Essence of Psychology PDF

Created by Turbolearn AI Essence of Psychology Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words: psyche (mind, soul, or spirit) and logos (study, knowledge, or discourse). Therefore, psychology epistemologically refers to the study of the mind, so...

Created by Turbolearn AI Essence of Psychology Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words: psyche (mind, soul, or spirit) and logos (study, knowledge, or discourse). Therefore, psychology epistemologically refers to the study of the mind, soul, or spirit. Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and the underlying mental processes. This definition has three key aspects: Science: psychology uses scientific methods to study behavior and mental processes in both humans and animals. Behavior: refers to all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, movement, etc. Mental processes: refer to all the internal, covert activities of our minds, such as thinking, feeling, remembering, etc. Goals of Psychology The goals of psychology can be summarized as follows: To understand human behavior and mental processes To predict human behavior and mental processes To control or modify human behavior and mental processes Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology Page 1  Created by Turbolearn AI Perspective Description Structuralism Focuses on the structure of the mind and conscious experience Functionalism Focuses on the function of the mind and behavior Psychoanalysis Focuses on the unconscious mind and its role in shaping behavior Focuses on observable behavior and rejects the study of mental Behaviorism processes Humanism Focuses on the inherent value and dignity of individuals Branches/Subfields of Psychology Clinical Psychology: deals with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders Cognitive Psychology: deals with mental processes such as perception, attention, and memory Developmental Psychology: deals with human development across the lifespan Social Psychology: deals with how people think, feel, and behave in social situations Neuropsychology: deals with the relationship between the brain and behavior Research Methods in Psychology Method Description Experiments involve manipulating variables to study their effect on behavior Surveys involve collecting self-report data from participants Observational involve observing behavior in natural or controlled settings Studies Case Studies involve in-depth analysis of a single individual or case Correlational involve studying the relationship between variables## Goals of Studies Psychology Psychology has four main goals: description, explanation, prediction, and control. Description Page 2  Created by Turbolearn AI Description involves observing behavior and noticing everything about it. It is a search for answers to questions like "What is happening?", "Where does it happen?", "To whom does it happen?", and "Under what circumstances does it seem to happen?" Explanation Explanation is about trying to find reasons for the observed behavior. This helps in the process of forming theories of behavior. Prediction Prediction is about determining what will happen in the future. Control Control or modify or change the behavior from undesirable one to a desirable one. Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of the sciences, only about 125 years old. It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, with the establishment of a psychology laboratory in the University of Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt. Early Schools of Psychology A school of thought is a system of thinking about a certain issue, say, for example, about human behavior or mind. Structuralism Page 3  Created by Turbolearn AI Structuralism views psychology as a study of the structure of the mind. It is an expansion of Wundt's ideas by his student named Edward Titchener (1867-1927). Key Points Description Goal To find out the units or elements that make up the mind Method Introspection Focus Analyzing mental structure Functionalism Functionalism views psychology as a study of the function of the mind. The founder of this school of thought is William James (1848-1910). Key Points Description Goal To understand how the mind allows people to function in the real world Method Questionnaires, mental tests, and objective descriptions of behavior Focus Adaptive functions of the mind Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Psychology views psychology as a study of the whole mind. Max Wertheimer and his colleagues founded this school of thought in Germany in the 20th century. Key Points Description Goal To understand the mind as a whole pattern of sensory activity Method Objective descriptions of behavior Focus The whole is greater than the sum of its parts Behaviorism Behaviorism views psychology as a study of observable and measurable behaviors. John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism. Page 4  Created by Turbolearn AI Key Points Description Goal To study observable and measurable behavior Method Conditioning, learning, and animal behavior Focus Observable behavior Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis studies the components of the unconscious part of the human mind. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder of this school of thought. Key Description Points Goal To understand the unconscious mind and its role in behavior Method Free association, dream analysis, and transference The unconscious mind and its role in behavior## The Structure of the Focus Mind The conscious awareness is the tip of the mental iceberg, beneath which lies the unconscious part of the mind. The unconscious contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict between desire and duty. Unconscious: The part of the mind that contains thoughts, feelings, and memories that are not currently in our conscious awareness. Early Schools of Psychology The early schools of psychology differ in terms of their object of study, their goal, and method of analysis. The main differences are: Page 5  Created by Turbolearn AI Object of School Goal Method Study Structuralism Conscious mind Analyze components of the mind Introspection Observe the effect of the Functionalism Conscious mind Observation environment on behavior Unconscious Clinical case Psychoanalysis Analyze the unconscious dynamics mind studies Observe the effect of the Behaviorism Overt behavior Observation environment on behavior Emphasize human values and Clinical case Humanism Conscious mind subjective experiences studies Modern Schools of Psychology The modern schools of psychology are: Psychodynamic Perspective: Emphasizes the unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or instinctual energy. Behavioral Perspective: Emphasizes the role of learning experiences in shaping behavior, and focuses on environmental conditions that maintain or discourage specific behaviors. Humanistic Perspective: Emphasizes the uniqueness of human beings and focuses on human values and subjective experiences. Cognitive Perspective: Emphasizes what goes on in people's heads, such as reasoning, remembering, understanding language, solving problems, and forming beliefs. Biological Perspective: Focuses on studying how bodily events or functioning of the body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts. Socio-cultural Perspective: Focuses on the social and cultural factors that affect human behavior. Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology Page 6  Created by Turbolearn AI Branch Description Developmental Studies the physical, cognitive, and psychological changes Psychology across the life span. Personality Focuses on the relatively enduring traits and characteristics of Psychology individuals. Deals with people's social interactions, relationships, social Social Psychology perception, and attitudes. Cross-cultural Examines the role of culture in understanding behavior, Psychology thought, and emotion. Industrial Applies psychological principles in industries and Psychology organizations to increase productivity. Forensic Psychology Applies psychological principles to improve the legal system. Educational Concerned with the application of psychological principles and Psychology theories in improving the educational process. Applies psychological principles to the prevention and Health Psychology treatment of physical illness and diseases. Applies psychological principles to the prevention, diagnosis, Clinical Psychology and treatment of psychological disorders. Counseling Helps individuals with less severe problems than those Psychology treated by clinical psychologists. Research Methods in Psychology Scientific Method: A process of testing ideas through systematic observations, experimentation, and statistical analysis. Theory: An integrated set of principles about observed facts that is intended to describe and explain some aspects of experience. Hypothesis: A tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more variables or phenomena. Research Methods: The systematic and scientific approach to studying behavior and mental processes.