Agricultural Extension and Communication Review PDF

**Agricultural Extension** **and** **Communication** Contributors: Ms. Filma C. Calalo Prof. Nelita M. Lalican Dr. Ramiro F. Plopino Dr. Blanda R. Sumayao **AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION** I. Specific Knowledge Areas and Competences Knowledgeable and competent in agricultural te...

**Agricultural Extension** **and** **Communication** Contributors: Ms. Filma C. Calalo Prof. Nelita M. Lalican Dr. Ramiro F. Plopino Dr. Blanda R. Sumayao **AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION** I. Specific Knowledge Areas and Competences Knowledgeable and competent in agricultural teaching methods and communications specifically in the areas of extension objective, principles and programs, procedure of different extension teaching methods, and purposes, scope and levels of communication. II\. Professional Core Subjects in Specific Areas Extension and Communication objectives, programs and principles of extension interrelationship of research and extension communication processes and elements. scope and levels as they relate to extension factor to consider in effective communication like the adoption process, types of adopters and attributes of technology. Includes methods of extension and their relationship to adoption process and approaches to extension 1\. Overview of Agricultural Extension 1.1 Definition of terms 1.2 History of Extension 1.3 Phi losophy, Principles and Objectives of Extension 2\. Extension as One of the Major Functions of a University/College 2.1 Functions of a University 2.2 Interrelationship of the different functions of a college/university 2.3 Sources of lnformation and Technologies 3\. Communication in Extension 3.1 Importance of communication 3.2 Elements of communication process 3.3 Levels of communication 3.4 Extension Workers as a Communicator 3.5 Barriers to effective communication 4\. Extension as an Intervention 4.1 Technical Intervention vs. Intervening with People 4.2 Methods for Influencing Human Behavior 4.3 Strategies for Influencing Farmer's Behavior 4.4 Considerations in the Choice of Strategy 5\. The Adoption Process 5.1 Stages of Adoption Process 5.2 Types of Adopters 6\. Attribute of Technology Relative Advantage Complexity Compatibility Trialability Observability 7\. Methods/Techniques of Extension 7.1 Definition of Methods/Technologies 7.2 Factors to consider in the choice of extension teaching 7.3 Extension teaching methods according to number of clientele to be observed 8\. Approaches in Extension 8\. I Mass Approach 8.3 Area Approach 8.4 Team approach 8.5 Individual Approach 8.6 Integrated Approach 8.7 Training and Visit Approach 9\. The Decentralized Agricultural Extension in the Philippines 10\. Agricultural Extension and the AFMA **References:** Adhikarya, Ronny. Strategic Extension Campaign. A Participatory-Oriented Method of Agricultural Extension. A Case Study of FAO's Experiences. Rome, Italy. 1994 Beal G. et al. Leadership and Dynamic Group Action Berlo, David K. Process of Communication Introduction of Theory and Practice. Holt, Rinehart and Winston New York; 1960.318 pp. Chang, Chi-Wen. Rural Asia Marches Forward. University of the Philippines. College of Agriculture, College, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 1969 Dacanay, Remedios C. Extension Methods and Approaches. Mimeographed. Di Franco T. Some Aspects of Extension Work. Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences of the OAS\_AID Turralba, Costa Rica. May 1963, Vol. DiFranco T Some Aspects of Extension Work. Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences of the OAS\_AID Turralba, Costa Rica. January 1966, Vol II. Effective Delivery of Extension Services and the Masagana '99 Program -- 1st Agricultural Proceedings. Maunder, Addison H. Agricultural Extension - A Reference Manual Food and Agriculture Association of the United Nations. Rome 1972. Medina, Amadea& Rufina R. Ancheta. Agriculture and Home Extension: In the Philippine Setting. Publisher's Press, Quezon City, Philippines. 1978 Mercado. Methods in Agricultural Extension Teaching Manual Report of the Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension. Rome, Italy, December 4-8, 1989\. Prepared by the Agricultural Education and Extension Service (ESHE). Human Resources; Institutional Agrarian Reform Division with the editorial Assistance of Burton E. Swanson. Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations Rome 1990. Sanders, H.C. The Cooperative Extension Service. Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N. 1. 1969 **THE BEGINNlNGS OF EXTENSION** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The Distant Origins | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1800 BC*** | In Mesopotamia (present day | | | Iraq), archeologists have | | | unearthed clay of tablets of time | | | on which were inscribed advice on | | | watering crops and getting rid of | | | rats. | | | | | | Some hieroglyphics on Egyptian | | | columns gave advice on avoiding | | | crop damage and loss of life in | | | Nile's floods | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***2nd century BC to 3rd century | Latin texts were written, | | BC*** | frequently drawing on practical | | | farming experience which aimed to | | | help Roman landowners to maintain | | | and improve their estates and | | | revenues. | | | | | | In Imperial China, dissemination | | | of agricultural information was a | | | matter of concern to the state | | | since it heavily relied on taxes | | | and revenues from landowners and | | | tenants. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The 19^th^ Century England | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1840s** | The term "University Extension" | | | or "Extension of the University" | | | was first recorded in Britain. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1850s** | Discussions began in two ancient | | | universities (Oxford & Cambridge) | | | about how they could serve the | | | needs of the rapidly growing | | | population in the industrial and | | | urban areas. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1867-1868*** | First practical steps were taken | | | by James Stuart, Fellow of | | | Trinity College in Cambridge, | | | gave lectures to women's | | | associations and men's clubs in | | | the North of England; Stuart is | | | often considered the '*Father of | | | University Extension*' | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1871** | James Stuart appealed to | | | authorities of University of | | | Cambridge to organize *centers | | | for extension lectures* under the | | | university's supervision. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1872** | University of Cambridge adopted | | | the system. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1876** | University of London followed | | | Cambridge | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1878** | University of Oxford followed the | | | system. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1880** | The system became | | | well-established and developed | | | and was referred to as *extension | | | movement;* the University | | | extended its use beyond the | | | campus; thus, extension became | | | more *institutionalized function* | | | of the universities. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Birth of modern Agricultural | | | Extension Services | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **In EUROPE** | Founding of the Royal | | | Agricultural Improvement Society | | **1841** | (RAIS) in Britain | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1845** | The first agricultural extension | | | service came into existence as a | | | result of the outbreak of the | | | potato blight in Ireland where | | | the predominantly peasant | | | community relied on potatoes as | | | staple food. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1847** | The Earl of Claredon urged the | | | RAIS to appoint itinerant | | | lecturers to travel around the | | | distressed districts to help | | | farmers improve their cultivation | | | and grow nutritious crops. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1890s** | The Universities began to cover | | | Agricultural Subjects in | | | lectures. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **In USA** | There are two developments | | | significant to the evolution of | | **1850s** | the agricultural extension in | | | USA; (1) Morill Act of 1862 was | | | signed by Pres. Lincoln during | | | the Civil War providing for the | | | creation of Land Grant Colleges | | | and Universities. Funds were made | | | available from the Federal | | | Government to establish | | | demonstration | | | centers/experimental stations. | | | (2) The beginning of Farmers | | | Institute Movements which | | | organized one-to-two day meetings | | | for the farmers and invited | | | professors from the state | | | colleges and universities as | | | speakers. