then ruthlessly remove anything in the sermon that does not match that same sound.10 This, of course, takes practice and persistence, yet, at the very least, rehearsing a sermon out loud allows the preacher to hear how the sermon sounds and not simply how it reads. %DUEDUD%URZQ7D\ORURQ3UHDFKLQJ IURP7KH 3UHDFKLQJ/LIH Watching a preacher climb into the pulpit is a lot like watching a tightrope walker climb onto the platform as the drum roll begins. The first clears her throat and spreads out her notes: the second loosens his shoulders and stretches out one rosin-soled foot to test the taut rope. They both step out into the air, trusting everything they have done to prepare for this moment as they surrender themselves to it, counting now on something beyond themselves to help them do what they love and fear and most want to do. If they reach the other side without falling, it is skill but it is also grace – a benevolent God's decision to let these daredevils treat the high places where ordinary mortals have the good sense not to go.11 7KH3UHDFKLQJ(YHQW If sermons are the proclamation of the spoken Word of God in the midst of the congregation and not simply words on a page, then the preaching event takes on a sacramental function. Somehow, in the process of proclamation, God is present. Thomas Long, a Methodist, describes this phenomenon as a coming together of the congregation (the worshipping assembly), the preacher (who is intimately part of the congregation he stands before), the sermon (the action of preaching), and the presence of Christ (God's promise when we gather in his name). He is careful to note that Christ is present in this sacramental moment not because we preach, rather we preach because Christ is present.12 In examining the preaching event and its sacramental nature it is crucial to acknowledge the Bible as the primary source for proclamation, and secondly, it is crucial to note the context as the primary source for the interpretation of Scripture. 7KH%LEOHDQG3URFODPDWLRQ Augustine wrote what is arguably the first textbook on homiletics. His book, On Christian Doctrine, was conceived as a resource for proclamation. It is worth noting that this work is essentially a manual for biblical interpretation.13 For mainline Churches, the Bible remains the primary source and the norm for proclamation. This may seem obvious, but it is an assumption that warrants further exploration in the next section. For now, we make the point that part of the preaching event includes the proclamation of the Word of God received in Holy Scripture. &RQWH[WDQG,QWHUSUHWDWLRQ Sermons are written in specific places, for a specific people, at a specific time. Like the original authors of Scripture, the preacher must engage in the task of hermeneutics, that is, the process of interpreting the received tradition and applying it to a contemporary situation and setting.14 Thus knowing and understanding the context, the place and people, in which the preaching event happens is vital. There is a direct correlation between good preaching and preachers who pay attention to, listen to, know, and understand the community in which they are called to preach. Rowan Williams, the previous Archbishop of Canterbury in the Anglican Church, believes that good sermons arise when the preacher engages in twofold listening: listening to the tradition, and listening to the present. In this action, the preacher is thus listening “to and for God so that something emerges almost begging to be put into words.”15 Thus another part of the preaching event includes taking seriously the context in which the sermon is preached. In spite of the fact that these two elements are inextricably connected, there is some conflict that exists over which is more important. It is a kind of “chicken and egg” discussion that boils down to a question of priority. Where does a preacher begin? Put rather crudely, does the preacher start with the Bible and find ways to apply the text to the community (preach from above)? Or does the preacher start with the community and find a text that addresses community needs (preach from below)? 3UHDFKLQJIURP$ERYH An extreme understanding of this perspective is that it is the preacher's task to exegete Scripture, understand the Church's doctrine, and embody the Church's traditions in such a way as to find a transcendent, global message. The task is simply to get the message straight and then speak it plainly.16 The context in this instance is irrelevant. The sermon could be preached anytime, anywhere, to any group of people. A more nuanced approach might be the example of Karl Barth, who definitely believed that the sermon emerged from Scripture with the expressed purpose to teach Christian doctrine, but in a manner that sought application in contemporary human experience.17 To clarify, when we speak of doctrine, we refer to the discrete and distinct theological themes that find their source in Scripture and not to the Church's absolute formulations of faith. Addressing the decline in the theological sophistication of Church members, there is a call for the renewal of doctrinal preaching, teaching sermons that cover the core curriculum of basic Christianity. The goal is essentially the translation of the tradition into a framework that is accessible and understandable. Starting from above, the hope is to connect hearers to the biblical narrative, the traditions of the Church, and Christian doctrine in such a way that helps make sense of ordinary experience and offers meaning and purpose to daily life.18 This perspective seeks to offer a biblical and doctrinal framework to human experience. 3UHDFKLQJIURP%HORZ An extreme understanding of this perspective holds that the sermon is not determined by any text but rather is determined solely by the needs of those in the pew. The sermon exists only to serve the religious needs of the people. The lives of the people are the sacred text at the heart of the proclamation.19 Therefore the preacher is free to draw on many sources of inspiration insofar as they address the needs of the worshipping community. A more nuanced approach might be the example of Harry Emerson Fosdick, a Baptist pastor who saw preaching as pastoral counseling. The preacher's job is to be aware of the personal concerns of those in the congregation and seek to respond to those concerns. He describes a good sermon as an “engineering operation” whereby a chasm is bridged. On one side of the chasm are the lives of the hearers, and on the other side are the spiritual gifts that come from the “unsearchable riches of Christ”. The goal is to transport those riches from one side to the other.20 Another noteworthy example of this perspective is the late televangelist Robert H. Schuller, a minister in the Reformed tradition, who believed that the most important question facing the Church is, “What are the deepest needs felt by human beings?”21 This is the starting point for the preacher and is precisely where he believed the Church needed to be reformed. He argued that preaching from above, that is, imposing a theocentric model, is doomed to fail, particularly when addressing the unchurched. Rather, he believed that the goal is to strive to communicate spiritual reality to those not yet ready to believe, in a way that is respectful and based on a human needs approach and not a theological attack. For Schuller, Church decline is a direct result of the failure to