## Research Methods in Psychology Psychologists use various research methods to study behavior and mental processes. These methods can be broadly classified into three categories: descriptive, correlational, and experimental research. Page 7  Created by Turbolearn AI Descriptive Research Descriptive research is a type of research that involves systematically observing and recording behavior or phenomena without manipulating any variables. Descriptive research methods include: Naturalistic Observation: observing behavior in its natural environment to get a realistic picture of how it occurs. Limitations: observer effect (subjects may behave artificially when they know they are being watched) and observer bias (researchers may not observe systematically or may ignore certain behaviors). Case Study: an in-depth study of a single individual or case. Advantage: provides a wealth of information about a single case. Disadvantage: results may not be generalizable to others. Survey: a research method used to collect data from a large group of people. Advantage: useful for studying private behaviors and can address hundreds of people with the same questions. Disadvantage: requires careful selection of a representative sample. Correlational Research Correlational research is a type of research that measures the relationship between two or more variables. Correlational research: Measures the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. Does not prove causation (cause-and-effect relationship). Example: A researcher might study the relationship between smoking and life expectancy. Experimental Research Experimental research is a type of research that allows researchers to study the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. Page 8  Created by Turbolearn AI Experimental research: Involves manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on a dependent variable. Requires random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups. Example: A researcher might study the effect of class size on students' academic performance. Variable Definition Independent The variable that is manipulated by the researcher. Variable The variable that is measured in response to the independent Dependent Variable variable. Experimental Group The group whose experience is manipulated. Control Group The group that serves as a baseline for comparison. Steps of Scientific Research The scientific research process involves the following steps: 1. Defining the Problem: identifying a research question or problem to be studied. 2. Formulating the Hypothesis: developing an educated guess about the explanation for the observed phenomenon. 3. Testing the Hypothesis: collecting data to support or reject the hypothesis. 4. Drawing Conclusions: making generalizations or drawing implications from the results. 5. Reporting Results: sharing the findings with others. Discussion Questions Page 9  Created by Turbolearn AI 1. Compare and contrast the three major types of research methods in psychology. 2. Reflect on the relationship between the goals of psychology and the three types of research methods. 3. What are the steps of conducting research in psychology? 4. A psychologist is interested in exploring the effect of tutorial support on students' academic performance. What is the: Dependent variable? Independent variable? Control group? Experimental group?## Sensation and Perception 2.1 The Meanings of Sensation and Perception Sensation and perception are two closely related but distinct concepts in psychology. Sensation is the process whereby stimulation of receptor cells in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and surface of the skin sends nerve impulses to the brain. Sensation is the process that detects the stimulus from one's body or from the environment. Perception, on the other hand, is the process that organizes sensations into meaningful patterns. Perception is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving them order and meaning. Examples of Sensation and Perception Visual sensation: detecting the black marks on a page Visual perception: organizing the black marks into letters and words Auditory sensation: detecting the sounds of a melody Auditory perception: recognizing the melody as a familiar tune Brainstorming Questions Page 10  Created by Turbolearn AI Have you heard of sayings like "you watch but you don't see; you hear but you don't listen, you touch but you don't grasp..."? What do these statements suggest to you? Which one do you think refers to sensation and which one refers to perception? 2.2 The Sensory Laws: Sensory Thresholds and Sensory Adaptation There are certain sensory laws that explain how sensation works. Two of these laws are: Sensory Threshold: the minimum point of intensity a sound can be detected Sensory Adaptation: the tendency of our sensory receptors to have decreasing responsiveness to unchanging stimulus Types of Sensory Thresholds Type of Threshold Definition Absolute Threshold the minimum amount of stimulation a person can detect Difference Threshold the minimum amount of change that can be detected Weber's Law Weber's Law states that the amount of change in intensity of stimulation needed to produce a just noticeable difference (jnd) is a constant fraction of the original stimulus. Examples of Sensory Adaptation After diving into a swimming pool, you might shiver, but a few minutes later you might invite someone to join you saying, "The water is fine." When vibrations repeatedly stimulate your skin, you stop noticing them. Brainstorming Questions Page 11  Created by Turbolearn AI How much intense must a sound be for you to detect it? How much changes in light intensity must occur for you to notice it? What are the elements of learning? 2.3 Perception Perception is the process that organizes sensations into meaningful patterns. Factors Affecting Perception Context: the surroundings and circumstances in which a stimulus is perceived Past Experience: our past experiences and expectations can influence our perception of a stimulus Attention: our focus and attention can affect what we perceive Types of Perception Bottom-Up Processing: the process of building up a perception from individual sensations Top-Down Processing: the process of using prior knowledge and expectations to influence perception Reflection Questions 1. Indicate the three conditions under which you may not be able to sense a stimulus. 2. Consider the concepts Sensitization and habituation discussed in Section 1, Unit 2, and Module 2, to which of the three sensory laws do they relate? Why? 3. Indicate the conditions under which sensory difference occur among people. 4. Give at least 5 major differences and similarities between sensation and perception. 5. What does sensing involve? 6. Compare and contrast Limen and jnd with examples 7. How does sensory adaptation occur## Selectivity of Perception: Attention Page 12  Created by Turbolearn AI Attention is the term given to the perceptual process that selects certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious experience, or awareness, at any given time, ignoring others. "Attention is the process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other stimuli." The selectivity of perception implies that our field of experience is divided into what is known as Focus and Margin. Events or stimuli that you perceive clearly are the focus of your experience, and other items or stimuli that you perceive dimly or vaguely are in the margin of your attention. Factors that Determine Attention Attention is determined by two factors: External Factors and Internal Factors. External Factors Factor Description Size and Bigger and brighter stimuli are more likely to capture your attention Intensity than smaller and dimmer objects. Stimuli that repeatedly or frequently occur in your perceptual field Repetition are more likely to capture your attention. Novel or new objects create a sharp contrast with the environment Novelty and tend to capture your attention. Moving objects tend to get your attention more than non-moving or Movement stagnant objects. Internal Factors Factor Description Set or You may be ready and primed for certain kinds of sensory input, Expectancy which affects what you pay attention to. Motives and Your motives and needs influence what you select to perceive and Needs how you organize sensory input. Page 13  Created by Turbolearn AI Examples of Attention A husband expecting an important phone call is more likely to hear the telephone ring in the night than his wife. A person who is hungry is more likely to pay attention to food-related stimuli. From Perception Form Perception refers to the meaningful shapes or patterns that are made out of meaningless and discrete sensations. Figure-Ground Perception Figure-ground perception is the perception of objects and forms of everyday experience as standing out from a background. "Figure-ground perception is the ability to distinguish a figure (an object) from its ground (its surrounding)."## Figure and Ground in Form Perception The ability to distinguish an object from its general background is basic to all form perception. This concept is known as figure and ground. "The pictures, words, and the melody are perceived as the figure, while the wall, the page, and the chords are the ground." Factors that determine attention equally determine what should become the figure and what should become the ground. Contours in Form Perception Contours are formed whenever a marked difference occurs in the brightness or color of the background. This allows us to separate forms from the general ground. "Contours give shape to the objects in our visual world because they mark one object off from another or they mark an object off from the general ground." Examples of contours: Page 14  Created by Turbolearn AI A piece of paper with a gradual change in brightness from white to black will not have a contour. A piece of paper with a marked difference in brightness will have a contour. Organization in Form Perception When several objects are present in the visual field, we tend to perceive them as organized into patterns or groupings. This is known as organization in form perception. "The whole is more than the sum of its parts." Laws of Perceptual Organization Law Description Items that are close together in space or time tend to be perceived as Proximity belonging together or forming an organized group. Similarity Similar items tend to be organized together. There is a tendency to organize things to make a balanced or Symmetry symmetrical figure that includes all the parts. The tendency to perceive a line that starts in one way as continuing in Continuation the same way. Perceptual processes that organize the perceived world by filling in Closure gaps in stimulation. Depth Perception Depth perception is the ability to judge the distance of objects. This is necessary because we live in a three-dimensional world. Binocular Cues Cue Description Retinal The degree of difference between the image of an object that are Disparity focused on the two retinas. Convergence The degree to which the eyes turn inward to focus on an object. Page 15  Created by Turbolearn AI Monocular Cues Cue Description The change in the shape of the lens that lets you focus the image of Accommodation an object on the retina. Note: Binocular cues require two eyes, whereas monocular cues require only one.