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1890** | American Society for Extension of | | | University Teaching was | | | established. | | | | | | Second Morill Act was passed | | | which extended Land-Grant concept | | | in other areas of USA. The | | | Farmers Institute Movement has | | | been institutionalized with | | | Federal support and supervision. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1891** | The University of Chicago and | | | Wisconsin began organizing | | | extension program which lead to | | | the establishment of Land Grant | | | College and the formal | | | establishment of agricultural | | | extension work in the country. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **1914** | Passage of the *Smith-Lever Act* | | | which established the | | | *Cooperative Extension Service*-a | | | tripartite cooperation between | | | the federal, state, and local | | | government together with the | | | state colleges and universities | | | as extension agency. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Agricultural Extension in | | | Developing Countries | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1940s - 1960s*** | Agricultural extension | | | organizations were established in | | | Latin America and the Caribbean. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1960s - 1970s*** | Most extension organizations were | | | started in many African nations. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **AGRlCULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES: HlSTORICAL PERSPECTIVE** (Source: Sison, Obdulia F., 1987) +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | DATE | SIGNIFICANT EFFECT | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1565*** | The beginnings of extension work | | | thru the Granjas Modelos or model | | | farms that were set up. They | | | served as: | | | | | | Experimental stations of the | | | Spanish government | | | | | | Demonstration centers for | | | farmers | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***Towards end of the 18th | Extension also had regulatory | | Century*** | functions such as supervision of | | | tobacco fields and grading of | | | tobacco leaves for export. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***October 8, 1901*** | Beginning of extension work under | | | the American regime | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***April 30, 1902*** | Establishment of the Bureau of | | | Agriculture under the Department | | | of Interior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***July 1910*** | Demonstration and Extension | | | Division was created in the | | | Bureau of Agriculture making it | | | the first formally organized | | | government department | | | implementing extension and | | | research programs. | | | | | | Several experiment stations and | | | demonstration farms were set up | | | in strategic places in the | | | country. | | | | | | Agricultural schools were also | | | established to educate and train | | | government agricultural extension | | | workers and others engaged in | | | agriculture. (Note: The College | | | of Agriculture, University of the | | | Philippines was established on | | | March 6, 1909). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***July 10, 1919*** | The extension service | | | organization was made a separate | | | unit of the Bureau of Agriculture | | | as the Demonstration and | | | Extension Division. Its expanded | | | operations included: | | | | | | Farmers' cooperative | | | organizations | | | | | | Rural credit | | | | | | Marketing | | | | | | Animal insurance | | | | | | Persons engaged in this work were | | | called farm advisers. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1923*** | The name of the Division was | | | changed to *Agricultural | | | Extension Service*. | | | | | | Other events that took place: | | | | | | Start of the Home Extension | | | work (later known as the Division | | | of Home Economics) under the | | | Division of Organic Chemistry of | | | the Bureau of Science. Main | | | service was on food preservation. | | | | | | Miss Maria Y. Orosa founded the | | | home extension service. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1929*** | Bureau of Agriculture was | | | reorganized. The Bureau of Animal | | | Industry (BAI) and the Bureau of | | | Plant Industry (BPI) were formed. | | | Both Bureaus continued to expand | | | their extension activities. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1936*** | Commonwealth Act 85 was passed. | | | lt established the provincial | | | extension services financed by | | | the provincial and municipal | | | governments. Some significant | | | results: | | | | | | A broader and more | | | comprehensive agricultural system | | | emerged | | | | | | Extension service in the | | | Philippines became a serious | | | organized business | | | | | | The positions of the Provincial | | | Agriculturists were created | | | | | | Farm advisers were now called | | | extension agents. | | | | | | Some constraints: | | | | | | The home economics group were | | | in the Plant Utilization Division | | | of the BPI | | | | | | Insufficiency of funds | | | | | | Unsystematic, scattered, and | | | decentralized agricultural | | | extension. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***No Date*** | Enactment of Commonwealth Act 649 | | | which increased the budget for | | | extension work. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1942-1945*** | Japanese Occupation | | | | | | Home economics and agricultural | | | extension work, particularly in | | | the provinces suffered drawbacks. | | | Extension work was paralyzed | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1947*** | The Home Extension Unit of the | | | Plant Utilization Division of BPI | | | was fused with the Agricultural | | | Extension of the Bureau. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1950*** | Upon request of the President of | | | the Philippines to the President | | | of the USA to send to the | | | Philippines an *Economic Survey | | | Mission* "to consider financial | | | problems of the country and to | | | recommend measures that will | | | enable the Philippines to become | | | and remain self-supporting". The | | | *Bell Survey Mission* came to the | | | Philippines. Its recommendation | | | among others: The consolidation | | | of the scattered extension | | | organization in the different | | | Bureaus (BPI, BAI, Bureau of | | | Soils, Bureau of Forestry, and | | | Bureau of Fisheries) into one | | | bureau that would adequately | | | extend information into farm | | | families on improved methods of | | | farming, homemaking, and rural | | | organization. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***July 1952*** | Creation of the *Bureau of | | | Agricultural Extension (BAEx)* | | | through RA No. 680 enacted by the | | | Congress of the Republic of the | | | Philippines. This was in response | | | to the Bell Mission's | | | recommendation. All extension | | | activities of the Department of | | | Agriculture and Natural Resources | | | became the responsibility of | | | BAEx. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***August 8, 1963*** | The BAEx was renamed the | | | Agricultural Productivity | | | Commission (APC) placed under the | | | Office of the President. Under | | | the APC, the Agricultural Tenancy | | | Commission was organized as a | | | separate office. | | | | | | The APC, the Land Authority, the | | | Agricultural Credit | | | Administration, and the Land Bank | | | were placed at the "Crest of the | | | land reform program". | | | | | | [Positive | | | Consequence:] A | | | concentrated technical assistance | | | because of the teaming up of | | | agriculturist, home | | | demonstrators, and 4\~H club | | | officers in carrying out the | | | responsibility in the integrated | | | national land reform program. | | | | | | [Negative | | | Consequence:] It | | | revived the all | | | intra-departmental jealousies. | | | Resentments arose from other | | | agencies that were covered by the | | | program. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***No Date*** | Creation of the Rice and Com | | | Authority (RCA) through Executive | | | Order No. 62. RCA extended credit | | | for seeds, pesticides, and | | | harvesting. It also had a | | | fertilizer subsidy program for | | | participating farmers. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1965*** | Reconceptualization of the rice | | | self-sufficiency program to | | | include rice production, | | | marketing, and distribution and | | | the consolidation, integration, | | | and the concentration of | | | government as well as private | | | sector resources. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1969*** | The National Food and Agriculture | | | Council (NFAC) emerged by Virtue | | | of Executive Order No. 183. It | | | was given full control of the | | | food production program and so | | | controlled a large portion of | | | funds for agriculture and the | | | funding from the U.S. | | | Administration for international | | | Development (USAlD). The NFAC | | | assumed a major responsibility | | | for overseeing the effective | | | delivery of the agricultural | | | extension services for the entire | | | country. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1972*** | Declaration of Martial Law. | | | Several organizational changes | | | affecting agricultural extension | | | took place. | | | | | | Presidential Decree No.1 and | | | Presidential Letter of | | | Implementation | | | | | | (Nov. 1, 1973) reverted the APC | | | to its original name, BAEx. | | | | | | Functions and personnel in | | | cooperatives were transferred to | | | the | | | | | | Department of Local Government | | | and Community Development | | | | | | (DLGCD). | | | | | | PD 970 abolished the Bureau of | | | Farm Management of the Department | | | | | | of Agrarian Reform and | | | transferred its extension | | | function to BAEx. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***July 1, 1973*** | BAEx was again placed under the | | | DA. Also, the Abaca and other | | | Fibers Board was fused with the | | | BAEx. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1977*** | The World Bank Mission was | | | requested by the Philippine | | | Government to appraise the | | | country's agricultural extension | | | service. Results: | | | | | | The Philippines adopted the | | | Training and Visit (T&V) system | | | | | | The proposal for the National | | | Extension Project (NEP) was | | | approved | | | | | | and became operational on March | | | 27, 1979. | | | | | | The World Bank approved a loan | | | of US \$35 M. | | | | | | The Philippine agricultural | | | extension service was | | | strengthened with facilities and | | | resources acquired through the | | | World Bank-Assisted NEP. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1978*** | Ministry-wide regional offices | | | were created in the Ministry of | | | Agriculture by virtue of PD 1579. | | | With this structural set-up, 12 | | | ministry-wide Regional Directors | | | and 24 Asst. Regional Directors | | | (one for livestock and one for | | | crops in each region) were | | | appointed. This was followed by | | | the designation of 75 Provincial | | | Agricultural Officers in 1980. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1982*** | By Virtue of EO. 803, the | | | province under the leadership of | | | the governor was designated as | | | the political unit of management | | | for including agricultural | | | development, coordination and | | | supervision of operations of the | | | various agencies involved in the | | | delivery of the agricultural | | | services. This means the | | | provincial governments were | | | empowered to have their own | | | extension services as provided | | | for in RA. NO.5 185 (1967) known | | | as the Decentralization Act. | | | | | | The Organizational Structure for | | | the Implementation of the | | | Integrated Agricultural Extension | | | Program | | | | | | The Regional Director were | | | directly under the Minister of | | | Agriculture | | | | | | The Regional Director directly | | | supervised the Provincial | | | Agricultural | | | | | | Officer (PAO) | | | | | | The PAO was responsible for all | | | municipal agricultural | | | officers(MAO's) | | | | | | At the provincial level, the PAO | | | was assisted by: | | | | | | The Senior Home Management | | | Technician (SHMT) | | | | | | The Rural Youth Development | | | Officer (RYDO) | | | | | | The Provincial Subject Matter | | | Specialist (SMS) | | | | | | The Mao is directly responsible | | | for all Agricultural Food | | | Technologists (AFTs) in the | | | municipality. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1987*** | By Virtue of ED. No.1 16, the | | | BAEx, the Philippine Agricultural | | | Training Council, and the | | | Philippine Center for Rural | | | Development were merged into the | | | Agricultural Training Institute | | | (ATI). Thus, the "birth" of ATI | | | meant the "death" of BAEx. | | | | | | The ATl is mandated by E.O. 116 | | | to be "responsible for the | | | training of all agricultural | | | extension workers and their | | | clientele, who are mostly farmers | | | and other agricultural workers: | | | ensure that training programs | | | address the real needs of the | | | agricultural sector; ensure that | | | the research results are then | | | communicated to the farmers | | | through appropriate training and | | | extension activities". | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1991*** | The agricultural extension | | | services of the DA were devolved | | | to the local government units | | | (LGUs) by virtue of R.A. 7160 | | | otherwise known as the Local | | | Government Code (1991). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***1997*** | The creation of Republic Act 8435 | | | also known as Agriculture and | | | Fisheries Modernization Act or | | | AFMA | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **\ MEANINGS AND TERMINOLOGY FOR EXTENSION IN SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES** (Compiled by Dr. B.R. Sumayao, DAERS, UPLB-CA) +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **COUNTRY** | **WORD FOR | **MEANING** | | | EXTENSION** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Netherlands | Voorlichting | Lighting the pathway | | | | ahead to help people | | | | find their way | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Germany | Beratung | An expert can give | | | | advice on the best | | | Aufklarung | way to reach one's | | | | goal but leaves the | | | Erziehung | person the final | | | | responsibility for | | | | selecting the way. | | | | | | | | Enlightenment, so | | | | that one knows | | | | clearly where he/she | | | | is going. | | | | | | | | Education, that is, | | | | to teach people to | | | | solve their problems | | | | themselves | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Austria | Forderung | Furthering or | | | | stimulating one to go | | | | in a desirable | | | | direction | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | France | Vulgarisation | Simplification of the | | | | message for the | | | | common man | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Spain | Capacitation | Improving the | | | | abilities of people, | | | | normally through | | | | training | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | USA | Extension | Education | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Indonesia | Penynluhan | Lighting the way | | | | ahead with a torch | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Malaysia | Perkembangan | Education the way USA | | | | interprets it | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Korea | | Rural guidance | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION** Agricultural Extension: "A professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce change in voluntary behavior with a presumed public or collective unity." -Niels Roling, 1988 COMMUNICATION: comes from the Latin word "*communis*" meaning to make common or to establish commonness between two or more people. *Communication* is a process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by means of some channel in order to produce a response from the receiver, in accordance to the intention of the source. Key points in the definition: - Communication is a process (it is a on-going, cyclic, ever-changing, with no beginning or end, interdependent, interrelated) - Consists of 5 basic elements (source, message, receiver, channel, response) - Effectiveness is achieved if receiver's response matches with intention of source. - Has 4- attributes - - - - COMMUNICATION AS INTERACTION EMPATHY - The ability to project ourselves into other people's personalities; - The ability to project oneself imaginatively into another's position. - **Verbal communication** is the transmission of ideas, opinions, feelings, emotions or attitudes through the use of oral language. - **Non-verbal communication** refers to the sending of messages to another person using methods or means other than the spoken language. a. Visual - - - - - - - - - b. Auditory - - - c. Olfactory -- refers to smell d. Gustatory -- communication through taste FIELD OF EXPERIENCE**:** the sum total of an individual's experiences, including one's culture and language which influences his ability to communicate. Let us look at the two overlapping circles, each circle representing the field of experience of communication partici­pants A and B. The overlap in the two circles represents the common field of experience of A and B, or their shared similar experiences. - The wider the common field of experience between two people, (or the more similar the experience they share), the greater is the likelihood that they can communicate effectively. - If the common field of experience is narrow, the communication that can take place is limited or is likely to be successful or effective. FEEDBACK: the information that is sent or fed back by the receiver, intentionally or unintentionally, to the source - Feedback is the link that connects the source and the receiver. - It is the receiver's response to the communication messages as perceived by the source of the message. - Use of Feedback - serves as [corrective function] by preventing communication breakdown. Feedback helps determine whether or not a message was perceived as intended. If not, adaptations, modifications can be made. - Characteristics of Feedback: e. Observable or overt not covert - The source should be able to perceive (that is, receive through one or more of the five senses) the feedback coming from the receiver. - Feedback vs responses: 1. A receiver's response may be observable (overt) or unobservable (covert). 2. One covert response is a positive change in attitude toward the source, the message, or the strategy. 3. Only if there is an overt manifestation of the covert response (such as smiling, clapping, etc.) can the sources receive feedback about that change. f. Verbal or non-verbal - The source can receive verbal feedback through oral and written communication. - Non-verbal feedback can be received through the receiver's use of symbols or body language (e.g., facial expressions, gestures, etc.). g. Internal or external - [Internal feedback] occurs when you hear and feel yourself respond (e.g., when you mispronounce a word and you repeat it with the correct pronunciation). - [External feedback] occurs when you respond to the receiver's message (e.g., when you raise your hand to ask a question). h. Intentional or unintentional - [Intentional feedback] - messages that are **consciously** sent by the feedback giver, whether these messages are verbal or non-verbal (e.g., asking questions, giving comments and suggestions, nodding the head, clapping of hands, etc.) - Unintentional feedback - messages that are **unconsciously** sent but nevertheless are perceived by the source. - Many non-verbal feedback are not consciously intended by the receiver, but they are often more accurate in revealing the feelings of the responder than the verbal feedback (e.g., yawning, evasive eye movements, etc.) i. Directive or non-directive - [Directive feedback] communicates an evaluation by the responder about the source, the message or the strategy. Directive feedback may be positive or negative, rewarding or disturbing. - [Non-directive feedback] is non-evaluative. It aims to describe, report what is observed or felt, ask questions and avoids judgment. j. Formal or informal - [Formal feedback] is solicited by the message sender usually in writing or through other mediated means (e.g., telephone) using structured evaluation instruments such as questionnaires, attitude/opinion rating scales, and interview schedules. - [Informal feedback] may be solicited from or spontaneously given by the audience in a face-to-face setting (e.g., when a facilitator pauses to ask if there are questions, or a member of the audience asks for clarification.) PURPOSE: tells the source whether the receiver is paying attention to the message, understands it, is not bored, or likes the presentation. The source is formed whether s/he should revise his communication act. Relationship of Elements of Communication SOURCE RECEIVER SOURCE: sends message/information to receiver Characteristics of the Source: - Credibility --- refers to a set of perception about the source held by receiver in terms of competence, trustworthiness and dynamism - Dimensions of Credibility - Character - When a source is perceived as honest, trustworthy, friendly, reliable, pleasant, warm, etc. his or her credibility is based on the character dimension. - Competence - when a source is perceived as well-trained, competent, intelligent, experienced, witty, bright, etc. his or her credibility is based on the competency dimension. - Composure - when a source is perceived in terms of self-confidence, poise, dignity, level-headedness, etc. his or her credibility is based on the composure dimension. - Dynamism - when a receiver rates a source in terms of being bold, aggressive, extrovert, etc. his or her credibility is based on the dynamism dimension. - Socio-cultural context - role in society - group he/she belongs to - prestige other people attach to the source - norms or rules he abides by - beliefs and values he holds - Homophily --- refers to the degree to which a receiver perceives the source - - - - - - **FACTORS SALIENT TO A RECEIVER'S PERSUASIBILITY** **Psychological orientation:\ **Selective processes 1. Selective exposure -- receivers tend to expose her/himself only to information that agrees with or supports his/her existing behavior. a. When individual holds two or more cognition (i.e., beliefs, attitudes, values) that contradict each other, the individual will feel some kind of [cognitive dissonance] (or psychological discomfort). b. As a result, s/he will try to remove such dissonance by trying to avoid information that will cause psychological discomfort. 2. Selective perception - receivers tend to "notice" or assign meaning only to messages that c. Serve some immediate purpose d. Reinforce his or her mood e. Fits his/her cognitive structure f. Are meaningful for him/her 3. Perception - is influenced by g. Past experiences h. Needs and motivations i. Mental set j. Interests 4. Selective retention - receivers tend to learn or remember only information that supports or agrees with his/her attitude, beliefs, behaviors. 5. Selective discussion -- receivers tend to discuss only those information which might be of interest to them and to their listeners. - Open-mindedness - Self-esteem - Beliefs and values - Achievement motivation - Risk orientation - Group membership - Roles and functions in membership groups - Reference groups - Norms and values of membership groups - customs and traditions MESSAGE: sign or symbol that has meaning to both sender and receiver Message Factors: - Code- symbols used in communicating; both sender and receiver should understand in order to communicate. - Content- the idea or substance selected to express the purpose of the sources for communicating - Treatment- the manner by which the materials are arranged in order to be meaningful to the receiver. - - Denotative meaning is concerned with the existence of objects in the physical world. - Domain: Physical Reality - Connotative meaning -- meaning associated with the personal experiences of the person using the word, and is closely related to who and what he is as a person. - Connotative terms do not refer primarily to the quality of an object, but to the state of the organism, the response of the individual perceiving the object. - Connotative terms are figurative; what they suggest - Domain: Social Reality CHANNEL: the medium through which the message is sent from the source to the receiver. Dimensions of Channel - - seen - heard - touched or felt - smelled - tasted - Message vehicles in the form of: - Interpersonal channels - Mediated channels - Mass media channels - Folk media channels - Interpersonal Channels: - Also called "face-to-face" - Most universally used extension method - Atmosphere is usually informal and relaxed - Learning is an individual process - EA has personal influence over the farmer - Builds confidence between EA and farmer - "Gatekeeper" -- someone who: - Controls the flow of information - Decides what information to transmit and to whom he will transmit it - Evaluates the content to determine its relevance and value to the potential receivers - Has the power to delete, alter the flow, add, subtract, or distort the message - Example: - In a village: - an affluent person who is exposed to the mass media and other sources of information - a member of the village who works in the city - the barangay captain - In print media - publisher - editor - reporter - In broadcast media - writers - producers - directors - "Opinion-leader" -- a person who is - approached by