address the emotional and spiritual needs of people. He writes rather emphatically that, “We have been a church first and a mission second. … So the church must be willing to die as a church and be born as a mission.”22 This perspective seeks to take seriously the deepest needs of the people and address them in a manner that connects, in varying degrees, to the biblical and doctrinal witness and the traditions of the Church. The conflict that exists between these perspectives is not a contemporary phenomenon. Martin Luther, a clear proponent of biblical and doctrinal preaching, was concerned about the quality and content of the sermons heard in churches of his day. To remedy the situation he produced several books of sermons that could be read to congregations. Otherwise, Luther reasoned that many clergy were not talented public speakers or properly trained, and left to their own devices “the final result would be that everyone preaches his [her] own whims and instead of the gospel and its exposition, we shall again have sermons on blue ducks.”23 Critics, of course, would likely agree that sermons should not be based on the personal whim of the preacher, but on matters that address the deepest desires and real needs of the people, they might well advocate for a sermon on blue ducks. )RUP6WUXFWXUHDQG6W\OH Practically every human enterprise is embedded with structure or form in some variety. This is particularly true of preaching. Often unnoticed, yet critically important, structure and form allow listeners to organize what they are hearing, select where they might focus attention, as well as engage in their own reflection and personal interpretation. Old preaching manuals provided prescribed structures and forms for sermon preparation. The emphasis was on a certain type of preaching style as being most effective. It appears that it was not until medieval times that sermon form and structure became self-conscious. Thus for the first time a disciplined approach to preaching emerged. The style followed a predictable pattern and outline: 1. the sermon began with a quotation from Scripture; 2. the theme for the sermon was stated; 3. a prayer was offered, and this was followed by; 4. an introduction that included a restatement of the sermon theme; 5. the division (argument) that often included word play and rhyming words; 6. and then a three-point “subdivision.” This perhaps is the precursor to the classic three-point sermon that has been passed on to the modern day. Along with providing structure and form to sermons, it also offered a means for evaluation. Sermons were judged rather objectively against the standard pattern: unity of focus and theme, manner of division, and proof of argument.24 Sermon forms and structures, though often transparent, have their own implicit power. Thomas Long even more emphatically states that the sermon's power is in its “structure not its decoration.”25 The current thinking is that there is not an ideal form to be mastered and imitated, but rather the emphasis is on cultivating a variety of forms in order to hold interest and attention, and perhaps even surprise and delight. There are many sermon models that have been developed, each with many variations. The traditional linear approach in many ways follows the form of the medieval style discussed above. The sermon's structure is basically an outline, complete with headings, points and sub-points, each supporting a stated proposition. Other styles are usually either deductive or inductive in approach. A deductive sermon moves from the presentation of a general truth to the application or illustration of that truth. With this approach there is no ambiguity or discovery. Listeners are given a map and know the destination before setting out. Critics would describe this approach as static and rigid. By way of contrast, an inductive approach moves from the particulars of experience to a general truth. So rather than being told in the introduction what the sermon is about, the listeners are invited on a step-by-step journey that leads to a place of discovery.26 One particular sermon form that bridges both approaches is United Church of Canada professor of homiletics Paul Scott Wilson's “Four- Page” system of sermon preparation. His basic idea is that the sermon consists of four pages: the first page highlights trouble in the biblical text, the second page highlights trouble in the world, the third page highlights grace in the biblical text, and the fourth page highlights grace in the world.27 Worth noting is the flexibility inherent in this system. The pages can be arranged in a linear and deductive manner with the framework quite clear, or the pages can be rearranged in a more organic and random fashion with the framework emerging as the sermon is developed. Whether experimenting with a variety of styles or developing one's own, attention to structure and form is key. The underlying rule is that sermon structures need to reflect the process of thought, follow an ordered process, embody movement from one point to the next, and have a clear beginning, middle, and end. (PERG\LQJWKH:RUG Thomas Troeger, a Yale professor who is a member of both the Presbyterian and Episcopalian denominations, once described homiletics as “theology processed through the body.”28 There is a growing body of homiletical literature devoted to the subject of embodied preaching. Seen often as simply a cerebral and intellectual exercise, this area of study seeks to enliven the preaching task by integrating movement and sensory experience to the preparation and delivery of sermons. Words and concepts appeal to the mind but sometimes we need more than words to convey meaning and understanding. Our lives are filled with rhythms and movement, the biblical narrative is filled with rhythms and movement, and yet if our worship experience is not grounded with rhythm and movement, our words can be empty and our ability to embody the Gospel in the world is diminished.29 The art of homiletics therefore needs to comprehend the notion that preaching is a whole body endeavor. In theological terms, embodied preaching is nothing less than a demonstration of the Holy Spirit. It is the Spirit, that cannot be contained or restrained, that animates the preacher.30 More broadly speaking, by the Spirit's power, the Gospel is not only embodied in the preacher but also in the whole people of God. In her book Transforming Preaching, Episcopal priest and professor of homiletics at Virginia Theological Seminary, Ruthanna Hooke, offers a useful resource for those looking for practical ways to engage with this topic. Utilizing methods to free the voice for proclamation, incorporating yoga to free the breath and body for fuller expression, the goal is to work toward the integration of the mind, body, and spirit.31 A related topic, in terms of a multi-sensory approach to homiletics, is the increased use of audiovisuals in preaching. Many mainline congregations are experimenting with, or have gone completely to, paperless worship services that incorporate PowerPoint slides, music, and movie clips into the sermon itself. Modern humans are becoming increasingly visual, so images and stories have great impact on the imagination and have power to shape consciousness.32 Some argue that in the postmodern era, indirect forms of communication will become the primary grounds for theological discourse. Imagery, including story, facilitates