## Monocular Cues Monocular cues are visual cues that can be perceived with one eye. They help us perceive depth and distance in our environment. Accommodation Accommodation is the process by which the lens in the eye changes shape to focus on objects at different distances. When we stare at a near object for a long time and then look at a more distant object, the more distant object will appear farther away than it is. This is due to the brain's overcompensation for the continuous accommodation of the lens while it was focused on the near object. Motion Parallax Motion parallax is the tendency to perceive ourselves as passing objects faster when they are closer to us than when they are farther away. This can be observed when driving on a rural road, where nearby telephone poles appear to pass by faster than a farmhouse in the distance. Pictorial Cues Pictorial cues are monocular cues that artists use to create depth in their drawings and paintings. Leonardo da Vinci formalized pictorial cues 500 years ago in teaching his art students how to use them to make their paintings look more realistic. Page 16  Created by Turbolearn AI Interposition: An object that overlaps another object will appear closer. Relative Size: Comparing the relative size of objects provides a cue to their distance. If two people are about the same height and one casts a smaller image on the retina, the person will be perceived as farther away. Linear Perspective: Parallel objects, such as railroad tracks, appear to get closer as they recede into the distance. Elevation: Objects that are higher in the visual field appear to be farther away. Shading: Shading patterns provide cues to distance because areas that are in shadow tend to recede, while areas that are in light tend to stand out. Aerial Perspective: Closer objects appear clearer than more distant ones. Texture Gradient: The nearer an object, the more details we can make out, and the farther an object, the fewer details we can make out. Perceptual Constancies Perceptual constancies are the brain's ability to maintain a stable perception of an object's size, shape, and brightness despite changes in the retinal image. Size Constancy: The brain interprets a change in an object's retinal size as a change in its distance rather than a change in its size. Shape Constancy: The brain maintains a stable perception of an object's shape regardless of the angle from which it is viewed. Brightness Constancy: The brain maintains a stable perception of an object's brightness despite changes in the amount of light reflected from the object. Perceptual Illusions Perceptual illusions occur when the brain misinterprets visual cues, resulting in a distorted perception of reality. The Moon Illusion: The moon appears larger when it is at the horizon than when it is overhead, despite being the same distance from the observer. The Müller-Lyer Illusion: A vertical line appears longer when it is surrounded by inward-pointing arrows than when it is surrounded by outward-pointing arrows, despite being the same length. Illusion Description The Moon Illusion The moon appears larger at the horizon than overhead The Müller-Lyer A vertical line appears longer with inward-pointing arrows than Illusion with outward-pointing arrows Page 17  Created by Turbolearn AI Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) Extra sensory perception (ESP) refers to the alleged ability to perceive information about the world without using the five traditional senses. "ESP is the ability to acquire information about the world without using the five traditional senses."## Perception Form Perception and Depth Perception Perception is the process by which we interpret and organize sensory information from the world around us. It involves selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data to create a meaningful representation of the world. Characteristics of Perception Selectivity of perception: We tend to focus on certain stimuli and ignore others. Figure-ground perception: The ability to distinguish between the main object (figure) and the background (ground). Form perception: The ability to recognize shapes and objects in a two- dimensional world. Factors that Influence Perception Factor Description Size and intensity Larger and brighter objects are more likely to be noticed. Frequency Objects that occur frequently are more likely to be noticed. Novelty Objects that are new or unusual are more likely to be noticed. Movement Moving objects are more likely to be noticed than stationary ones. Depth Perception Depth perception is the ability to perceive the distance of objects from us. It involves using various cues, including: Page 18  Created by Turbolearn AI Binocular cues: Information from both eyes, such as disparity and convergence. Monocular cues: Information from one eye, such as accommodation, motion parallax, and pictorial cues (e.g., interposition, aerial perspective, linear perspective, texture gradient, elevation, and shading patterns). Learning and Theories of Learning Definition of Learning Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience or practice. Characteristics of Learning Continuous modification of behavior: Learning is a lifelong process. Pervasive: Learning affects all aspects of human life. Involves the whole person: Learning is a social, emotional, and intellectual process. Responsive to incentives: Learning is motivated by rewards and punishments. Active process: Learning requires effort and engagement. Purposeful: Learning is goal-directed. Depends on maturation, motivation, and practice: Learning is influenced by individual factors. Principles of Learning Principle Description Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally Readiness ready. Practice Learning is strengthened by meaningful practice and exercise. Pleasure Learning is associated with pleasant feelings. Primacy Things learned first create a strong impression. Recency Things learned recently are best remembered. Intensity Learning is more effective when it is intense and engaging. Freedom Individuals learn best when they have freedom to choose and explore. Page 19  Created by Turbolearn AI Factors Influencing Learning Factor Description The learner's motivation affects the effectiveness of Motivation learning. Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a Maturation given task. The learner's physical and mental health affects Health condition learning. Psychological wellbeing The learner's emotional state affects learning. Working conditions The learning environment affects learning. Background experiences Prior knowledge and experiences affect learning. Length of working period The duration of learning sessions affects learning. Massed and distributed Learning that is spaced out over time is more effective learning than cramming. Theories of Learning Behavioral Theory of Learning Behavioral theory of learning believes that learning occurs as a result of stimulus-response associations. Classical Conditioning Theory Classical conditioning theory proposes that learning occurs through the association of stimuli with responses. Operant Conditioning Theory Operant conditioning theory proposes that learning occurs through the association of behaviors with consequences. Observational Learning Theory Page 20  Created by Turbolearn AI Observational learning theory proposes that learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Cognitive Learning Theory Cognitive learning theory proposes that learning occurs through the processing and interpretation of information.## Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. Basics of Classical Conditioning To demonstrate classical conditioning, we must first identify stimuli and responses. The following basic terms are essential to understanding classical conditioning: Term Definition A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring Neutral Stimulus about the response of interest. Unconditioned A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response Stimulus (UCS) without having been learned. Unconditioned A response that is natural and needs no training. Response (UCR) A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an Conditioned unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly Stimulus (CS) caused only by the unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral Response (CR) stimulus. "Classical conditioning represents a process in which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus." Pavlov's Experiment Page 21  Created by Turbolearn AI Pavlov's experiment is a classic example of classical conditioning. The experiment involves the following stages: Stage Description Stage 1: The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented, but no response is Before elicited. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is presented, and the Training unconditioned response (UCR) occurs. Stage 2: During The CS and UCS are paired, and the UCR occurs. Training Stage 3: After The CS is presented alone, and the conditioned response (CR) occurs. Training Principles of Classical Conditioning The basic principles of classical conditioning include: Stimulus Generalization: The process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus begin to produce the same response. Stimulus Discrimination: The process of distinguishing two similar stimuli; the ability to differentiate between stimuli. Extinction: The process in which a conditioned response is diminished and eventually stops occurring when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous Recovery: The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. Basics of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. The term operant emphasizes this point: The organism operates on its environment to produce a desirable result. Page 22  Created by Turbolearn AI Types of Consequences A response (operant) can lead to three types of consequences: Neutral Consequence: A consequence that does not alter the response. Reinforcement: A consequence that strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur. Punishment: A consequence that weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur. Reinforcers Reinforcers are events that increase the probability that the behavior that precedes it will be repeated. There are two basic types of reinforcers: Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing stimuli that satisfy biological needs, such as food, water, light, and comfortable air temperature. Secondary Reinforcers: Stimuli that reinforce behavior because of their prior association with primary reinforcing stimuli, such as money, praise, applause, good grades, awards, and gold stars. Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement can be delivered on a variety of schedules, including: Fixed Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses. Variable Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses. Fixed Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed time interval. Variable Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable time interval.## Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences. Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning Page 23  Created by Turbolearn AI Escape Learning: learning to make a response that terminates or stops a noxious, painful, or unpleasant stimulus. Avoidance Learning: learning to avoid a painful, noxious stimulus prior to exposure. Schedules of Reinforcement Schedule Description Effect High rate of responding, Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement occurs after a fixed performance may drop off after Schedule number of responses. reinforcement. Variable- Reinforcement occurs after an Extremely high steady rates of Ratio average number of responses, but responding, responses are more Schedule the number varies. resistant to extinction. Reinforcement occurs only if a fixed Fixed Interval amount of time has passed since Schedule the previous reinforcer. Variable Reinforcement occurs only if a Interval variable amount of time has passed Schedule since the previous reinforcer. Punishment Punishment is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur. Primary Punishers: inherently punishing stimuli, such as pain or extreme heat or cold. Secondary Punishers: stimuli that are not inherently punishing but become punishing through association, such as criticism or bad grades. Types of Punishment Positive Punishment: an unpleasant stimulus is presented following a behavior. Negative Punishment: a pleasant stimulus is removed following a behavior. Page 24  Created by Turbolearn AI The Pros and Cons of Punishment Immediacy: punishment is most effective when it follows immediately after the behavior. Consistency: punishment is most effective when it is consistent. Intensity: severe punishments are more effective than mild ones, but can also have negative side effects. Shaping Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced. Successive Approximations: the responses that are reinforced on the way to the final desired response. Application of Operant Conditioning Conditioning Study Behavior: teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement that expedite learning. Conditioning Classroom Behavior: teachers can use operant conditioning to manage problem behavior and create a positive learning environment. Dealing with Anxieties: teachers can use desensitization techniques to help students overcome anxieties. Social Learning Theory Observational Learning Observational learning is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model. Vicarious Reinforcement: the observer sees others reinforced for a particular behavior and then increases their production of that behavior. Self-Reinforcement: the observer controls their own reinforcers and values their growing competence. Page 25  Created by Turbolearn AI The Role of Thought Processes in Observational Learning Knowledge: the knowledge that results when a person sees a model behaving in certain ways and experiencing the consequences. Thought Processes: social cognitive theorists believe that thought processes play a crucial role in observational learning, especially in human beings.## Social Learning Theory Social learning theory proposes that learning is a cognitive process that occurs through observing and imitating others. This theory was developed by Albert Bandura and emphasizes the role of observation, imitation, and reinforcement in learning. Conditions for Modeling For modeling to occur, four conditions must be met: Attention: The person must pay attention to the model. Retention: The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. Motor Reproduction: The observer must be able to replicate the behavior that the model has demonstrated. Motivation: The observer must be motivated to demonstrate what they have learned. Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory Social learning theory has several implications for classroom learning: Page 26  Created by Turbolearn AI Students often learn by observing others. Describing the consequences of behavior can increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and avoid modeling inappropriate behaviors. Teachers should expose students to a variety of models to break down traditional stereotypes. Students must believe in their ability to accomplish school tasks (self-efficacy). Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments. Cognitive Learning Theory Cognitive learning theory proposes that learning is a mental process that involves the acquisition, processing, and storage of information. Types of Cognitive Learning There are two types of cognitive learning: Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not evident in behavior until later, when conditions for its appearance are favorable. Insight Learning: A cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a problem and find a solution. Characteristics of Cognitive Learning Cognitive learning is characterized by: The ability to process and store information The ability to retrieve information from memory The ability to apply learned information to new situations Example of Latent Learning Page 27  Created by Turbolearn AI In a classic experiment, Tolman and Honzik (1930) placed three groups of rats in mazes and observed their behavior each day for more than two weeks. The results showed that the rats that did not receive food for the first 10 days but then received food on the 11th day quickly learned to run to the end of the maze, demonstrating latent learning. Memory and Forgetting Memory and forgetting are closely related processes that involve the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Definition of Memory "Memory is the mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information." Stages of Memory Stage Description Sensory The initial stage of memory that involves the brief storage of Memory sensory information. Short-Term The stage of memory that involves the temporary storage of Memory information for a short period of time. Long-Term The stage of memory that involves the permanent storage of Memory information. Processes of Memory Encoding: The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. Storage: The process of retaining information in memory. Retrieval: The process of accessing information from memory. Learning Outcomes Page 28  Created by Turbolearn AI Define memory and forgetting. Describe the stages and memory structures proposed by theory of memory. Explain the processes that are at work in memory.## Memory Meaning and Processes of Memory Memory is the retention of information/what is learned earlier over time. It is the way in which we record the past for later use in the present. Memory is a blanket label for a large number of processes that form the bridges between our past and our present. Memory: The process by which information is encoded, stored, and later retrieved. Processes of Memory Memory processes are the mental activities we perform to put information into memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later. This involves three basic steps: Encoding: The process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory. Storage: The persistence of information in memory. Retrieval: The point at which one tries to remember to dredge up a particular memory trace from among all the others we have stored. Stages/Structure of Memory Memory structure is the nature of memory storage itself- how information is represented in memory and how long it lasts and how it is organized. Information Processing Theories Models of memory based on the idea of information processing are similar to how a computer works. We store vast amounts of information in our memory storehouse, and from this storehouse, we can retrieve some information onto a limited capacity of working memory. Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model of Memory Page 29  Created by Turbolearn AI According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), memory has three structures: Structure Description The entry way to memory. It is the first information storage Sensory area. Sensory memory acts as a holding bin, retaining Memory/Sensory information until we can select items for attention from the Register stream of stimuli bombarding our senses. Part of our memory that holds the contents of our attention. Short-term Memory STM is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, (STM) reading, speaking, and problem solving. Long-term Memory A memory system used for the relatively permanent storage of (LTM) meaningful information. Characteristics of Short-term Memory Active: Information remains in STM only so long as the person is consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it. Rapid Accessibility: Information in STM is readily available for use. Preserves the Temporal Sequence of Information: STM usually helps us to maintain the information in sequential manner for a temporary period of time. Limited Capacity: The number of items that short-term memory can handle at any one time is small, estimated to be around 7 ± 2 chunks. Chunking Chunking is the grouping or packing of information into higher order units that can be remembered as single units. Chunking expands working memory by making large amounts of information more manageable.## Memory Types of Memory Page 30  Created by Turbolearn AI Type of Capacity Characteristics Duration Memory 1. Sensory Brief storage of sensory Brief ( milliseconds to Limited Memory information seconds) 2. Short-term Limited (7 ± 2 Temporary storage of Brief ( seconds to minutes) Memory chunks) information 3. Long-term Virtually Permanent storage of Indefinite (days, months, Memory unlimited information years, or a lifetime) Long-term Memory (LTM) LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub-systems: Declarative/Explicit Memory: The conscious recollection of information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated. Semantic Memory: Factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts, and our ability to do math. They are internal representations of the world, independent of any particular context. Episodic Memory: Memories for events and situations from personal experience. They are internal representations of personally experienced events. Non-Declarative/Implicit Memory: Refers to a variety of phenomena of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously recollected. Procedural Memory: The "how-to" knowledge of procedures or skills, such as knowing how to comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim. Serial Position Effect The serial position effect occurs when the retention of items in a list is affected by their position in the list. Recall is best for items at the beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and at the end of the list (the recency effect). Page 31  Created by Turbolearn AI Position in List Recall Beginning High (Primacy Effect) Middle Low End High (Recency Effect) Factors Affecting Memory Eleven factors that influence the memory process in humans are: Ability to retain Good health Age of the learner Maturity Will to remember Intelligence Interest Over learning Speed of learning Meaningfulness of the material Sleep or rest Forgetting Forgetting is the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in long- term memory. Theories of Forgetting Five mechanisms to account for forgetting are: Page 32  Created by Turbolearn AI 1. Decay Theory: Memory traces or engrams fade with time if they are not accessed now and then. 2. Interference Theory: Forgetting occurs because similar items of information interfere with one another in either storage or retrieval. Proactive Interference: Information learned earlier interferes with recall of newer material. Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the ability to remember old information. 3. New Memory for Old/Displacement Theory: New information entering memory can wipe out old information. 4. Motivated Forgetting: People forget because they block from consciousness those memories that are too threatening or painful to live with. 5. Cue Dependent Forgetting: Forgetting occurs when retrieval cues are not available. "Forgetting is not the loss of memory, but the loss of retrieval cues."## Improving Memory Strategies for Improving Memory To improve memory, several strategies can be employed: Pay Attention: Encode information in the first place to avoid forgetting. Encode Information in More Than One Way: The more elaborate the encoding of information, the more memorable it will be. Add Meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more likely it is to link up with information already in long-term memory. Take Your Time: Minimize interference by using study breaks for rest or recreation. Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference. Overlearn: Study information even after you think you already know it to ensure that you'll remember it. Monitor Your Learning: Test yourself frequently, rehearse thoroughly, and review periodically to have a better idea of how you are doing. Memory and Forgetting Definition of Memory Page 33  Created by Turbolearn AI Memory is a complex mental process that allows us to recognize friends and family as well as to do things such as drive, speak a language, and play an instrument. Theories of Forgetting Theory Description Decay Theory Forgetting occurs due to the natural decay of memory over time. Interference Forgetting occurs due to the interference of new information with Theory previously stored information. Repression Forgetting occurs due to the intentional suppression of unpleasant Theory or traumatic memories. Motivation and Emotions Definition of Motivation Motivation is a factor by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met. Types of Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: A type of motivation in which a person acts because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner. Extrinsic Motivation: A type of motivation in which individuals act because the action leads to an outcome that is external to a person. Theories of Motivation Page 34  Created by Turbolearn AI Theory Description Human behavior is controlled by biologically determined and Instinct Theory innate patterns. Drive-Reduction Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal Theory psychological tension or physical arousal. Behavior is motivated by the need to maintain an optimal level Arousal Theory of arousal. Behavior is motivated by the promise of a reward or the threat of Incentive Theory punishment. Behavior is motivated by the need to understand and make Cognitive Theory sense of the world. Behavior is motivated by the need for self-actualization and Humanistic Theory personal growth. Elements of Emotion Physiological Response: A physical response to a stimulus, such as a change in heart rate or blood pressure. Subjective Experience: A personal experience or feeling, such as happiness or sadness. Behavioral Expression: A physical expression of emotion, such as a smile or a frown.## Motivation Theories Drive-Reduction Theory The drive-reduction theory proposes that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension or arousal caused by unmet needs. This theory suggests that when a need arises, the body is in a state of imbalance, and behavior is stimulated to restore balance or homeostasis. "Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment." For example, when a person is hungry, they feel a state of tension or arousal associated with that need. They will seek to restore their homeostasis by eating, which is the behavior stimulated to reduce the hunger drive. Page 35  Created by Turbolearn AI Drive-Reduction Description Theory A basic need that arises from within the body, such as hunger or Primary Drive Need thirst. The ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite Homeostasis changes in the external environment. The action taken to reduce the internal tension or arousal caused Behavior by an unmet need. Arousal Approaches Arousal approaches suggest that behavior is motivated by the desire to maintain or increase excitement. According to this approach, each person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity. "Arousal is the state of being stimulated or excited, which can be influenced by internal or external factors." Arousal Description Approaches The activation of the senses or the nervous system, which can be Stimulation influenced by internal or external factors. The level of physical or mental engagement, which can be Activity influenced by internal or external factors. Incentive Approaches Incentive approaches suggest that motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as incentives. In this view, the desirable properties of external stimuli, such as grades, money, or affection, account for a person's motivation. "Incentives are external rewards or stimuli that motivate behavior, such as grades, money, or affection." Page 36  Created by Turbolearn AI Incentive Description Approaches Stimuli that are external to the individual, such as grades, External Rewards money, or affection. Motivation The desire to attain external rewards or incentives. Cognitive Approaches Cognitive approaches suggest that motivation is a result of people's thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals. For instance, the degree to which people are motivated to study for a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good grade. "Cognitive