others for advice on certain matters - perceived as credible, influential, authoritative in the community - barangay captain - rural health workers - school teachers - Extension agents - Priests - Mass media channels: - Channels used to communicate with people not seen and generally not personally known. - Important for making a large group of people aware of innovations and for stimulating interest. - Can accelerate existing change processes but not bring changes in behavior by themselves. - Examples: broadcast media channels, printed media channels - Mediated channels: - SMS - Emailing - Use of social networks (Facebook) - Folk media/traditional channels: - Also referred to as mass media channels but more traditional (preceded the invention of paper and ink and the printing press). - Examples: local story-teller, town crier RECEIVER: receives, analyzes, understands and interprets the message; also referred to as decoder. EFFECT: the difference between what the receivers think, feel and does before and after exposure to a message. - - - - Cognitive effect - knowledge, awareness, thought and skills - Neutralization - shifting of an existing attitude to the neutral zone - Boomerang effect - a shift opposite to that direction that is intended - Conservation - maintenance of existing attitude - Attitude reinforcement or strengthening of existing attitude. - Shift to the opposite sign, from (+) to (-) and vice versa **COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN** - - - - - Language or the use of jargon - Inflections -- "the emphasis is where?" - Personal interests -- "I, me, and myself" - Emotions -- "watch out for the red flag" - Wordiness - "what is it that you want to say?" - Perception -- "people interpret or see things differently" - Pre-conceived notions - "I thought you meant..." - Attention - "physically present, mentally absent" - Inferences - "I thought you said..." PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION Defining Philosophy - The body of principles underlying a given branch of learning or major discipline, a religious system, a human activity or the like. - A guide to a person's actions. - A view of life - what ought to be and its components of "what is" and "how to bridge the gap" between "what is" and "what ought to be". Diagrammatically: Fig.1. A scheme within which Extension may be viewed in relation to a view of life(Philosophy). - A Philosophy of Extension includes the Set of Beliefs and Principles that serves as basis for making decisions and judgments in the field of extension. WHY A PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION IS NEEDED? - It establishes parameters of our field---help us judge whether our programs, values, or educational approach is or is not an extension practice. - Articulates the rationale for analysis, diagnosis, decision making, action---tells us why we do what we do - Makes us aware of our values, thus promotes ongoing self-examination and evaluation---good for the "health" of the extension organization by encouraging creativity, and organizational renewal. - Tells the extensionists how to define the world - Describes the nature of knowledge and whether we believe it is acquired or transmitted. EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION - Humanism- Man, his interest and development are central and dominant - Pragmatism - the value of the ideas, knowledge and skills that extension offers its clientele is measured in terms of the practical consequences to these people for whom extension efforts are directed. SOME PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION - Communication and Education - Extension agent\'s role- communicator and educator - As communicator - pass on useful information or technology to people who need them - As educator - help rural people acquire the knowledge, skills and attitude that will help them effectively utilize the information or technology - Works with Rural people - For impact and sustainability, *work with and not for the people* - People must participate and make decision that will benefit them; extension agents must assistthem by providing them with all the information needed and possible alternative solutions to clientele problems - Accountability to the Clientele - Extension agent must justify to the organization whatever action he/she takes and be accountable and responsible to the clientele on whatever advice or information given to them - The *clientele* is the one to pass judgment on the success or failure of the extension program - Two-way Process Linkage - Disseminate information and technology to and receive feedback from clientele so that their needs can be better fulfilled - Learn from the clientele the wealth of their experiences - Cooperate with Other Agencies - Extension is only one \"aspect of the many economic, social, cultural and political activities that hope to produce change for the betterment of the rural masses - Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs and NGOs to accomplish above - Extension can\'t be effective on its own as its activities must be interdependent on other related activities - Work with different Target Groups - Extension clientele is made up of various target groups with different needs, social status, cultural and economic background - Extension therefore cannot offer a package of technology for all its clientele due to this heterogeneity. - There must therefore be targeting of extension, meaning different programs and technology packages for different target groups - Extension: - Starts with what people know, what they have, what they understand - Essentially an education process and is dependent on the voluntary participation of people with whom extension works - Teaches the people new knowledge and skills in relation to their current interests and needs - Employs a wide variety of extension communication strategies - Identifies and works accordingly with target categories in the community. - Links and establishes cooperative/ collaborative relationships with person/ organizations whose purpose is devoted to development in the rural areas - Nurtures and sustains the natural environment - Works with local leaders and encourages the spirit of self-help - Conducts regular evaluation/ assessment of its work PURPOSE OF EXTENSION - Informative extension - Helps people make well-considered choices among alternatives provided by extension for the individual to achieve his/her goals - Emancipatory extension - An instrument touplift the poor, to achieve societal goals, to correct structural problems - Paolo Freire calls it *pedagogy of the oppressed.* - Formative Extension or HRD - An instrument for developing, \'forming\' an individual or enhancing his/her capabilities to make decisions to learn, to manage, to communicate, to organize, etc. - Persuasive Extension - A policy instrument to induce preventive behavior with respect to societal concerns such as environmental pollution, health hazards, vandalisms, drug addiction, rape, etc. such preventive behavior is in the interest of the society as a whole or of the future generation. NATURE/DIMENSIONS OF EXTENSION - Altruistic dimension - Extension aimed at helping farmers. This is a basic premise of extension that must be observed by practitioners. - Educational dimension - Extension is a non-formal method of adult education. As such, extension professionals must be imbued with knowledge on how adults learn. - Communication dimension - Extension is a communication intervention. Knowledge of basic communication process and its dynamics must be adequately understood. - Behavioral dimension - Extension is aimed at inducing behavioral changes among farmers. Behavioral change is the end goal of extension. - Technology dimension - Extension helps in the transfer of technology. Extension should be able to help identify technologies appropriate to clientele. The need for more alternative approaches and methods for diagnosing technical problems should be recognized. - Research dimension - Extension aims at linking research with the farm. Ways to foster closer links between the farmers and the researchers need further understanding. - Input dimension - The provision of technical inputs plays an important linking function in the transfer of technology. - Income dimension - Extension is aimed at increased income through increased production and productivity. - Management dimension - Extension aims to function according to sound management principles. FUNCTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY - Instruction -offers degree programs from the baccalaureate to doctoral programs - Research - conducts basic and applied research from social science to natural science - Extension - disseminates research results or breakthroughs to