theological insight.33 At the very least knowing that people engage and respond to different learning modes, and striving to offer such variety can be quite powerful and effective in the life of a congregation. Yet, care must be taken that the presentation does not overpower the message and that the focus remains on proclamation. +RZ/RQJ2/RUG+RZ/RQJ" Martin Luther once advised, “When you see your hearers most attentive, there conclude.”34 Perhaps his thinking was that a good sermon really does not end but rather continues on in the hearts and minds of the hearer. Perhaps the sermon evokes an emotional response or elicits some call to action, or ignites some combination of both. At the very least, the sermon may offer a challenge, a new perspective, or an invitation that warrants further reflection. As a general rule, it is best to conclude even while listeners are fully engaged, rather than waning with diminishing attention. If a sermon does follow some basic structure, form, and flow, then it will be readily apparent to hearers when a sermon has reached its conclusion. One only hopes that the preacher realizes this as well. There is much debate about the ideal length of a sermon. In the mainline there remains a wide spectrum of opinion and practice. Some subscribe to the phrase attributed to either Mark Twain or John Wesley, “no souls are saved after the first ten minutes” of the sermon; for others, the first 10 minutes are simply the warm up. While rarely is there heard a complaint that a sermon was too short, there is often comment that perhaps the preacher went on too long. Consistently finding the right balance is a challenge. In reality there are several issues at play. The first is the expectations of the congregation. Even within denominational norms there are local norms, with every congregation exhibiting its own culture around preaching. This culture is molded by past experience and the role of preaching within that particular liturgical context. The sermon might well be viewed as the “main event” of the service whose emphasis might be on the proclaimed Word, or the sermon could be seen as one liturgical component among others that constitute the worship experience. Nevertheless, it is critical that the preacher know the norms, culture, and expectations of the congregation. To ignore them is unwise. This is not to say that the culture cannot be changed, but must be altered with a good measure of care and caution. ,OOXVWUDWLRQV1DUUDWLYHDQGWKH8VHRI+XPRU The use of illustrations, narrative, and humor is not a modern homiletical invention. Jesus expertly employed all three devices in his own preaching and teaching. The popularity of these rhetorical tools has waxed and waned throughout the history of preaching, yet it is clear that medieval monks clearly accepted that part of the preaching task was to utilize illustrations and stories and also seemed to readily accept that entertainment was also part of their role and responsibility.35 The use of illustrations in preaching is literally intended to shed light on, that is, to bring, deeper understanding. For many, the illustrations are the lifeblood of sermons. The most important note about the use of illustrations is that they are congruent with the overall content of the sermon, and not a disconnected addition. The illustration should not merely help make the point of the sermon but actually be the point of the sermon. The continual issue for preachers is first, where to find good sermon illustrations, and second, how to file them so that they are readily available when needed. The best source of sermon illustrations is the preacher's life itself and the development of an eye and ear for potential illustrations that will either connect to the biblical narrative or speak directly to the life of a congregation. Reading and listening widely and paying attention to what is happening in the world will provide a constant stream of sermon resources. Consulting the ecclesiastical calendar (the liturgical seasons and special days), the secular calendar (engagement with the wider culture), and the congregational calendar (major anniversaries, special recognitions, and days that highlight a particular emphasis or program) all are potential sources for sermon illustration. Ministry experience is also a rich source for illustration, particularly in addressing common pastoral issues. It is imperative however that the preacher exercise great care and caution with regard to confidentiality and appropriateness. While it may be true that a preacher's life and faith experience is rife with sermon possibilities, and it is important to notice such possibilities, it is also good advice not to view every life event and experience as a potential sermon illustration. Organizing, storing, and retrieving sermon illustrations present their own set of issues. Some illustrations might be of the nature to have a very short shelf life, while others are more timeless. The temptation with the former is simply to make the sermon fit the illustration rather than the other way around, which is, of course, a temptation that is best to be avoided. The systems that many preachers have devised to catalogue sermon illustrations range from the less scientific “shoebox” method, to the more elaborate filing systems arranged by Bible verses or major biblical themes. Modern computer systems have made the task a bit easier in that a digital search can screen for different criteria, including key words or phrases, as well as a particular passage or theme. And yet, at the same time, internet research capabilities have also complicated the task in the sense that it is easy to be overwhelmed by too many possibilities. The best advice perhaps is for the preacher to trust his or her own experience in the process of identifying and applying illustration from a variety of sources. A particular form of illustration that deserves specific attention is the use of narrative. Without question, Jesus sets the standard in exhibiting both the use and power of story in teaching and preaching. Jesus clearly understood that we are a people of story, that our lives are structured through story, and that the various threads and fragments of our human experience are most often stitched together through story. In preaching, the power of narrative rests on the artistic expression and storytelling abilities of the preacher, and also on the story's ability to become a shared story with those who are hearing it. The use of narrative emphasizes the experiential nature of faith and is effective only if the content somehow connects with the experience of the listeners. The same cautions apply to narrative as they do generally to the use of illustrations. If a story is told simply for the story's sake and remains disconnected to the biblical narrative, the power is lost. Critics of narrative preaching complain that, taken to the extreme, preachers risk giving up solid exposition and rational argument for pulpit drama and storytelling.36 An ongoing debate within the field of homiletics that is directly related to the use of narrative is whether or not personal narrative has a place in pulpit. Some argue that the preacher should never appear in the sermon, and others argue that the preacher must always appear, given that the preached word is an embodied word and therefore must be proclaimed through the personality and life experience of the preacher. As