motivation is the motivation that arises from a person's thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals." Cognitive Description Approaches Motivation that arises from within the individual, such as a desire Intrinsic Motivation to learn or achieve. Motivation that arises from external factors, such as rewards or Extrinsic Motivation recognition. Humanistic Approaches Humanistic approaches, based on the work of Abraham Maslow, suggest that human behavior is influenced by a hierarchy of needs, or motives. Maslow proposed that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by the ones at higher levels. "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a theory that proposes that human behavior is influenced by a hierarchy of needs, or motives." Page 37  Created by Turbolearn AI Maslow's Hierarchy of Description Needs Basic needs that are necessary for human survival, such as Physiological Needs food, water, and shelter. Needs that are related to security and stability, such as Safety Needs protection from harm or danger. Love and Needs that are related to social connections and Belongingness Needs relationships, such as friendship and intimacy. Needs that are related to self-esteem and recognition, such Esteem Needs as respect and achievement. Self-Actualization Needs that are related to personal growth and fulfillment, Needs such as realizing one's potential. Conflict of Motives and Frustration Conflict of motives occurs when a person is faced with multiple motivations that are in conflict with each other. There are four basic types of motivational conflicts: Approach-Approach Conflict: A conflict that arises when a person must choose between two desirable alternatives. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: A conflict that arises when a person must choose between two undesirable alternatives. Approach-Avoidance Conflict: A conflict that arises when a person is faced with a situation that has both desirable and undesirable features. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict: A conflict that arises when a person is faced with multiple alternatives, each with both desirable and undesirable features. Emotions Emotions are complex psychological and physiological states that people experience in response to various stimuli. Emotions can be defined as the feeling aspect of consciousness, characterized by certain physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings. "Emotions are complex psychological and physiological states that people experience in response to various stimuli." Page 38  Created by Turbolearn AI Elements of Description Emotion The physical arousal that occurs in response to an emotional Physiology stimulus, such as increased heart rate or blood pressure. The actions or expressions that reveal the emotion to the outside Behavior world, such as facial expressions or body language. Subjective The inner awareness of feelings that a person experiences in Experience response to an emotional stimulus. Types of Description Emotions A strong feeling of displeasure or hostility in response to a Anger perceived wrong or threat. A feeling of anxiety or apprehension in response to a perceived Fear threat or danger. A feeling of joy or contentment in response to a positive experience Happiness or event. A feeling of sorrow or loss in response to a negative experience or Sadness event. I. James-Lang Theory of Emotion The James-Lang theory of emotion is based on the work of William James and Carl Lang. This theory proposes that a stimulus produces a physiological reaction, which leads to the labeling of the emotion. Physiological Reaction: A physical response to a stimulus, such as increased heart rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing. Emotion: A feeling state characterized by certain physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings. The James-Lang Theory Process Page 39  Created by Turbolearn AI Step Description 1. Stimulus A stimulus is encountered, such as a snarling dog. 2. Physiological The stimulus produces a physiological reaction, such as Reaction increased heart rate and rapid breathing. The physiological reaction leads to the labeling of the emotion, 3. Emotion such as fear. II. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion proposes that the emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously. Physiological Arousal: A physical response to a stimulus, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure. Emotion: A feeling state characterized by certain physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings. The Cannon-Bard Theory Process Step Description 1. Stimulus A stimulus is encountered, such as a snarling dog. 2. Physiological Arousal and The stimulus produces both physiological arousal and Emotion emotion simultaneously. III. Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion proposes that two things must happen before an emotion occurs: physiological arousal and labeling of the arousal based on cues from the surrounding environment. Cognitive Appraisal: The process of interpreting and evaluating the meaning of a stimulus. Page 40  Created by Turbolearn AI Emotion: A feeling state characterized by certain physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings. The Schachter-Singer Theory Process Step Description 1. Stimulus A stimulus is encountered, such as a snarling dog. 2. Physiological The stimulus produces physiological arousal, such as increased Arousal heart rate and rapid breathing. 3. Cognitive The physiological arousal is interpreted and evaluated based on Appraisal cues from the surrounding environment. The cognitive appraisal leads to the labeling of the emotion, such 4. Emotion as fear. 6.1 Meaning of Personality Personality: The unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions that characterize a person. Personality: "The unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions that characterize a person." Key Components of Personality Thoughts: A person's mental processes, such as perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs. Feelings: A person's emotional experiences, such as emotions and moods. Actions: A person's behaviors, such as habits and reactions. 6.2 Theories of Personality 6.2.1 Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality The psychoanalytic theory of personality was formulated by Sigmund Freud. This theory proposes that personality is formed within ourselves, arising from basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristics. Page 41  Created by Turbolearn AI Psychoanalytic Theory: A theory of personality that proposes that personality is formed within ourselves, arising from basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristics. The Structure of Personality Component Description The most primitive part of the personality, containing all of the basic Id biological drives. The rational, logical, and cunning part of the personality, responsible for Ego dealing with reality. The moral component of the personality, responsible for incorporating Superego the moral standards of society. The Pleasure Principle Pleasure Principle: The desire for immediate satisfaction of needs with no regard for the consequences. The Reality Principle Reality Principle: The need to satisfy the demands of the id and reduce libido only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences.## Personality Theories Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality The psychoanalytic theory of personality, developed by Sigmund Freud, proposes that personality is composed of three main structures: the id, ego, and superego. The Id The id is the most primitive part of the personality, present from birth. It is responsible for instinctual needs and desires, and operates on the "pleasure principle," seeking immediate gratification. The Ego Page 42  Created by Turbolearn AI The ego develops during childhood and is responsible for mediating between the demands of the id and the demands of reality. It operates on the "reality principle," taking into account the consequences of one's actions. The Superego The superego is the moral component of the personality, developed through the internalization of societal norms and values. It is responsible for feelings of guilt and shame, and helps to regulate the ego's behavior. Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms are unconscious tactics used to manage conflict and stress. Some common defense mechanisms include: Defense Definition Mechanism Banishing threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories into the Repression unconscious mind. Denial Refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation. Reverting to immature behaviors that have relieved anxiety in the Regression past. Giving socially acceptable reasons for one's inappropriate Rationalization behavior. Expressing feelings toward a person who is less threatening than Displacement the person who is the true target of those feelings. Projection Attributing one's undesirable feelings to other people. Reaction Acting in a manner opposite to one's true feelings. Formation Expressing sexual or aggressive behavior through indirect, socially Sublimation acceptable outlets. Trait Theory of Personality Page 43  Created by Turbolearn AI The trait theory of personality proposes that personality is composed of stable internal characteristics that people display consistently over time and across situations. Assumptions of Trait Theory Personality traits are relatively stable over time. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they possess. The Big Five Theory The Big Five theory proposes that personality can be described in terms of five broad dimensions: Dimension Definition A person's willingness to try new things and be open to new Openness experiences. A person's organization and motivation, with people who score Conscientiousness high being careful about being in places on time and careful with belongings. A person's outgoing and sociable nature, with people who score Extraversion high being more likely to seek social interaction. A person's basic emotional style, with people who score high Agreeableness being more easy-going and friendly. A person's emotional instability or stability, with people who Neuroticism score high being more prone to anxiety and mood swings. Humanistic Theory of Personality The humanistic theory of personality proposes that people are inherently good and tend to move toward higher levels of functioning. Key Principles Page 44  Created by Turbolearn AI People have a unique creative potential. People have the freedom to choose their own destiny. People are motivated to self-actualize and become the best version of themselves. Carl Rogers and Self-Concept Carl Rogers proposed that the self-concept is composed of two main components: Real Self: A person's actual perception of their characteristics, traits, and abilities. Ideal Self: A person's perception of what they should be or would like to be. Rogers believed that when the real self and ideal self are congruent, a person is more likely to experience self-actualization and fulfillment.## The Self and Positive Regard The concept of the self is central to understanding human behavior and personality. According to Rogers, the self is composed of two parts: the real self and the ideal self. The real self refers to the actual characteristics, abilities, and experiences of an individual. The ideal self refers to the person's aspirations, goals, and values. When the real self and the ideal self are similar, individuals feel competent and capable. However, when there is a mismatch between the two, anxiety and neurotic behavior can result. Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard Rogers defined positive regard as warmth, affection, love, and respect that comes from significant others. Positive regard is vital for individuals to cope with stress and strive for self-actualization. Page 45  Created by Turbolearn AI Type of Positive Definition Example Regard Tirhas' parents telling her they will Unconditional Love, affection, and respect love her no matter what career she Positive Regard with no strings attached chooses Chaltu's parents expecting her to Love, affection, and respect Conditional become a doctor and threatening to that depends on meeting Positive Regard withdraw their love and respect if she certain expectations doesn't Fully Functioning Person A fully functioning person is someone who is in the process of self-actualizing, exploring their potential, and experiencing a match between their real and ideal selves. To become a fully functioning person, one needs unconditional positive regard. Self-Actualization Self-actualization is a goal that people strive to reach, according to Maslow. It involves realizing one's full potential and becoming the best version of oneself. Characteristics of Self-Actualized People Examples Creative Albert Einstein Autonomous Mahatma Gandhi Unprejudiced Eleanor Roosevelt Psychological Disorders and Treatment Techniques Nature of Psychological Disorders A psychological disorder is a mental health condition that affects an individual's mood, thinking, and behavior. Page 46  Created by Turbolearn AI A psychological disorder is a pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that deviates from the norm and causes significant distress or impairment. Criteria for Determining Psychological Disorders To determine if someone has a psychological disorder, the following criteria are used: Abnormality: Behavior that deviates from the norm Maladaptiveness: Behavior that disrupts social, academic, or occupational functioning Personal Distress: Behavior that causes significant emotional distress or impairment Types of Psychological Disorders Type of Disorder Examples Mood Disorders Depression, anxiety disorders Personality Disorders Schizophrenia, eating disorders Anxiety Disorders Phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder Treatment Techniques Treatment techniques for psychological disorders include: Medications Psychotherapy Behavioral therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy## 7.2 Perspectives on Psychological Disorders 7.2.1 The Biological Perspective The biological perspective suggests that psychological disorders can be caused by abnormalities in the working of chemicals in the brain, called neurotransmitters. For example, overactivity of the neurotransmitter dopamine has been linked to the bizarre symptoms of schizophrenia. Page 47  Created by Turbolearn AI 7.2.2 Psychological Perspectives A. Psychoanalytic Perspective The psychoanalytic perspective, founded by Sigmund Freud, believes that the human mind consists of three interacting forces: Id: a pool of biological urges Ego: mediates between the id and reality Superego: represents society's moral standards Abnormal behavior, in Freud's view, is caused by the ego's inability to manage the conflict between the opposing demands of the id and the superego. B. Learning Perspective The learning perspective suggests that mental and emotional disorders arise from inadequate or inappropriate learning. People acquire abnormal behaviors through various kinds of learning. C. Cognitive Perspective The cognitive perspective emphasizes that self-defeating thoughts lead to the development of negative emotions and self-destructive behaviors. People's ways of thinking about events in their life determine their emotional and behavioral patterns. 7.3 Types of Psychological Disorders 1) Mood Disorders A mood disorder is characterized by a serious change in mood from depressed to elevated feelings, causing disruption to life activities. Page 48  Created by Turbolearn AI Type of Mood Description Disorder Depressed mood, diminished interest in activities, weight Major disturbance, sleep disturbance, loss of energy, difficulty Depression concentrating, and feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of suicide. Dysthymic A lesser, but more persistent form of depression, with similar Disorder symptoms to major depression, but to a lesser degree. Bipolar Periods of extreme highs (mania) and extreme lows (depression). Disorder Cyclothymic A lesser form of bipolar disorder, with periods of mild depression Disorder and mild mania. 2) Anxiety Disorders An anxiety disorder is characterized by excessive fear or anxiety that interferes with a person's ability to function normally. Type of Anxiety Description Disorder A series of panic attacks, with symptoms such as heart Panic Disorder palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath, chest pain, and dizziness. Fear of situations where escape or help might not be Agoraphobia available, such as shopping centers or public places. Specific Phobia An intense fear of a specific situation, person, place, or thing. Fear of social situations, with symptoms such as avoidance of Social Phobia social interactions and feelings of anxiety in social situations. Obsessive- Characterized by obsessions (thoughts) and compulsions Compulsive Disorder (behaviors) that are disruptive to daily life. (OCD) Develops after a person is exposed to a traumatic event, with Posttraumatic Stress symptoms such as flashbacks, nightmares, and avoidance of Disorder (PTSD) situations that remind them of the event. Excessive anxiety in nearly every part of life, with symptoms Generalized Anxiety such as restlessness, difficulty concentrating, and sleep Disorder disturbance. Page 49  Created by Turbolearn AI 3) Personality Disorders A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder characterized by a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning, and behaving. "A person with a personality disorder has trouble perceiving and relating to situations and people." Types of personality disorders include: Borderline Personality Disorder: characterized by unstable relationships, emotional dysregulation, and impulsivity. Narcissistic Personality Disorder: characterized by a grandiose sense of self- importance, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. Antisocial Personality Disorder: characterized by a disregard for others' rights, a lack of empathy, and impulsivity.## Personality Disorders Personality disorders are characterized by enduring, inflexible patterns of behavior and inner experiences that deviate markedly from the expectations of an individual's culture. These patterns must be long-standing and inflexible for a diagnosis to be made. Types of Personality Disorders Page 50  Created by Turbolearn AI Type Description Paranoid A pattern of distrust and suspiciousness. A pattern of detachment from social norms and a restriction of Schizoid emotions. A pattern of discomfort in close relationships and eccentric Schizotypal thoughts and behaviors. A pattern of disregard for the rights of others, including violation of Antisocial these rights and the failure to feel empathy. A pattern of instability in personal relationships, including frequent Borderline bouts of clinginess and affection and anger and resentment. Histrionic A pattern of excessive emotional behavior and attention seeking. A pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated self-worth, and need for Narcissistic admiration. A pattern of feelings of social inadequacies, low self-esteem, and Avoidant hypersensitivity to criticism. Obsessive- A pattern of obsessive cleanliness, perfection, and control. Compulsive Treatment Techniques Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms, including medication, talk- therapy, a combination of both, and can last only one session or take many years to complete. Core Components of Psychotherapy Psychotherapy consists of: 1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client or patient and a trained psychotherapist. 