various clientele in various forms AGRICULTURE's One Objective is: - Disseminate research findings and technology in a form or package suitable for adoption by extension workers and farmers; help train/retrain extension workers; provide technical backstop to extension technicians in the field whenever necessary; and conduct pilot action/research projects on agriculture and rural development. EXTENSION: An instrument of premeditated, deliberate intervention to achieve the intervener\'s goal; can beeffective by inducing voluntary change and hence satisfying client\'s goals. INTERVENTION: a systematic effort to strategically apply resources to manipulate seemingly casual elementsin an ongoing social process to permanently reorient that process in directions deemed desirable by theintervening party. METHODS FOR INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOR 1. Compulsion or Coercion - Power is exerted by an authority forcing somebody to do something. People applying coercive power must - have sufficient power - know how they can achieve their goal - be able to check whether the person being coerced is behaving in the desired manner 2. Exchange - Goods or services are exchanged between two individuals or groups - Conditions necessary for applying this method: - Both parties consider the transaction to be in their favor - Each has the goods or services desired by the other - Each can only deliver his part when the exchange goods or services have been delivered by the other. 3. Advice - Used if - Farmers agree with extension agent about the nature of their problems and the criteria for choosing the \"correct\" solution - Extension agent (EA) knows enough about the farmers\' situation and has adequate information to solve their problems in a way which have been tested scientifically or in practice - Farmers are confident the extension worker can help them with a solution to their problems - EA does not think it necessary or possible for farmers to solve their problems themselves - Farmers have sufficient means at their disposal to carry out the advice 4. Openly Influencing a Farmer\'s Knowledge and Attitudes - Apply when - EA cannot solve their problems because of insufficient or incorrect knowledge and their attitudes do not match their goals - EA thinks that farmers can solve their problems if they have more knowledge and/or have changed their attitudes - EA *is* prepared to help farmers collect more and better knowledge to help them change their attitudes - Farmers trust the EA\'s expertise and motives and are prepared to cooperate with EA 5. Manipulation - Carried out if - EA believes it necessary and desirable for farmers to change their behavior in a certain direction - EA thinks it is necessary for farmers to make independent decisions - EA controls the techniques to influence farmers without them being aware of it - The farmers do not actively object to being influenced in this way 6. Providing means - Apply under the following conditions - Farmer is trying to achieve goals which EA considered to be appropriate - Farmer does not have the means available to achieve these goals or does not wish torisk using these means - EA has these means and is prepared to make them available to the farmer on atemporary or permanent basis 7. Providing Service - Use if - EA has the knowledge and/or means available to perform the task better or moreeconomically than the farmer - EA agrees with the farmer that it is useful to perform these tasks - EA is prepared to perform them for the farmer 8. Changing the Socio-economic structure - Used when - EA agrees with the farmers about their optimal behavior - Farmer is not in a position to behave in this way because of barriers in the economic and or social structure - EA considers changes in these structures to be desirable - EA has the freedom to work toward these changes - EA is in a position to do these, either through power or through conviction Extension Practitioner's Work FEATURES OF MODERN AGRICULTURE - Dynamic society that welcomes innovation and change - Highly competitive and productive because it uses modem production and managementtechnology - Manned by an enterprising farmers who exercises his right to chose what technology to apply, what crops to raiseand when, and to whom to sell his produce to get the highest returns. COMPONENTS OF AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT - Production - Marketing - Supply - Governance - Research - Extension/Education Framework for Sustainable Development: Economically viable; ecologically sound; socially just and humane; culturally appropriate; grounded in holistic science. **EXTENSION AS AN INTERVENTION** **Definition of Intervention** - **A systematic effort** - **To strategically apply resources** - **To manipulate seemingly causal elements in an on-going social process** - **So as to permanently re-orient that process in directions deemed desirable by the intervening part.** **Two Models of Intervention** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Extractive** | **Enabling** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Outsiders' roles in | **Obtain and analyze | **Facilitate farmers' | | diagnosis** | data** | own analysis** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Outsiders' role | **Prescribe and | **Search and supply** | | with technology** | transfer** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Farmers are...** | **Passive** | **Active** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Farmers...** | **Provide data, | **Observe, analyze, | | | adopt,** | demand, test, | | | | experiment** | | | **follow | | | | instructions** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Source: Robert Chambers, 1993** **Clarifying Concepts** **Premeditated -- characterized by fully conscious willful intent and a measure of forethought and planning.** **Deliberate -- characterized by or resulting from careful and thorough consideration, being aware of the consequence(s) of actions and/or decisions.** **Voluntary -- proceeding from the will or from one's own choice or consent; unconstrained by interference; acting or done on one's own free will without valuable consideration or legal obligation.** **Change -- to make or become different in some particular; to undergo a modification or a transformation.** **Interevenor -- the extension organization.** **Client -- the farmer, fisherfolk, rural people.** **Types of Intervention** - **Technical/ instrumental (DO TO)** - **Strategic (DO FOR)** - **Communicative (DO WITH)** **Technical Intervention vs. Intervening through people** **Technical Intervention** **Extension Agent -\> Farm/Home** **Methods for Influencing Human behavior** - - **Power exerted by an authority forcing somebody to do something.** - **Unsuitable for changing behavior that requires initiative by people to be coerced.** - **EXAMPLE: government regulations related to public health, traffic control, environmental upkeep.** - - **Goods or services are exchanged between two individuals or groups** - **Applicable if:** - **Each party considers the transaction to be in their favor.** - **Each has the goods/services desired by the other.** - **Each can only deliver his/her part when the exchange goods/services have been delivered by the other.** - - **We believe farmer can't solve his/her own problems because s/he has insufficient or incorrect knowledge and/or because his/her attitude does not match his/her goals.** - **We think farmer can solve his/her own problems if s/he has more knowledge or has changed his/her attitudes.** - **We are prepared to help the farmer collect more and better knowledge or influence the farmer's attitudes.** - **The farmer trusts our expertise and motives and is prepared to cooperate with us in changing his/her knowledge and/or attitudes.** - - **Possible if:** - **We control the techniques for influencing farmers without them being aware of it.** - **Farmers don't actively object to being influenced in this way.** - - **May involve taking over certain tasks from the farmers.** - **Possible when:** - **We have knowledge and/or means available to perform the task better or economically than farmers.** - **We have knowledge and/or means available to perform the task better or economically than farmers.** - - **Possible when:** - **We agree with farmer about his/her optimal behavior.** - **Farmer is not in a position to behave this way because of barriers in the economic and/or social structure.** - **We consider changes in these structures desirable.** - **We have the freedom to work towards these changes.** - **We are in a position to do this, either through power or by conviction** - **Example:** **STRATEGIES TO INFLUENCE FARMER'S BEHAVIOR** **Development and Influence Strategy** - **"Doing to" or** - **Working to get the farmer in a situation considered desirable by the extension agent or organization.