in previous discussions of such homiletical conflicts, the issue is really a matter of degree. The consensus appears to be moving toward the acceptance of self-disclosure and self-revelation, but not without caution and clarification. While personal stories can provide a point of connection with listeners and add a sense of liveliness to the sermon, there is also the risk of the preacher becoming the focus of the sermon and the message getting lost. This is self-indulgence and not self-disclosure. Yet the sharing of personal story can be powerful if used discreetly and selectively. To do so, be clear about the purpose of the story – why should it be told? And also be clear about appropriate personal boundaries: don't embarrass family members, don't break confidences, don't be portrayed as a hero, and don't use the pulpit as a confessional. But having said this, listeners will, no doubt, connect to a preacher who is not a model of perfection, who shares similar struggles, and who is a fellow companion on the journey of faith. If narrative is a form of illustration that warrants attention, and if personal narrative deserves particular examination, then the same special consideration must also be given to the use of humor in preaching. Like other considerations there are opposing views, those who see preaching as weighty and serious with no room for humor, and those who make room for a lighter and less serious approach. The use of humor is a complex issue and raises again the importance of understanding the norms, customs, and culture of the preaching context. Yet, even in congregations where the use of humor is normative, it is important to know where the limits are and abide by them. The same rules apply regarding illustrations in general, if a joke is not connected to the message in a direct and meaningful way, it is best not to use it. If a joke appears to be near the edge of acceptability and appropriateness, it is likely unacceptable and inappropriate. Do remember that the standard of good taste is higher for the preacher than for the general public. And lastly, remember that the only person who it is acceptable to make fun of in a preaching context is the preacher. 7KH&RQYHUVDWLRQ6HUPRQ There are some mainline congregations that are starting to want sermons in a very different form. One of the most popular is the conversation sermon. This is where two people will stage a thoughtful discussion about the biblical texts. One might ask questions and the other reply; one might take a particular interpretation which the other will challenge; one might articulate the hidden thoughts of those listening (“did this really happen”) and the other will engage with those thoughts. Historically, the traditional sermon was important because of the low literacy rates. But in our modern society, where almost everyone has at least a high school diploma, a more conversational sermon might be the way to go. 7KH&KLOGUHQ V6HUPRQ Generally speaking, the churches of the mainline understand and acknowledge that participation in worship is our primary resource for education and formation. Being present in the midst of the worshipping community on a regular basis has the potential to shape and form participants in innumerable ways. If this is true for adults, it is especially true for children. Children do learn by participation, and finding the right and appropriate level of participation is something that requires careful deliberation. The end result is that some congregations have completely separate worship services for children with an age appropriate sermon, while others insist that all of the congregation worships together with a family sermon designed to reach a broad spectrum of ages. Others offer some variation between these two extremes with the children being invited to either come forward for a children's sermon or being invited to another location for a sermon of their own. In reaction to the latter, a cartoon once showed a child standing in the pulpit making an announcement: “At this time I would like for the children to remain seated in the nave and I invite all of the adults to go now to the basement for the sermon.” Our purpose is not to advocate a best practice, but to acknowledge the variation of practices and address the unique issues related to preaching to children. As mentioned, there are those who believe that both adults and children can be reached in the real sermon. The challenging preaching genre of the family sermon seeks to be child-friendly and also to offer sound adult proclamation. The characteristics of this method of preaching include the explicit recognition that children are present and offering them something of their own within the context of the sermon. The use of illustrations and stories provides the ability to catch a child's attention even if they do not understand the whole. Stories in particular allow listeners to engage at various levels of depth and understanding.37 There is also the sermon that is explicitly for children, recognizing the fact that children have their own concerns that need be addressed. It is important to also be aware that children do not come to the preaching event as blank slates but have thoughts and ideas about God and religion and have already come to some conclusions. The children's sermon must, therefore, strive not only to approach children at their level of understanding, but also to respect that they have already embarked on a spiritual journey of their own. The sermon is more than simply a lesson to be taught, but also seeks to invoke active engagement and personal involvement.38 Given that a children's sermon requires the same kind of thought and preparation that goes into any other sermon, there are also some specific things to keep in mind. Children's sermons are not theological essays and, rather than having multiple elements, would do well to have one clearly articulated point. For the same reasons as stated above, fully embodied, well-told (not read) stories are highly effective. This certainly includes the telling of Bible stories bearing in mind that not all stories from the Bible are meant for children. Conventional wisdom is not to add a moral to the story, but that stories should contain something important and also be entertaining.39 Stories told in children's sermons should also be true in some sense of the word. This is an issue of credibility and trust. “Children have every right to expect that the church is a place where they will not be deceived.”40 Without talking down to children, the language of the sermon should be kept simple. This does not mean, however, that children cannot grasp deep meaning. Use of analogy (using something that is easily understood to explain something that is not so easily understood) is one of the best ways that children learn. Object sermons and the use of props enjoy a long history in this homiletical realm. Tangible objects help children think concretely, but can also be confusing if connections are not explicit.41 In terms of delivery, a conversational style, as opposed to a monologue, seems best. Engaging in eye contact and conveying warmth, openness, and positive energy is key. In addition, it is also crucial to pay attention to non-verbal cues. Children are particularly adept at recognizing inconsistencies between the spoken word that says one thing, and body language that conveys another. The Socratic method of asking carefully