2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether diagnosable or not. 3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment. 4. Working together as a team to achieve these goals. Treatment Approaches There are three main branches of treatment approaches: Page 51  Created by Turbolearn AI Cognitive: Therapists who lean toward the cognitive branch will look at dysfunctions and difficulties as arising from irrational or faulty thinking. Behavioral: Those who follow more behavioral models look at problems as arising from our behaviors which we have learned to perform over years of reinforcement. Dynamic: The dynamic or psychodynamic camp stem more from the teaching of Sigmund Freud and look more at issues beginning in early childhood which then motivate us as adults at an unconscious level. Treatment Modalities Therapy can take different forms, including: Individual Therapy: A one-on-one relationship between a client or patient and a therapist. Group Therapy: A group of individuals suffering from similar illnesses or having similar issues meet together with one or two therapists. Couple and Family Therapy: A type of treatment that focuses on the relationship between a couple or family members. Life Skills Life skills are important tools of success that help us prevent, improve, and manage mind and behavior for effective psychological functioning. Definition of Life Skills Life skills are the abilities and strategies that help individuals to cope with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Goals of Life Skills To improve psychological functioning To prevent mental health problems To manage stress and emotions To develop healthy relationships Page 52  Created by Turbolearn AI Components of Life Skills Self-awareness: The ability to understand one's own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Self-regulation: The ability to control one's own emotions and behaviors. Motivation: The ability to set and achieve goals. Empathy: The ability to understand and relate to others. Communication: The ability to express oneself effectively.## Life Skills Definition of Life Skills Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. - World Health Organization Life skills are behavioral changes or behavioral development approaches designed to address a balance of three areas: knowledge, attitude, and skills. - UNICEF Components of Life Skills No. Component Yes/No 1 Critical thinking Yes 2 Self-confidence Yes 3 Self-awareness Yes 4 Self-esteem Yes 5 Decision making Yes 6 Interpersonal relationship Yes 7 Reflective communication Yes 8 Peer resistance Yes 9 Knowing rights and duties Yes 10 Problem solving Yes Descriptions of Major Components of Life Skills Page 53  Created by Turbolearn AI Critical thinking: thinking more effectively within curricular subject areas, understanding the reasoning employed, assessing independently and appropriately, and solving problems effectively. Self-confidence: the degree to which one can rely on his/her ability to perform certain behavior alone or in public. Self-awareness: knowledge and understanding of one's strengths and weaknesses. Self-esteem: the degree to which we perceive ourselves positively or negatively; our overall attitude toward ourselves. Decision making: processes involved in combining and integrating available information to choose, implement and evaluate one out of several possible courses of actions. Interpersonal relationships: the relationships a person has with others persons. Reflective communication: attending communications with thoughtful and due attention to reflect on one's own thinking, behaviors and interaction with others. Peer pressure resistance: individuals' abilities and skills to confront negative influences from his/her group members. Knowing rights and duties: one's knowledge and understanding of rights and duties of individuals, groups, institutions and nations allowed to do or not to do by law and/or a culture. Problem solving: the process of identifying a discrepancy between an actual and desired state of affairs, difficulties, obstacles and complex issues and then taking action to resolve the deficiency or take advantage of the opportunity. Grouping Life Skills into Categories Category Life Skills Thinking Critical thinking, Decision making, Problem solving Skills Working Time management, Organization, Management Skills Interpersonal relationships, Reflective communication, Peer pressure Social Skills resistance Learning Self-awareness, Self-confidence, Self-esteem, Learner autonomy Skills Page 54  Created by Turbolearn AI Goals of Life Skills To lead a smooth and successful life at home, work place and in social relationships. To live in harmony with ourselves and others around us. To select the good from the bad, choose gold from soil, simplify life that is full of troubles otherwise. To empower young people to take positive action to protect themselves and promote health and positive social relationships. Importance of Life Skills Life skills are not something we learn only for the sake of academic life. We rather develop them for effective functioning in our life. Development of life skills is, therefore, a lifelong process where one has to update his/her skills and knowledge of dealing with life events. Life skills are generally applied in the context of academics, workplace and social events.## Life Skills Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Life skills include: Critical thinking Self-confidence Self-awareness Self-esteem Decision-making Interpersonal relationship Reflective communication Negative peer pressure resistance Knowing rights and duties Problem solving The Importance of Life Skills Developing life skills can produce the following effects: Page 55  Created by Turbolearn AI Lessened violent behavior Increased pro-social behavior and decreased negative, self-destructive behavior Increased ability to plan ahead and choose effective solutions to problems Improved self-image, self-awareness, social and emotional adjustment Increased acquisition of knowledge Improved classroom behavior Gains in self-control and handling of interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety Improved constructive conflict resolution with peers, impulse control and popularity Intra-Personal and Interpersonal Skills Self-Concept and Self-Awareness Self-Concept The self-concept is the totality of ideas that a person holds about the self. It includes everything the person believes to be true about himself/herself. Features of Self-Concept Feature Description Includes everything the person believes to be true about Totality of ideas himself/herself Composed of self- Relatively permanent self-assessments that change over time assessments with life experiences and relationships Multi-dimensional Refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to construct various characteristics Guides actions and Influences expectations and goals for the future motivations Self-Awareness Self-awareness is having a clear perception of your personality, including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and emotions. Suggestions for Building Self-Awareness Page 56  Created by Turbolearn AI Practice mindfulness Become a good listener Open your mind to new perspectives Develop self-esteem Look at yourself objectively Take feedback from others Know your strengths and weaknesses Set intentions and goals Self-Esteem and Self-Confidence Self-Esteem Self-esteem is our cognitive and emotional appraisal of our own worth. It is the matrix through which we think, feel, and act, reflects and determines our relation to ourselves, to others, and to the world. Types of Self-Esteem Type Description Competency-based self- Tied closely to effective performance esteem Grounded in norms and values concerning personal and Self-worth interpersonal conduct Self-Confidence Self-confidence is the trust in oneself, and in particular, in one's ability or aptitude to engage successfully or at least adequately with the world. Characteristics of Self-Confident Individuals Ready to rise to new challenges Seize opportunities Deal with difficult situations Take responsibility## Self-Confidence Self-Confidence is the belief in oneself and abilities, which describes an internal state made up of what we think and feel about ourselves. Page 57  Created by Turbolearn AI "Self-confidence is not the same as courage. In the absence of confidence, courage takes over. Confidence operates in the realm of the known, whereas courage in that of the unknown, the uncertain, and the fearsome." Attributes of Low Self-Confidence Attribute Description Shyness Feeling nervous or apprehensive in social situations Communication Struggling to express oneself effectively Difficulties Social Anxiety Feeling anxious or fearful in social situations Difficulty standing up for oneself or expressing one's Lack of Assertiveness needs Strategies to Improve Self-Confidence Strategy Description Practicing Self-Acceptance Embracing one's strengths and weaknesses Focusing on Achievements Celebrating one's accomplishments Identifying areas for improvement and working Making Personal Changes on them Seeking Out Positive Experiences Surrounding oneself with supportive and and People uplifting individuals Positive Affirmations Repeating positive statements to oneself Recognizing and rewarding oneself for Rewards and Support achievements Self-Control Self-Control is achieved by refraining from actions we like and instead performing actions we prefer not to do as a means of achieving a long-term goal. "Self-control is not the same as self-inhibition. Self-control is about making choices that alig