** **Social Marketing Strategy** - - **Problem Solving Strategy** - **"Doing with" or** - **Working jointly with farmers to solve their problems** **CONSIDERATIONS IN THE CHOICE OF STRATEGY** - - - **Can farmer make decisions in his/her own long-term interests but with concern for consequences to others?** - **Should extension organization only promote changes which benefit society as a whole?** - **Or should it help individual farmers make decisions which serve their own interests?** - **when they want to change** - **when they know how to change** - **when they are able to change** **DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATION** ADOPTION: a process by which a particular farmer (clientele) is exposed to, considers, and finally rejects or practices a particular innovation (Mosher, j 978), It occurs at the individual level. Adoption comprises five (5) successive steps or stages: - Awareness - the first step towards adoption on an innovation; the farmer becomes aware that the technology or innovation exists, but he lacks adequate information about it. It is somewhat like seeing something without attaching meaning to something. Source of information are mass media such as use of radio, news articles, newsletters, or result demonstration. - Interest - farmer becomes interested and seeks more information; he believes that the technology or information is possible for him, He wants to know what it is\" how it works, what is its potential. Usually he is aroused by mass media, result demonstration and individual farm visit. - Evaluation - farmer evaluates technology with his conditions, expectations, resources, and decides whether or not to try it. Can I do it? How can I do it? Is it better than what I was doing? This can be hastened or improved by method demonstration and group discussions. - Trial- farmer collects the required inputs, learns any new skills that are required, commits some land, labor and money for the trial, sees what happens, Normally he tries on a small scale Friends and neighbors are usually the best form of information. - Adoption/Rejection - final stage whether to adopt or to reject the technology, Itshould not be assumed that every first trial will lead to repeated use. This stage is characterized by large scale and continuous use of the idea. CATEGORlES OF ADOPTERS - Innovators (venturesome) - are the first person to adopt. The experiment, they go ahead. - Early adopters (respectable) - those who quickly follow the lead set by the innovators. Usually regarded by peers as \"*the man to check with*\" before using a new idea. - Early majority (deliberate) - watch the innovators and early adopters first but do not delay much longer before adoption. - Late majority (skeptical) - are conservative and careful. Do not adopt until most or a great number of neighbors have adopted/changed their practice. They need pressure from peers to adopt. - Laggards (traditional) - the last to adopt. Suspicious of innovators and change agents. INNOVATION: an idea, practice or an object perceived as new by an individual. It is a new way of doing something. In agricultural extension, an innovation is the same thing as a changed practice or an improved variety, technology or practice. Diffusion of innovation - refers to the total process by which an innovation spreads out among farmers until a large number of farmers have adopted it. It is how an innovation is adopted by more and more farmers. Crucial elements in the diffusion of an innovation are the *innovation,* which is communicated through certain *channels,* over *time,* among members of a *social system,* Communication channels can be mass media, the extension worker himself, and other methods. Social system refers to any community or locality which a social structure can impede or facilitate the adoption or diffusion of new ideas including the norms, social statuses, hierarchy, etc. INNOVATION-DlFFUSION MODEL: The \"*reconceptualized*\" adoption process. The process through which an individual (or other decision making unit) passes from first knowledge of an innovation to decision, to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea and to confirmation of the decision. STAGES OF INNOVATION-DIFFUSION MODEL - Knowledge Stage - farmer understands new idea and gathers information about it. - Persuasion Stage - formation of attitude about idea and persuades himself and is persuaded by others. He can accept or reject the idea based on attitude formed in the previous stage. - Decision-Making Stage - individual may either to adopt or reject the new idea or to delay the decision for further verification. - Implementation Stage - putting an idea into use. - Confirmation Stage - individual seeks reinforcement for the decision he made, or he may reverse his previous decision if there is conflicting messages/info about the innovation. Individual justifies his earlier decision based on his experience of other adopters. **FACTORS AFFECTING ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION PROCESS** Characteristics of innovation that Influence Adoption or Rejection - Relative Advantage - degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the previous one; the proven effectiveness or superiority of the new idea that includes cost of the technology. - Compatibility - consistency with existing values, experiences needs and resources of the farmer. - Complexity - the difficulty or ease to understand, to do or follow a technology. People favor a practice that requires less time and effort. - Trial ability - degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. For example, on a small size of land. - Observability - degree to which results of an innovation are visible to others. Seeing an improved breed of swine is better than merely hearing about it. Characteristics of Clientele that Influence Adoption or Diffusion - educational level - family size - farmer\'s experience - family aspiration - tenure status - value and belief systems - personality characteristics Characteristics of Change Agent - Credibility - refers to the competency, trustworthiness and dynamism of the change agent apperceived by clients - Homophily - degree to which the change agent has rapport with the clientele, his sense of belongingness. - Personality traits - personal attributes such as intelligence, emphatic ability, commitment, resourcefulness, concern for farm people, ability to communicate, persuasiveness and development orientation. The Biophysical Environment, Socio-economic and Socio-cultural also influence adoption or diffusion of innovation. **EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS** INDIVIDUAL TEACHING METHODS - Farm and Home Visit - Office Calls - Telephone Calls - Personal Letters - Informal Contacts - Electronic Media (Fax, Internet, E-mail) GROUP METHODS - Lecture (involves factual presentation and textual explanation of a particular topic or few selected topics) - Demonstration (Method and Result Demonstration) - Tours and Field Trips - Field Day - Meetings - Group Discussion - Brainstorming - An activity in which a deliberate attempt is made to think and speak-out freely creatively about all possible approaches and solutions to a given problem, the group participating in spontaneous and unrestrained discussion. - Panel - a direct, conversational, and interactional discussion among a small group of experts or well-informed persons. Panelists exchange ideas among themselves and react directly with each other. It involves actual panel discussion, exchange of ideas, summary or last statement of panelists - Open forum- clarifications, questions, objection to ideas - Symposium- a method where speaker(s) is/are invited to compound on a topic given or assigned to him (them) - Phillip 66 - 6 persons, 6 minute discussion. MASS METHOD - Puppetry - acting a play on the stage using puppets that could be a doll, a small figure, or an image of an animal - Popular theater - makes use of performances in the form of drama, singing, dancing and puppetry. Called \'·popular\" because they are aimed at the whole village, not just at those who are educated. It involves local people as performers. - Wall newspaper - Exhibits - displays that create interest or are used for information sharing that use posters,pictures, photographs, models and specimens. Suited for bulletin boards, demo plots or agricultural shows. - Campaign - a coordinated use of different methods focusing on a particular widespreadproblem and its solution. Normally planned and directed from the regional or national levels. - Television - Print- folders, posters, newspapers, fact sheet. - Projected visuals- slides, films, overheads