worded questions is also a popular model. Careful wording is key, given the ample opportunity for surprises and digressions, and the inevitable barrage of answers that might come from a question that is perhaps too open-ended (What costume are you wearing for Halloween?). Even then, however, it is imperative for the preacher to continue to model respect by taking the children seriously and by accepting, and not immediately dismissing, the responses that are offered. There are also the unavoidable interruptions that will occur, that may or may not be relevant to the message of the sermon. Accept them with grace, coach the congregation to respond appropriately, acknowledge the interruption before moving on, and if possible, try to ignore the waving hand at least until after the point of the sermon is made. If the congregation laughs at an innocent comment, the preacher may need to interpret the laughter to the child so that the reaction is understood and the child is not embarrassed.42 +DUG7H[WVDQG&RQWURYHUVLDO6XEMHFWV In much of the mainline, the Sunday scriptures are provided by a common lectionary. While most mainline preachers are not required to follow these prescribed texts, particularly if responding to a specific issue or need of the congregation, most see this intentional 3-year cycle of readings as a gift. Not only does the lectionary provide a broad ecumenical connection between mainline churches, but it also challenges preachers to engage difficult texts that might otherwise never be selected for consideration. The use of the lectionary also offers the opportunity to gain a wider theological perspective by being in conversation with Scripture that spans the breadth of the biblical record: the Hebrew Scriptures, the Psalms, the New Testament Epistles, and the Gospels. There are times when common themes are apparent, there are times when serial readings build from week to week, and there are times when the readings speak directly to a specific feast day or Church season. While broadly embraced and appreciated, the lectionary also has its detractors. Critics usually complain that the system is too confining, or that the editing of certain passages reflects a bias of one sort or another. Still most all agree that even with its imperfections, a common lectionary is a great blessing. When in conversation with the weekly cycle of readings, the preacher is free to discern whether or not to engage a difficult text that arises. If the preacher finds a particular passage uncomfortable or particularly interesting, chances are that the congregation may as well. In that case, further exploration might well be in order. In addition to difficult texts, there are also difficult topics that confront the mainline preacher. While most mainline congregations would resist a constant diet of sermons focused on current social, economic, or political issues, they might well also resist the complete absence of them. Again, finding balance and proportion is key. Preaching too often on controversial subjects risks deafening the ears of the congregation, while avoiding controversial subjects altogether risks suggesting that the Christian faith is irrelevant and has nothing to offer to the conversation. When engaging a controversial subject in a sermon, it is important to try to ground the concern theologically, do your best to provide accurate information, be respectful and acknowledge that there are other opinions, find ways to engage the congregation in dialogue apart from the sermon, and keep things in the proper perspective.43 It is important that the message is sound or really seeks to be the Word of God at that time. Speak with truth as best you know it, speak with love born out of a common relationship, and always speak of hope. Despair is never an appropriate response for the people of God. But what if there is no good news to be found in a difficult passage or when addressing a controversial subject? Augustine again comes to our aid. He advises that it is important for the preacher to keep studying the Scripture until we have found something that contributes to the law of love and the primacy of God's grace. Yet, if all else fails, and nothing is found, then we are free to invoke the resurrection hermeneutic.44 That is, we can be assured of the fact that the narrative of salvation is at the center of Scripture and is embedded in every text. The cross and resurrection have changed everything. All of creation, and all of the Bible, can be interpreted through the lens of new and unending life. &RPPRQ7KUHDGV Feeling a bit under the weather one Sunday morning, a wife once insisted that her husband go on to church without her. Feeling much better when he returned at midday, she was anxious to hear about the service. “What was the preacher's sermon about this morning?” She asked. After pausing to think for a moment he replied, “I don't know, he never really said.” In this chapter we have looked at the preaching task from various perspectives. We do not presume to advance one style or method of preaching over another, nor do we wish to offer techniques for imitation. What we do advocate and what we do encourage is the development of one's own style and method that emphasizes the skills that come naturally, that offers the challenge of continued growth, and that is exercised in a manner that fosters flexibility and variety (which can be the spice of life for the congregation as well as the preacher). Whether preaching is done from the pulpit or the center aisle, with a full manuscript, simply an outline, or with no notes at all, each style of preaching can be completely effective, each has its own strengths and weaknesses, and there is a great preacher somewhere who utilizes that very method. The purpose of this section is to look for common threads amid the wide range of homiletic expression. Regardless of sermon type, unity of theme is of great importance. The ability to articulate the very heart and essence of a sermon in one sentence is a useful discipline. This carefully crafted theme, stated several ways in the body of the text, will leave no doubt as to the content and aim of the sermon. While every preacher will develop his or her own strategy and habits of preparation, and each will develop his or her own weekly rhythms and routines, we strongly advise that one of those habits be the building of the sermon around one, unified, clearly stated theme. We believe that the difference between a good sermon and a great sermon is not necessarily what was included in the delivery, but what was excluded in the preparation. Revise. Revise. Revise. Edit. Edit. Edit. Delete. Delete. Delete. “God does not do for preachers what they can do for themselves.”45 Continue to refine the sermon with an ear toward how the sermon sounds. The sermon is not the presentation of a written essay but a spoken encounter with the living Word of God. Practice. Practice. Practice. Say it out loud. Listen to the words. Visualize the sermon. Imagine yourself preaching it and imagine the congregation hearing it. Look for rough places, be mindful of transitions, and pay attention to grammar and word choice. Keep refining. The sermon is not over until it is preached. It is a gift to know which method of preaching works best for you and best serves the hearers within the congregation. Part of determining that method requires the discernment of the preacher's most authentic self, so that the person inside the pulpit matches the person outside the pulpit. This involves being conscious of one's conversational voice quality and tone and then matching that tone with natural gestures and expressions. It involves a sense of humility as well as a sense of humor. It involves taking preaching more seriously and ourselves less seriously. It involves self-awareness as well as self-forgetfulness. Many in the field of homiletics speak of the preacher's need to be transparent, that is, to remove oneself and get out of God's way. Ruthanna Hooke reminds us that this is not helpful advice for preachers. In the first place it is impossible, and second, it is not sufficiently incarnational. The preacher is not alone in the pulpit: his or her presence offers a quality of presence that is beyond words.46 We are best as preachers when we are our best and most authentic selves. Tom Long puts it simply and well, “no words have more credibility that those of a truthful preacher.”47 Another common thread is passion. Preachers are to say what they believe and believe what they say. Embodying the Word, indeed incarnating the Word, requires not simply empathy toward the text, but the engagement of personal feeling and emotion. What genuinely comes from the heart and mind of the preacher will genuinely go to the heart and mind of the listener. Preaching with passion communicates more than words on a page; it communicates the living Word of the living God, who is present in the midst of a living people. It is also good advice that once the sermon is preached, let it go. Remember that in the mainline the sermon is part of the whole of the service of worship and not its entirety. Remember that everything does not rest on one sermon. Remember that listeners wander in and out of even the best of sermons and connect in different places and at different levels and are moved in any number of ways. So much of what happens in the preaching event is a glorious mystery and, in the end, is best entrusted to God. In closing, perhaps the common threads of good preaching are most beautifully and best described by Episcopalian author and priest Barbara Brown Taylor: “Genuineness in presentation, clarity of thought, appropriate humor, faithfulness to the biblical text, attention to the sacred dimensions of everyday life and imaginative language.”48 The preaching life ultimately involves the offering of one's personal faith for the sake of the faith of others. The sermon is ultimately God communicating not only in words, but also in and through preachers created in God's own image. 1RWHV 1. Richard Lischer, Theories of Preaching: Selected Readings in the Homiletical Tradition (Durham, NC: The Labyrinth Press, 1987), 338. 2. John S. McClure, ed., Best Advice for Preaching (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1998), 14. 3. Robert Farrar Capon, The Foolishness of Preaching: Proclaiming the Gospel Against the Wisdom of the World (Grand Rapids, MI and Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1998), 55. 4. Robert G. Hughes and Robert Kysar, Preaching Doctrine: For the Twenty-First Century (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress, 1997), 1. 5. Ibid., 3–10. 6. Michael Pasquarello, III, Sacred Rhetoric: Preaching as a Theological and Pastoral Practice of the Church (Grand Rapids, MI and Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2005), 135. 7. Paul Scott Wilson, A Concise History of Preaching (Nashville, TN: Abington Press, 1992), 9–25. 8. Ibid., 18. 9. Thomas G. Long, The Witness of Preaching, Second edition (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 225. 10. Capon, Foolishness of Preaching, 129. 11. Barbara Brown Taylor, The Preaching Life (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1993), 76. 12. Long, Witness of Preaching, 15–18. 13. Lischer, Theories of Preaching, 137. 14. Ibid., 187. 15. Rowan Williams, A Ray of Darkness (Cambridge and Boston, MA: Cowley Publications, 1995), vii. 16. Long, Witness of Preaching, 18. 17. Lischer, Theories of Preaching, 338. 18. Hughes and Kysar, Preaching Doctrine, 10–14. 19. Jane Rzepka and Ken Sawyer, Thematic Preaching: An Introduction (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2001), 3–5. 20. Lischer, Theories of Preaching, 291. 21. Robert H. Schuller, Self Esteem: The New Reformation (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1982), 13. 22. Ibid., 12. 23. Rzepka and Sawyer, Thematic Preaching, 4. 24. Wilson, Concise History of Preaching, 71. 25. Long, Witness of Preaching, 117. 26. Rzepka and Sawyer, Thematic Preaching, 71. 27. Long, Witness of Preaching, 128. 28. Pamela Ann Moeller, A Kinesthetic Homiletic: Embodying Gospel in Preaching (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1998), 7. 29. Ibid., 2–8. 30. James Henry Harris, The Word Made Plain: The Power and Promise of Preaching (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 2004), 83. 31. Ruthanna B. Hooke, Transforming Preaching (New York: Church Publishing, 2010), 6. 32. Hughes and Kysar, Preaching Doctrine, 56. 33. Ibid., 73. 34. Long, Witness of Preaching, 192. 35. Rzepka and Sawyer, Thematic Preaching, 68. 36. James Henry Harris, The Word Made Plain: The Power and Promise of Preaching (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 2004), 113. 37. William H. Armstrong, Thinking Through the Children's Sermon (Cleveland, OH: The Pilgrims Press, 2006), 13. 38. Ibid., 12–33. 39. Ibid., 11–62. 40. Rzepka and Sawyer, Thematic Preaching, 93. 41. Armstrong, Thinking through Children's Sermon, 11–62. 42. Ibid., 87–94. 43. Rzepka and Sawyer, Thematic Preaching, 127. 44. Wilson, Concise History of Preaching, 66. 45. McClure, Best Advice for Preaching, 85. 46. Hooke, Transforming Preaching, 22. 47. Long, Witness of Preaching, 29. 48. McClure, Best Advice for Preaching, 8. $QQRWDWHG%LEOLRJUDSK\ Allen, Ronald J., The Teaching Sermon (Nashville, TN: Abington Press, 1995). The Bible and the tradition of the Church can bring continuity and identity in an age marked by chaos and confusion. The author contends that the teaching of the Christian faith is the primary way to connect congregations to the power and purpose of the living God. Armstrong, William H., Thinking Through the Children's Sermon (Cleveland, OH: The Pilgrims Press, 2006). Making children's sermons more meaningful and edifying is the one goal of this book. Too often done poorly and hastily, Armstrong advocates taking the children's sermon seriously and offering children something that specifically addresses their needs, is something of their own, and acknowledges and respects their presence. Bond, L. Susan, Contemporary African American Preaching: Diversity in Theory and Style (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2003). Bond shows that, contrary to popular opinion, a monolithic black preaching style does not exist. Rather, there are a variety of preaching theories and styles that actually characterize African American preaching at the close of the twentieth century. Clark, Neville, Preaching in Context: Word, Worship, and the People of God (Stowmarket, UK: Kevin Mayhew Ltd, 1991). Writing from the Free Church tradition, Clark decries the development of a separate discipline called “homiletics.” This development, he contends, has “obscured the synoptic vision and unified understanding of both the Church and Ministry (p. 7).” This book is an attempt to restore the balance. Farrar