projectors transparencies. EXTENSION APPROACH: the style of action within extension system which embodies the philosophy of that system; sets the pace of all of the activities of the system: works like a doctrine for the system-informs, stimulates and guides. Extension System: that entity composed of properties such as organizational structure, leadership, resources (human and physical), program, goals and objectives, methods and techniques for implementation, linkages with various organizations and publics. EXTENSION APPROACHES: 1. The General Agricultural Extension Approach (GAE) - General Nature - Transfer of Technology (TOT) - Basic assumption - technology and information are available but are not being used by farmers. Ifthese could be communicated to farmers, farm practices could be improved. - Purpose- to help farmers increase their production. - Program planning - controlled by government and changes in priority, from time to time, are made ona national basis, with some freedom for local adaptation. - Implementation - carried by a large field staff assigned throughout the country. - Demonstration - plots are a major technique. - Resources required large numbers of field personnel. - Measure of success - increase in national production of the commodities being emphasized in thenational program. - Advantages -- interpret national government policies and procedures to the local people; covers thewhole nation: relatively easy to control by the national government; relatively rapid communicationfrom the ministry level to rural people. - Disadvantages - lacks two way flow of communication; fails to adjust extension messages to different localities; field staff not accountable to rural people; expensive and inefficient. 2. Training and Visit Approach (T&V) - General nature - highly disciplined and patterned: with fixed schedule for training of village extensionworkers, SMSs, and scheduled visits by extension workers to farmers - Basic assumption - extension personnel are poorly trained; not up-to-date and tend not to visit farmers, but stay in their offices; management and supervision is not adequate; to-way communicationbetween research and extension units and between extension staff and farmers can be achieved through this discipline. - Purpose - to induce farmers to increase production of specified crops - Program planning - centralized; what to teach and when to teach is decided upon by professionals andprogram is delivered \"down\" to farmers,; program planning follows cropping pattern of priority crops - Implementation - relies basically on visits by extension workers to small groups of farmers or to individual contact farmers*: fortnightly training* by SMSsof the VEWs - Resources required - high number of personnel, costs tend to be very high and dependent on centralresources: more adequate transportation capability for field personnel - Measure of success - increase in yield, and total production of the crops being emphasized - Advantages - pressure on governments to recognize a large number ofsmall agricultural extensionunits into one integrated service; brings discipline to the system, VEWs become more up-to-date toinformation; closer technical supervision - Disadvantages - High long-term costs to governments due to expanding size of VEWs; lack of actualtwo-way communication; technology that is relevant to the farmers are not integrated; lack offlexibility to change programs as needs and interests of farmers change; field staff tires of vigorous,patterned activities without appropriate rewards. 3. The Project Approach (PA) - Basic assumption -- better results can be achieved in a particular location, during a specified period oftime period; with large infusion of outside resources; high impact activities, carried on under artificialcircumstances; will have some continuity after outside financial support is no longer available. - Purpose - to demonstrate, within the project area, what can be accomplished on a relatively shortperiod of time: to teat the variety of alternative extension methods - Program planning- control by outside the village, with central government, the \"donor\" agency orsome combination. - Implementation - includes a project management staff; project allowances for field staff, bettertransportation, facilities, equipment, and better housing than regular government programs - Measure of success - increase in yield and total production of the crops being emphasized - Advantages - focus which enables evaluation of effectiveness, and sometimes \"quick results\" for abetter donor; novel techniques and methods can be treated and experimented within the limits of theprojects - Disadvantages - usually too short time period; money provided tends to be more than what isappropriate; flow of \"good ideas\" in the project to areas outside the project; double standards; whenmoney ends, project extension programs most after ends also. 4. The Commodity Specialized Approach (CSA) - General nature - highly specialized, focuses on one export crop or one aspect of farming - Basic assumption- the way to increase productivity and the production of a particular commodity is toreally concentrate on that one; grouping extension with such other functions as research, input supply,output marketing, credit and sometimes price control, will make the whole system productive - Purpose - to increase production of particular commodity: sometimes it is to increase utilization ofaparticular agricultural input - Program planning - controlled by the commodity organization - Implementation carried out by a large field staff assigned throughthe country; demonstrationplots are a major technique - Resources required - provided by the commodity organization - Measure of success- total productivity of a particular crop - Advantages - technology tends to \"fit\'\" the production problems and so messages ofextension officerssent to growers tend to be appropriate, because of coordination with research and marketing people,messages tend to be delivered in a timely manner to producers: focus on a narrow range oftechnicalconcerns; higher salary incentives; closer management and supervision; fewer farmers per extension worker; easier to monitor and evaluate; relatively more cost effective - Disadvantages - interests of farmers may have less priority than those of the commodity organization;does not provide advisory service to other aspects of farming; problems of the commodity organizationpromoting \"its commodity\" even in situations where it is no longer in the national interest to be inincreasing production of that particular commodity 5. The Farming Systems Development Approach (FSDA) - Basic assumption - technology which fits the needs of farmers particularly small farmers, is notavailable and needs to be generated locally - Purpose- to provide extension persons and through their farm people. with research results tailored tomeet the needs and interests of local farming systems conditions - Program planning - evolve slowly during the process, and may be different for each ages, climaticfarm ecosystem type since the program must take into account a holistic approach to the plants,animals and the people in each particular location; control of program shared jointly by local arm menand women, agricultural extension officers, and agricultural researchers - Implementation - through partnership of research and extension personnel and with local people,taking a systems approach to the farm: sometimes involve several scientific disciplines, howeverrequires that research personnel go to the farm, listen to them, and the extension personnel, understandthe arm as a system - Measure of success - extend to which farm people adopt the technologies developed in the programand continue to use them overtime - Advantages - some measures of local control ofprogram planning increases relevance of programcontent and methods to needs and interests of clientele;higher adoption rates; effective communicationbetween local people and the extension personnel; lower cost to central government and local people - Disadvantages - interests of farmers may have less priority than those of the commodity organization;does not provide advisory service to other aspects of farming; problems of the commodity organizationpromoting \"its commodity\" even in situations where it is no longerin the national interest to beincreasing production of that particular commodity. 6. The Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach (AEP) - General Nature concerned with a broad range of agricultural subjects, shifting its local focus fromtime to time as village problems change or as needs arise - Basic assumption - farming people have much wisdom regarding production of food from their landbut their levels of living and pro