Capon, Robert, The Foolishness of Preaching: Proclaiming the Gospel Against the Wisdom of the World (Grand Rapids, MI and Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1998). The book incorporates the lectures given by the author, at the Seabury-Western Theological Seminary in 1996. There is one consistent point made in these lectures: nothing counts but the cross. The author contends that the problem with modern day preachers is that they tell us nothing of the dark center of the gospel – that we are saved in our deaths and not by our efforts to lead a good life. Harris, James Henry, The Word Made Plain: The Power and Promise of Preaching (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 2004). Citing that the Black Church is the only institution in American institutional life that is owned, operated, and controlled by blacks, Harris writes of the unique preaching culture that developed in this context. Hooke, Ruthanna B., Transforming Preaching (New York: Church Publishing, 2010). In this work, the author, a professor of homiletics at the Virginia Theological Seminary, does two things. First, she explores the nature of preaching. Second, she offers interviews with some of the most effective and engaging preachers of the Episcopal Church today. Hughes, Robert G. and Kysar, Robert, Preaching Doctrine: For the Twenty-First Century (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress, 1997). This useful resource documents the major cultural changes affecting twenty-first century preachers. No longer able to assume even basic knowledge about the Christian faith or traditions, the task of the preacher is to use the experience of people as a frame of reference for deeper engagement with the biblical narrative and the traditions of the Church. Lischer, Richard, Theories of Preaching: Selected Readings in the Homiletical Tradition (Durham, NC: The Labyrinth Press 1987). A systematic sampling of preaching throughout the ages utilizing and excerpting the sermons and writings of a wide variety of preachers, the author identifies major themes in preaching and then offers primary sources that exemplify a particular theme. Long, Thomas G., The Witness of Preaching, Second edition (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005). A second edition of this classic text, Long offers a comprehensive and thorough introduction to the practice of preaching and the formation preachers. Moving from text to proclamation he engages the best of contemporary scholarship and also offers a resource of best practices. McClure, John S., ed., Best Advice for Preaching (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1998). This book is an experiment in collaborative homiletical wisdom derived from a cross-section of 27 renowned preachers and teachers of preaching. Contributors responded to a questionnaire regarding best advice for preachers covering a wide range of topics related to the preaching task. Moeller, Pamela Ann, A Kinesthetic Homiletic: Embodying Gospel in Preaching (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1998). Sometimes we need more than words in order to make the transition from hearing the Gospel to living it to in the rest of the week. Words and concepts appeal only to the intellect. This work merges the Gospel with kinesthesia and seeks to incorporate movement, sensory experience, and memory as a result of movement, into biblical proclamation. Moseley, Dan, Healing Relationships: A Preaching Model (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2009). A series of sermons preached at Chautauqua Institute that includes the author's personal reflections of his own life as a preacher following the death of his wife. The overarching theme is the task of preaching to help heal the breach that exists between God and the created order. Page, Sue, Away with Words: A Training Book on the Whole Spectrum of Christian Communication (London: Lynx Communications SPCK, 1998). The author believes that the essential communication of faith already exists within each one of us. We are the channels for divine communication, not just in words, but also in what we are and do. Pasquarello Michael, III, Sacred Rhetoric: Preaching as a Theological and Pastoral Practice of the Church (Grand Rapids, MI and Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2005). The aim of this book is to glean wisdom from the past in order to inform the present and shape the future. If the most serious challenge of modern preaching is the separation from the larger narrative of Scripture, then the remedy lies in rejoining the craft of preaching with the study of theology. Rzepka, Jane and Sawyer, Ken, Thematic Preaching: An Introduction (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2001). The authors, both Unitarian Universalists, lead the preacher through a broad range of homiletical resources and ideas. They offer a uniquely practical and comprehensive guide to contemporary preaching. Schuller, Robert H., Self Esteem: The New Reformation (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1982). If the core of most religious thinking is distorted by fear, guilt, and mistrust, the corrective, according to Schuller, is embracing the divine dignity that God intended to be our emotional birthright as children created in his image. This book outlines Schuller's understanding of the importance of self-love and the practice of pastoral psychology using the Lord's Prayer as a framework for his discussion. Williams, Rowan, A Ray of Darkness (Cambridge and Boston, MA: Cowley Publications, 1995). Former Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams offers this sermon collection with the cautionary words that sermons are events, moments in time, and not static written texts. These sermons were written in specific places, for a specific people, in a specific time. In addition to emphasizing the importance of context in preaching, the hope is, of course, that these sermons might speak in some way to a broader and more general audience. Wilson, Paul Scott, A Concise History of Preaching (Nashville, TN: Abington Press, 1992). Wilson offers a brief but rather comprehensive tour of the history of preaching. Dividing this rather large scope of work into four eras (Early Church, Middle Ages, Reformation, and Modern Times), the author identifies the major issues and offers selections from a few major preachers of each era. (WKLFVLQWKH0DLQOLQH The sense that faith is linked to character formation is widespread. Indeed for many Christians, the whole purpose of being religious is to be ethical. The precise relationship between faith and ethics is complex. It touches on such historic debates as “faith and works” and “holiness, perfection, and sanctification.” However, it is important that a leader of a congregation is aware of the dynamics underpinning the ethical and faith formation. To start thinking about these dynamics, we shall now look at ethical methodology and ethical issues. Ethical methodology refers to the “approach or method of deciding ethical questions”; the ethical issues are “the current ethical questions of the day.” This chapter divides the discussion of ethics in the mainline into three different headings – sources, expressions, and issues. Each of these issues will now be discussed in turn. 6RXUFHV 1DWXUDO/DZ The Natural Law approach is the primary ethical methodology of the Roman Catholic Church. However, both the Anglicans and the Methodists have been influenced by this approach. Natural Law theorists claim that the approach has its roots in the thought and writing of Aristotle. It was Aristotle who provided the biological framework for the discourse. Aristotle believed that everything in nature was striving to realize its appropriate “end” (telos in Greek). So a little acorn has the natural end of becoming an oak tree. According to Aristotle the “right” thing for that acorn is to be left unimpeded and allowed to become an oak tree. It was the great Dominican friar of the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas, who baptized this approach and made it central to his approach to Christian ethics. Aquinas argued that God as creator had built into creation the purposes (the natural end) of each part. Using human reason (so without reference to revelation – e.g. the Bible), all people should be able to work out what is right and good. So, for example, given it takes a mother and a father biologically to produce a child, and that child then needs care from her or his parents, the institution of marriage and family are God-intended goods. For Aquinas, families, community, even the State, are God-intended goods. This approach is most controversial when applied to the realm of human sexuality. Here Roman Catholic theorists argue that the purposes of sexual intimacy include procreation. Therefore any sexual activity that is not open to the procreative possibility is not “good.” This is the root of Roman Catholic opposition to contraception, masturbation, and homosexuality. Many mainline theorists are sympathetic to the method of Natural Law, while dissenting from the particular application of Natural Law to sexuality. In the Anglican tradition, many Anglo-Catholics (Anglicans who stress the Catholic nature of the Anglican tradition) make this approach central. V.A. Demant, for example, became a prime mover behind the 1940s “Christendom” movement in England, which wanted to see “a social order in which the conscious leadership would be guided by an understanding of the essential nature of the human being, the term ‘nature’ being used here of what man is in the order of creatures.”1 This approach has been popular with Anglicans and Methodists. The founder of the Lutherans, Martin Luther, viewed with deep suspicion the Natural Law approach to ethics. He felt that the whole approach owed too much to “pagan philosophy” (which is true) and that it ignored the impact of the Fall. For Luther, when Adam and Eve sinned in the Garden of Eden, the human capacity to discern the truth about ethics also became difficult. The impact of the Fall extended to human reason, which is where our capacity to grasp Natural Law resides. For Luther, we need redemption, the Church, and Scripture to help us see the ethical. Luther's critique meant that, for Lutherans, Scripture was more important than Natural Law when it comes to thinking about the moral life. 6FULSWXUH As we have seen elsewhere the study of Scripture is central to the craft of priesthood. Scripture tells the story of the incarnation of God in Jesus of Nazareth. It is inescapably central. All the mainline traditions take Scripture seriously. All ethical reports from the mainline have a section on the Bible. However, the mainline are agreed that the use of Scripture in ethics is difficult. The Bible is a collection of books, covering over 1800 years of history (from the approximate time of Abraham to Paul). The ethical injunctions range from the bizarre – “you shall not boil a kid in its mother's milk” (Deuteronomy 14:21) – to the profound – “you shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Leviticus 19:18). Deciding how to interpret the witness of Scripture is a challenge. Most mainline traditions insist that you cannot take a “proof texting approach.” So the fact that capital punishment is encouraged in the Old Testament does not make it binding to us now. Instead one takes one of two strategies to handle the witness of Scripture. The first is a thematic approach. Richard Hays (a Methodist), in his The Moral Vision of the New Testament argues that Scripture should be read through a thematic prism of three images: community, cross, and new creation. Hays explains that on community he means, “The Church is a countercultural community of discipleship, and this community is the primary addressee of God's imperative.”2 On cross, he means, “Jesus' death on a cross is a paradigm for faithfulness to God in this world.”3 And on new creation, he means, “The church embodies the power of the resurrection in the midst of a not-yet- redeemed world.”4 Using these images, he moves from a descriptive task (that takes the distinctive approach of each author in the New Testament seriously), to a more systematic account of New Testament ethics viewed in terms of the three predominant themes. So for example, Hays tends to be sympathetic to divorce and remarriage, but nervous about the affirmation of same-sex intimacy. The second approach makes the Incarnation central. As we saw in previous chapters, it was Karl Barth (a giant who has influenced much of the mainline, especially in its more reformed forms) who insisted that it is important to recognize the centrality of the Word Made Flesh in our theology and ethics. “In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God and the Word was God,” writes the author of John's Gospel in its opening verse. The primary disclosure of God is the incarnation of Jesus. Thus the incarnation should be our primary guide when thinking about the moral life (or, our natural ends – the ways God calls us to live in the world). For Barth, Scripture becomes the Word of God as it witnesses to the Word Made Flesh. A recent and important study of Christian ethics has made this approach central. Richard Burridge, an Anglican, has argued that the unifying theme of the New Testament is the “imitation of Christ.”5 The purpose of the Gospels is to encourage us to live as Christ lived. And the interesting challenge of that ethic is that Jesus is constantly calling us to perfection (“be ye perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect”), yet constantly including us when we struggle. For Burridge, these twin themes of an exacting call to holiness runs parallel with an inclusive community, where all voices need to be heard. ([SHULHQFH The above sources for mainline ethics are all influenced by patriarchy and other forms of oppression. In recent years, there has been a growing literature suggesting that deep injustices are not going to be exposed or challenged unless “experience” is taken seriously as a source for moral reflection. By “experience,” we mean the human story as lived, especially the story of the oppressed. Two narratives are becoming more important for Christian ethics – the liberationist and the feminist. The first was provoked by the Roman Catholic movement known as Liberation Theology, which has had a major impact on the mainline. A Theology of Liberation by Gustavo Gutiérrez is rightly acclaimed as a classic. His point is simple: any faith that does not take seriously oppression here and now is not a true heir to the biblical faith. He draws attention to the major themes of the exodus (release from actual slavery), the eighth-century prophets, and the Jesus of Luke's Gospel. He was accused of importing Marxism in

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